UNIT 4

TESTING OF WOOD SAMPLES:

Bending, Compression, Shear, Torsion and Water Content

The timber should posses the following qualities.

 It should have a good uniform dark color.

 Timber should be free from defects such as shakes, flaws, dead knots, etc
 It should possess regular annual rings.
 The freshly carved surface of the wood should have a sweet smell.
 Moreover, it should have a heavy weight.
 The cellular tissue and fibers should be compact and hard.
 A good timber should be durable and possess elasticity. 
 It should be resistant to fungus, insect, etc.
 Also, timbers with compact texture have good resistance to fire. 
 It should be inert from mechanical, chemical and physical agencies.
 A good quality wood should hold loads from structures.

Wood and Timber Testing

The most common reason for testing wood and timber products is to determine
their ultimate or breaking strength in tension, compression, flexure and water
content. Most wood products that undergo mechanical testing are used in the
construction, furniture and common goods manufacturing industries. The wood
and timber products in these industries will experience these forces in various
forms and combinations depending upon their application. The measured
strength of the wood and timber material will determine if it is an acceptable
candidate for a particular application.

LESSON 1
TESTING OF WOOD SAMPLE FOR BENDING

Bending Test of Timber Specimen

The objective of bending test on a wooden beam is to study the bending or
flexural behavior of the wooden beam and to determine the Modulus of Elasticity
and Modulus of Rupture of the wood.

What is bending test on timber?

The objective of bending test on a wooden beam is to study the bending or
flexural behavior of the wooden beam and to determine the Modulus of Elasticity
and Modulus of Rupture of the wood. Bend testing a material allows for the
determination of that materials ductility, bend strength, fracture strength and
resistance to fracture.

Bending tests are conducted by placing a length of material across a span and
pushing down along the span to bend the material until failure. Bending tests
reveal the elastic modulus of bending, flexural stress, and flexural strain of a
material.

Bending Strength of Wood

So, to calculate the flexural strength (σ), multiply the force by the length of the
sample, and then multiply this by three. Then multiply the depth of the sample by
itself (i.e., square it), multiply the result by the width of the sample and then
multiply this by two. Finally, divide the first result by the second.

3 FL
σ=
2Wd 2

Where:
 σ = Flexural strength d = Depth
F = Force W = Width
L = Length
The nature of wood fiber and wood particle-based materials gives them many of
the desired material properties of wood, with a more uniform structure and more
consistent properties.

ASTM has published a number of standards, containing collections of test

methods for clear wood and wood-based materials, including fiberboard and
particle board. Each standard has slightly different requirements for conducting
flexural bend tests, which accommodate the specific wood material being tested.

Static Bending Test of Timber Beam

ASTM D143 static bend test calls for the use of bearing plates on articulating
knife edge support rollers. The bearing plate reduces the risk of load
concentrations that could deform and damage the specimen, while the
articulating knife edge supports allow the plate to accommodate slight twisting in
the wood specimen. It is required that the distance from the support point to the
wood specimen mid-plane must not be greater than the specimen depth.

Bending loads are applied to the wood beam specimens by a bearing block with
3 in. radius, for 2 x 2 x 30 in. primary specimens, or 1.5 in. radius, for 1 x 1 x 16
in. secondary specimens, at a constant crosshead displacement rate. Crosshead
displacement rate is set at 0.10 in/min for primary specimens and 0.05 in/min for
secondary specimens.
Theory and Principle
The modulus of elasticity in bending and bending strength is determined by
applying a load to the center of a test piece supported at two points. The
modulus of elasticity is calculated by using the slope of the linear region of the
load-deflection curve.

The bending strength of each test piece is calculated by determining the ratio of
the bending moment M, at the maximum load F max, to the moment of its full cross-
section.

For a simply supported beam with central loading, deflection under the load is
given by:

Where:

W =Applied load
L = Effective span of the beam
E = Young's Modulus of wood
I = Moment of inertia
δ = deflection under the load

Test Procedure

1. Insert the bending device in the UTM.

2. Measure the width and depth of the wooden beam.
3. Adjust the support for the required distance and clamp to the lower table.
4. Fix the transverse test pan at the lower side of the lower cross head.
5. Fix it on the rollers of the transverse test brackets such that the load
comes at the center and measure the length of the span of the beam
between the supports for central loading.
6. Adjust the load pointer to zero by lifting the lower table. While applying the
load, the deflection corresponding to each load is found out from the
vernier scale on the UTM.
7. Note down the maximum deflection and the maximum load.
 Fig 2:
Wooden beam while loading and after failure.

LESSON 2
TESTING OF WOOD SAMPLES FOR COMPRESSION

Compression Test of Timber Specimen

Compression tests are performed on brittle materials as these materials fail in
shear. It is seen that the shear develops along a diagonal plane which is
maximum on a plane inclined at 45° from the direction of compression load. In
compression loading, the fracture of the specimen takes place due to bulging
action.

Objective of performing the experiment

 To determine the compressive strength of wooden cubes parallel and

perpendicular to the grains.
 To investigate the stress-strain relationship in wooden cubes to determine
the modulus of elasticity and modulus of stiffness.
 To discern the anisotropic behavior of wood when it is subjected to
compression under different sample orientations.

Theory and Principle

Compressive Strength:

When a material is loaded in compression, the maximum load it can withstand

without crushing or rupturing is called its compressive strength.

For a wooden sample, anticipatingly, the failure will be brittle, and the material
will fail without prior warnings. However, the peak load that the wooden sample
bears,

also depends on the orientation of its grains relative to the line of action of
externally-applied compressive load.

Modulus of Elasticity:

The modulus of elasticity of wood is the ratio of stress to strain within the elastic
range of the material. The strain values can be obtained from deflection gauges
attached to the wooden samples during the test, whereas, the stress is
calculated using applied load and the contact area of the sample.

Mathematically, the significance of elastic modulus is that it aids in determining

the deformation response of material under any applied loading in the elastic
range.

Modulus of Stiffness:
The stiffness of a material is the energy it absorbs within the elastic range while
being elastically deformed under the applied loading. In other words, the
resistance of a material to deformation caused by an externally-applied load
within the elastic range is an index of its stiffness.

Mathematically,

Anisotropic behavior of Wood:

If the line of action of an applied load varies but the strength or mechanical
properties of material remain the same, the material is said to be isotropic.
Contrary to this is an anisotropic material, which shows different mechanical
properties subject to varying lines of action of external load. Wood is an
anisotropic material. In the context of compressive strength, when the load is
applied parallel and perpendicular to the grains of the wooden sample, the
crushing load varies.

Load application is Parallel to the Grains

When a compressive load is applied on a wooden sample such that the line of
action of the external load and the orientation of the grains become parallel, the
wooden sample shows a relatively high compressive strength.
During compression tests, the contact between metal end platens and the
concrete specimen creates a frictional resistance at the ends of the
specimen (platen restraint), which affects the stress–strain behavior

Investigating the stress-strain relationship unveils that, the grains of the wooden
sample act as separate columns and each column contributes to bearing the
applied load. Therefore, if a particular grain column fails or gets malformed, the
others play their part in withstanding the crushing load.

Load application is Perpendicular to the Grains

When the applied loading is perpendicular to the grains of the wooden sample,
the sample fails at a relatively less load value. This is because any malformed
grain reduces the overall load-bearing capacity of the specimen.
Apparatus

 500 kN Universal Testing Machine, to load the sample in compression till

its rupture
 Wooden cubes
 Deflection dial gauges, to determine the corresponding value of strain with
each load increment
 Vernier Caliper, to measure the dimensions of wooden cubes, including
their length, breadth, and height.

Universal Testing Machine

Test Procedure

1. Measure the dimensions of the wooden sample using a vernier caliper.

2. Place the wooden sample in the universal testing machine such that the
grain fibers are parallel to the applied compressive load.
3. Attach the deflection dial gauges to the sample.
4. Start loading the sample in compression.
5. Note down the deflection reading from the dial gauges for each regular
load increment.
6. When cracks begin to appear, remove the deflection gauges and load the
sample to failure. Note down the peak or crushing load.
7. Using the peak load and contact area, calculate the compressive strength
of the wooden cube.
8. Calculate the stress and strain values and plot a graph between them to
determine the modulus of elasticity and modulus of stiffness.
9. Repeat the above procedure by orienting the sample in such a way that
the grain fibers are perpendicular to the applied load.

Observations and Calculations

Least Count of deflection dial gauge =

1)When grains are parallel to the applied load

Sample Dimensions

Length, l =
Width, b =
Height, h =
Contact area, A =
Percentage
Applied Load, Deflection Dial Gauge Deflection, Stress,
Sr. Strain, k=P/δ
P Reading  δ  σ=P/A
No.  ϵ=(δ/h)×100 (N/mm)
(kN) (div.) (mm) (MPa)
(-)
1.            
2.            
3.            
4.            
5.            
6.            

The stress corresponding to peak-load is the compressive strength of the

wooden sample.

Graph

 A graph is plotted between the stress and strain values, taking strain as abscissa
and stress as ordinate. The slope of this graph gives the modulus of elasticity (E)
of the wooden sample.
 Similarly, another graph is plotted between load (P) on the y-axis and
deformation on the x-axis. The slope of the initial part of this graph gives the
modulus of stiffness (k).
Failure Pattern

2) When grains are perpendicular to the applied load

Sample Dimensions
Length, l =
Width, b =
Height, h =
Contact area A =

Deflection, Percentage Strain, Stress,

Applied Load, P Deflection Dial Gauge Reading  δ  ϵ=(δ/h)×100  σ=P/A k=P
Sr. No.
(kN) (div.) (N/m
(mm) (-) (MPa)

1.            

2.            

3.            

4.            

5.            

6.            

The stress corresponding to peak-load is the compressive strength of the

wooden sample.
Graph

 A graph is plotted between the stress and strain values, taking strain (ϵ)
as abscissa and stress (σ) as ordinate. The slope of this graph gives the
modulus of elasticity (E) of the wooden sample.
 Similarly, another graph is plotted between load (P) on the y-axis and
deformation (δ) on the x-axis. The slope of the initial part of this graph
gives the modulus of stiffness (k).

Failure Pattern

Results

1. When grains are parallel to the applied load

Compressive Strength, = MPa

Modulus of Elasticity, E = MPa =
Modulus of Stiffness, k = N/mm

2. When grains are perpendicular to the applied load

Compressive Strength = MPa

Modulus of Elasticity, E = MPa Modulus of Stiffness, k = N/mm
Test Precautions

 Make sure the sample is centered between the plates or platens of the
UTM. This is to ensure that the centroid of the sample coincides with the
centroid of the loading plate, producing no eccentricity.
 Carefully read the deflection dial gauge reading for each load increment.
 While performing tests on a UTM, stay at a distance from the machine
while the test is being performed.

Discussion

Compression testing aids in determining the mechanical properties of wood.

However, these properties are subject to change depending upon the type of
wood taken. Additionally, a small wooden sample is, at times, not representative
of the material and, therefore, testing a wooden beam or a larger sample may
result in differing properties w.r.t the magnitudes. Nevertheless, the general trend
remains the same.

LESSON 3
TESTING OF WOOD SPECIMEN FOR SHEAR

A test procedure is described for determining the shear properties of wood where
the shear stress is in radial or tangential planes. If the shear force is across the
grain, it is often termed "rolling" because of the tendency for the shearing forces
to roll the wood fibers.

Purpose of shear testing

The most common use of a shear test is to determine the shear strength, which
is the maximum shear stress that the material can withstand before failure occurs
of a material. In-plane shear tests help to determine the strength of bulk wood
products and supplement tensile tests in characterizing the bond strength
between wood fibers or particles and resin binder. Glue-line shear tests are
useful to determine adhesive strength and bonding strength between the
adhesive and wood product.
Shear Strength
The shear stress carried by a material at failure under a pure shear condition or
the maximum load a material can endure in a direction parallel to the face of the
material, as opposed to perpendicular to its surface.

Tensile properties such as tensile strength and compressive properties like

compressive strength can also be calculated by shear loading.

 ASTM D3410 uses wedge grips which are specially designed to apply
shear loading in compression. Properties measured include Poisson’s
ratio, compressive stress, compressive strain, and Modulus of Elasticity.
 ASTM D3518 establishes the in-plane shear response of polymer matrix
composite materials by a tensile shear test. Properties calculated include
the shear modulus, shear stress, shear strain, and chord shear Modulus of
Elasticity.

Factors that affect the shear response of timber products

 Material

 Methods of material preparation and lay-up

 Specimen stacking sequence
 Specimen conditioning
 Specimen preparation
 Void content
 Volume percent reinforcement
 Specimen alignment and gripping
 Environment of testing
 Speed of testing
 Time at temperature

Adhesives and Lap Shear Testing

A common type of shear test which is frequently carried out on adhesives is
known as lap shear testing. Adhesives are utilized in construction, electronic and
aerospace applications.

They can join parts together by transferring stress from one member (substrate)
to another in a manner that distributes the stress more evenly than can be
attained using mechanical fasteners.
Often, adhesive bonding supplies joints which are mechanically equivalent to, or
stronger than, those joined by fasteners as a result of this. The aim of joint
design is to acquire optimum strength for a given bond area.

Factors which influence joint design are the joint geometry, the mechanical
properties of the adhesive and substrate, and residual stresses resulting from
adhesive cure. In addition, coatings or interstitial layers between the substrate
and adhesive will cause weak bonds.

Solvents, sunlight and heat may weaken an adhesive; load-induced stresses

may also result in adhesive joint failure at different locations within the joint.
Therefore, a good joint design should keep stress concentrations to a  minimum
in order to reduce the overall strength of the joint.

Image Credit: Admet, Inc. - Materials Testing Equipment

There are various types of adhesive joints for carrying shear loads, the most
effective, use an overlapping substrate arrangement known as lap joints. The
overlapping area should be big enough to permit the joint to withstand maximum
shear service loads.

Increasing the width of the joint results in a proportional increase in joint strength,
whereas increasing the overlap length beyond a certain amount does not have
much effect on joint strength.

Three common specifications for lap shear testing are:

  ASTM D3164 – Standard Test Method for Strength Properties of
Adhesively Bonded Plastic Lap-Shear Sandwich Joints in Shear by
Tension Loading
o For substrates that have been joined by plastic rather than
adhesive
 ASTM D3163 – Standard Test Method for Determining Strength of
Adhesively Bonded Rigid Plastic Lap-Shear Joints in Shear by Tension
Loading
o For utilization with rigid plastic substrates
 ASTM D1002 – Standard Test Method for Apparent Shear Strength of
Single-Lap-Joint Adhesively Bonded Metal Specimens by Tension
Loading
o For metal substrates that are bonded by an adhesive

Each of these specifications employ a single lap joint (lap shear) specimen to
establish the shear strength of adhesives.

ASTM D1002 test setup with wedge grips on an  eXpert 1600. Image Credit:
Admet, Inc. - Materials Testing Equipment

Vise grips, or wedge grips can be utilized in shear test setups depending on the
required force capacity. To perform a lap shear test, it is vital to ensure that the
grip inserts are aligned so that the centerline of the grip assembly is in proper
alignment with the adhesive bond.
Vise grips have T-handles that permit adjusting the grip inserts from side to side.
Wedge grips do not have the ability to offset the centerline, alternatively, for
specimen alignment, they can be supplied with spacers.

The majority of testing standards outlining shear test techniques include

descriptions on fixturing to test specimens. So, specially-designed shear fixtures
are available per testing standards. Examples of these are outlined below.

Developed by the University of Wyoming Composite Materials Research Group,

the ASTM D5379 shear test fixture, is utilized with reinforced composites. Each
half of the fixture contains a wedge-action grip which clamps one half of the test
specimen lightly across the specimen width and supports the specimen on its
back face.

One of the grips, usually the lower half, is mounted on a base plate, which also
supports a linear bearing shaft, while the other grip, usually in the upper position,
contains a linear bearing that mounts over the shaft on the base.

Specialized shear fixture on an eXpert 2600 for ASTM D5379. Image Credit:
Admet, Inc. - Materials Testing Equipment

By means of an alignment tool that references the fixture, the specimen is

inserted into the fixture with the notch located along the line of action of loading.
Using a testing machine, the two halves of the fixture are compressed while
monitoring the force. The relative displacement between the two fixture halves
loads the notched specimen.
By placing two strain gauge elements, in the middle of the specimen (away from
the notches) and along the loading axis oriented at 45° to the loading axis, the
shear response of the material is calculated.

ASTM C273 fixture on an eXpert 2610. Image Credit: Admet, Inc. - Materials
Testing Equipment

ASTM D905 can be utilized for shear testing of wood samples. The test
specimen is placed in the self-aligning guillotine-like shearing tool when cutting
specimen blocks, which ensures that the force applied is perpendicular.

ASTM C273 shear fixture is made up of two loading plates and can be employed
to test sandwich core materials. The test specimen is supported by these loading
plates bonded to the facings.

Compression or shear strength of a wood beam or truss used extensively for

construction can be calculated based on the following equation: 

Sigma (σ) = P/A, where σ is stress, P is load and A is surface area.

How can you tell the strength of wood?

A good indicator of a wood's strength is its density — the weight for a given
volume. This is measured by its specific gravity — the weight of a volume of
wood divided by the weight of the same volume of water. Generally, the higher
the ratio, the denser and stronger the wood.
 LESSON 4
TESTING OF WOOD SPECIMEN FOR TORSION

A torsion test measures the strength of any material against maximum twisting
forces. It is an extremely common test used in material mechanics to measure
how much of a twist a certain material can withstand before cracking or breaking.
This applied pressure is referred to as torque. Materials typically used in the
manufacturing industry, such as metal fasteners and beams, are often subject to
torsion testing to determine their strength under duress.
There are three broad categories under which a torsion test can take place:
failure testing, proof testing and operational testing. Failure testing involves
twisting the material until it breaks. Proof testing observes whether a material can
bear a certain amount of torque load over a given period of time. Operational
testing tests specific products to confirm their elastic limit before going on the
market.

It is critical for the results of each torsion test to be recorded. Recording is done
through creating a stress-strain diagram with the angle of twist values on the X-
axis and the torque values on the Y-axis. Using a torsion testing apparatus,
twisting is performed at quarter-degree increments with the torque that it can
withstand recorded. The strain corresponds to the twist angle, and the stress
corresponds to the torque measured.

The elastic limit of any material is the point at which it can no longer return to its
original shape or size. The elastic limit determined by a torsion test is equal to
the slope of the line from the start of testing to the proportional limit. This
relationship was first measured by Sir Robert Hooke in 1678. Hooke's Law states
that stress is directly proportional to strain until the proportional limit is reached,
at which point the object tested will begin to show signs of stress.

The strain of interest is the engineering shear strain, γ, which involves

displacements in the wire cross section plane in the circumferential direction. The
value of this strain is given by:
 LESSON 4
TESTING OF WOOD SPECIMEN FOR WATER CONTENT

The moisture content (MC) of a piece of wood can affect that wood’s shape and
size. As a hygroscopic material, wood absorbs or loses moisture depending on
the ambient humidity of its environment. Additionally, wood pieces passively
retain some moisture after being felled – depending on humidity, they may
eventually or never lose all this moisture.

In more humid air, the wood fibers suck up surrounding moisture – this causes
wood to expand. In drier air, wood loses moisture. The reverse occurs as the
wood shrinks.

Wood can also reach equilibrium moisture content or EMC, which occurs when
wood doesn’t gain or lose moisture.

Woodworkers might want to measure the MC of a piece of wood so it doesn’t

shrink and warp after they use it. Thus, they may try to only work with pieces that
won’t become too wet over time. Similarly, flooring installers might want all of the
wood pieces to be at an MC suitable for acclimation to their building’s ambient
humidity.

Types of wood that needs to be checked

Certain types of wood hold more moisture, both immediately after being felled
and in general. Broadly speaking, heavier and denser wood types handle more
moisture or ambient humidity better since they’re more resistant to warping or
breaking over time.

Lighter woods need to be checked more often since they’re more vulnerable to
significant weight and shape changes as their MC adjusts – their retained water
simply has more of an effect on the shape of their fibers.

1. Oven Dry Testing

Oven dry testing is the oldest method for measuring the moisture content of the
wood. The process is time-consuming but produces accurate results if followed
correctly.

The wood sample being tested is dried in a special oven or kiln and its weight
periodically checked. Once the wood sample’s weight stops changing, its weight
is compared to what it was before the drying process began. This weight
difference is then used to calculate the wood’s original moisture content.

While oven-dry testing, if followed correctly, offers accurate results, there are a
few drawbacks:

 It takes a long time – We’re talking about hours. The oven drying
process must be done slowly or the wood could burn and the test
results will be worthless.
 It will render the wood unusable – It often happens that oven drying
over dries the wood to the point where it’s unusable.
 It requires a special oven or kiln – Most hobbyists who work with
wood don’t have an oven that’s capable of producing accurate results.

The simplest way to check the moisture content of a piece of wood is to weigh a
piece of wood, dry it in an oven, then measure it again to see the difference in
weights. This is the most accurate way to test MC in wood, but it’s also time-
consuming.

The oven for this measurement method needs to be well ventilated, and the
wood will need to be dried for a significant period of time.

Steps for Oven Testing

Step 1 – Turn your oven on to 220°F or similar depending on your oven’s heating
abilities. Again, make sure the oven is well ventilated, or use a kiln. The
ventilation is important so the water has a place to escape.
Step 2 – Weigh the wood while the oven is preheating. Write the number down.

Step 3 – Put the wood in the oven for 24 hours. Weigh the wood after this period,
then write the number down. The difference in weight between the two
measurements is the hypothesized “water weight”.

Step 4 (optional) – You may wish to set the wood in the oven for another 24
hours. If the oven-dried wood’s weight changes, it still needed to dry a bit. If it’s
the same as before, you know it’s fully dry. Heavier, wetter woods may need
multiple days’ worth of drying before they’re ready for measurement.

Step 5 – Now plug in the formula above. As an example, say that the wood
weighed 10 pounds before oven-drying, then 9.2 pounds after.

Put another way, the MC is the proportion of a wood’s weight made up of water.

The weight difference shows, out of 100%, how much of that percentage is/was
moisture.

2. Moisture Meter Testing

The fastest way to test the moisture content of wood is to use a moisture meter.

Two main types of wood moisture meters

a. Pin-type Wood Moisture Meter

Pin-type meters use penetrating electrodes and measure the wood’s

moisture content using electrical resistance. Since water conducts
electricity and wood doesn’t, the dryness of the wood can be determined
by the amount of resistance to an electrical current. Dryer wood produces
more resistance than wetter wood.

The general process for using pin-type moisture meters is as follows…

 Insert the pins into the surface of the wood you want to test.
 Make sure they’re aligned with the grain and not across it.
 Turn on the meter. The electrical current will then move from pin to pin
and measure the resistance encountered.

b. Pin-less Wood Moisture Meter

 Pin-less meters are non-penetrating and read the moisture content via a
non-damaging electromagnetic sensor that scans the wood. Because pin-
less meters scan the wood’s surface and cover a larger area than pin-type
meters, they provide a more thorough picture of the wood’s moisture
content.

Pin-less meters also don’t leave damaging pinholes on the wood’s

surface. This makes pin-less moisture meters perfect for measuring the
moisture content of things like expensive hardwood floors.

Pin-less moisture meters are even easier to use. Just press the scanning
plate against the wood’s surface, turn on the meter, and receive the
reading.

Nothing ruins a good woodworking project like gradual warping, shrinkage, or

expansion. While a wood type might seem to be a great pick for flooring or
furniture based on aesthetics, what you really need to focus on is moisture
content. The wetter a wood is, the more vulnerable it’ll be to warping.

How to check the moisture content

MC can be understood as an expression of the weight of the water compared to

the weight of oven-dried wood, then multiplied by 100. Put simply:

 MC = weight of water/weight of oven-dried wood x 100

weight of water
MC = 100
weight of oven−dried wood

Understanding this formula will allow you to check MC without using a meter tool.

What is a Good MC for a Piece of Wood?

This is dependent on your environment and task. However, here are a few
guidelines for general MC wood levels you should check for:

 Indoor wooden objects like furniture: 6-8%

 Wood to be used for flooring: 6-9%
 Wood for building construction: 9-14%
The “ideal” MC for a piece of wood will also depend on the ambient humidity of
the environment.

Ultimately, checking the moisture content of a piece of wood without a moisture

meter is fairly straightforward, if time-consuming. Still, it’s very useful to have this
method in case your moisture meter ever breaks. Remember to keep the oven
ventilated and to select your wood for your project carefully – heavier, sturdier
woods do better in humid environments in most cases regardless of MC.