SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY

SEMESTER I 2022/2023

IWA 282 BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY 1

LAB REPORT 1: WOOD ANATOMY

PREPARED BY: GROUP 2

NO. GROUP MEMBERS MATRIC NUMBER

1 NG LEE PINK 157677

2 NURSHAZIATUL SHAZWINA BINTI MOHD NIZAR 159234

3 NUUR AIN SYAFWA BINTI MOHD FADZIL 158277

4 SHARIFAH ATHIRAH BINTI SYED MUHAMMAD AZHARI 158899

5 MOHD REDZWAN BIN JAPRI 155919

PREPARED FOR:
ASSOC. PROF DR. MOHAMAD HAAFIZ BIN MOHAMAD KASSIM
TS. DR. NURUL FAZITA BINTI MOHAMMAD RAWI

SUBMISSION DATE:
8 NOVEMBER 2022
IWA 282 LABORATORY 1 Wood Anatomy

Title: Introduction to understanding the basic anatomical structure and types of cells of
hardwood.

ABSTRACT

Wood can be categorised into two groups which are hardwood and softwood. In this experiment,
hardwood samples are investigated. For hardwood, there are three different categories to
consider: heavy hardwood, medium hardwood, and light hardwood. The difference between
these three types of hardwood is based on their density. The anatomical structure of hardwood is
hard to identify using the naked eye but can be identified by using an optical microscope. In this
experiment, Rubberwood and Meranti were used as the wood samples to identify the anatomical
structure, wood directions and types of cells. Hand lens (magnifying glasses) with 10X
magnification was used to observe the wood samples' radial, tangential and cross-section. Thin
slices of wood samples of meranti and rubberwood were prepared by using the microtome by
cutting from the radial, tangential and cross-section directions. The wood sample slides were
prepared by adding a few drops of pigment safranin-O to the thin slices of wood followed by
distilled water and ethanol to obtain a clear image in the optical microscope. As a result, from
this experiment, the radial, tangential and cross-section of both meranti and rubberwood wood
samples can be determined and the types of cells present are identified. To conclude, different
types of wood construct different types of wood cells that have different functions according to
the cells.
1.0 INTRODUCTION

Wood has three different sections that can be observed by using the naked eye, a magnifier glass
and also by using a microscope. Each section of the wood that being observe will give different
results in terms of the structure but the anatomy is still the same. Three sections of wood is
cross-section, tangential section and radial section. Wood is also known as anastrophic because
each section of the wood will give different results in terms of its structure and properties. The
anatomy of wood that can be observed in this experiment by using naked eyes, magnifying glass
and electric microscope from meranti and rubber wood are a vessel, grain direction, ray, a
scalariform plate that can be observed in radial section, and also parenchyma. Vessels can easily
be observed by the naked eye in the cross-section region. The function of a vessel in hardwood is
to act as pipeline that transports sap within the tree. There are three main categories of vessels
that can be identified based on the arrangement of their pores which is commonly called porosity.
Three main categories of vessels are ring-porous, diffuse-porous and semi-ring porous. There are
also some differences in terms of vessel arrangement such as solitary arrangement, radial
multiple, radial multiple and solitary, pore clusters, pore chain, diagonal rows and uniform.
Besides that, rays also give two different looks in the radial section and tangential section. In the
tangential section, rays may be uniseriate, biseriate or multiseriate while in the radial section rays
are in procumbent. Parenchyma is a thin-walled storage unit and there are two main
classifications of parenchyma which are apotracheal parenchyma and paratracheal parenchyma.
Apotracheal parenchyma is separated into two different types which are diffuse parenchyma and
diffuse-in-aggregates parenchyma while diffuse parenchyma it is separated into nine types such
as paratracheal scanty, paratracheal vasicentric, aliform parenchyma, aliform lozenge, aliform
confluent, unilateral parenchyma, banded parenchyma, reticulate parenchyma and scalariform
parenchyma.
2.0 OBJECTIVES

1) To introduce the basic understanding of the anatomical structure of hardwood.

2) To differentiate the structure of hardwood cells from a different section:

● Tangential section
● Cross-section
● Radial section

3) To identify types of wood cells:

● Parenchyma
● Rays
● Vessels
● Fibres

4) To characterise the physical properties of hardwood.

5) To study the characteristic of:

● Earlywood
● Latewood
● Growth rings
● Pith
● Hardwood
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

MATERIALS

Materials
➔ Pigment Safranin-O
➔ Wood sample of Meranti
➔ Wood sample of Rubberwood

Apparatus
➔ Hand lens (Power 10x) (Magnifying glass)
➔ Optical microscope
➔ Slides
➔ Coverslips
➔ Pen knife
➔ Brush
➔ Cellophane tape
➔ Microtome
METHODS

1. The characteristics of the wood samples of meranti and rubberwood such as the grain
direction (smoothness or course), colour, figure and smell were observed through the
naked eye.
2. The wood samples’ tangential section, radial section and cross-section were figured out
in order to be observed by using the hand lens (power 10x) (magnifying glass).
3. Pen knife was used to cut the wood samples of meranti and rubberwood so that the
direction of the wood samples was determined.
4. In order to thoroughly observe the wood samples of meranti and rubberwood, the hand
lens was put close to the eye so that accurate and precise results can be obtained.
5. The pictures of the three dimensions of tangential section, radial section and cross-section
of the wood samples are snapped by using a camera.
6. The results which were the determination of the cross-section, radial section and
tangential section of the meranti and rubberwood were then drawn and sketched.
7. Then, the previous wood samples of meranti and rubberwood were cut into much smaller
pieces.
8. The thin layer of wood that comprises already identified cross-section, tangential section
and radial section of the wood samples were produced by using microtome.
9. Before sectioning, the surface of wood samples of meranti and rubberwood are dampened
by using a brush.
10. On the microtome, the wood samples were positioned and adjusted to the level of the
blade.
11. Fine sections of the wood samples were acquired and the brush was used again to wet the
surface of wood samples so that the fine sections were not coiled up.
12. Next, the fine sections of cross-section, tangential and radial were placed onto a
microscope slide.
13. A few drops of pigment Safranin-O are dropped onto the sliced specimens by using a
dropper.
14. The specimens were then covered by a coverslip gently and slowly so that the air bubbles
were not formed under the coverslip.
15. A few drops of distilled water and ethanol were also dropped onto the slides to remove
the excess pigment Safranin-O and to soften the wood accordingly.
16. The slides were dried by using tissue paper.
17. Next, the slides were observed and examined under a microscope.
18. The wood cells which are present under the microscope were observed and drawn.
19. Camera was also used to capture the pictures of wood cells under the microscope.
20. All of the obtained results were then included in the lab report
4.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1: Result from experiment
4.1.1: Observation of wood sample given

Colour Grain direction Smell Figure

Meranti Dark Moderately Odourless Coarse surface

reddish-brown coarse and with wavy
interlocked

Rubberwood Cream to yellow Straight grain Sour odour Straight and

and smooth smooth

4.1.2: Observation of wood samples through a hand lens

4.1.2.1: Meranti

Cross section

Tangential section
Radial section

4.1.2.2: Rubberwood

Cross section

Tangential section
 Radial section

4.1.3: Observation of cross-section wood given

4.1.3.1: Sketches and labels

4.1.3.2: Explanation

Definition Meranti Rubberwood

Earlywood The wood that is The earlywood cells The earlywood cells
formed during the early are undistinguishable are undistinguishable
stage of wood growth since the wood is since the wood is
increment, which is diffuse-porous. diffuse-porous.
lower in density.

Latewood The wood that is The latewood cells The latewood cells
produced later in the are undistinguishable are undistinguishable
wood growth increment since the wood has since the wood has
and has a higher diffuse-porous. diffuse-porous.
 density.

Phloem The tissues of the inner Undetected through Undetected through

bark of the wood. It is the lens. the lens.
characterized by the
presence of sieve tubes
and serving for the
transport of elaborate
foodstuffs.

Cambium A layer of tissue present Undetected through Undetected through

in between the bark and the lens. the lens.
the wood. The thin
layer of tissue
subdivides repeatedly to
form new wood and
bark cells.

Xylem The dead cells that are Undetected through Undetected through
present in a large the lens. the lens.
portion of the tree
trunk, branches, and
roots that lies between
the pith and the
cambium.

Growth ring The layer of wood Growth ring is absent Growth ring is
growth put on a single indistinct
growing season.

Heartwood Dead cells that form Undetected from the Undetected from the
wood extending from wood sample given wood sample given
the pith to the sapwood.
It is darker in colour
due to the possible
presence of phenolic
compounds, gums,
resins, and other
materials. It is decay
resistance

Sapwood The wood outside of the Undetected from the Undetected from the
log, usually appears in a wood sample given wood sample given
pale colour. The wood
is more vulnerable to
the decay process.
Pith The core occurring near Undetected from the Undetected from the
the centre of a tree wood sample given wood sample given
trunk, branch, twig, or
log.

Vessel Continuous tubes It is present through It is present through

present in the wood the observation, the observation,
cells of hardwoods, solitary vessel radial multiple and
have large diameters. arrangement can be solitary vessel
observed. arrangement can be
observed. The vessels
are distributed in
scattered form.

Ray It is the strips of cells Fine multiseriate rays Narrow and medium
extending radially are present (Observed rays are barely
within a tree and from the tangential visible.
varying height from a section)
few cells in some
species to 4 or more
inches in oak.

Deposit if available The deposition that is White deposits are No deposits are
found in the wood visible with the naked observed
microstructure. eye
4.1.4: Observation of wood samples under microscope
4.1.4.1: Meranti

Cross
section

Tangentia
l section

Radial
section

4
4.1.4.2: Rubberwood

Cross section

Tangential section

Radial section
4.2 Discussion
4.2.1: Type of wood cell that exists on the hardwood
A typical hardwood has a more complicated structure than a softwood. The axial system in
hardwood plants includes fibre, vessels, rays, and parenchyma cells. The structure components
can be in various kinds, sizes and arrangements, patterns and abundance. The variety of cell
shapes and sizes in hardwoods' structure is greater than the softwoods’, in which the rays of
softwoods are in a radial system and are composed of ray parenchyma cells.

Fibre
Fibre plays the most important role in mechanical supports in hardwoods. On average, the fibre
in hardwoods has a length of 0.2 to 1.2mm, which is way shorter than the softwood's tracheids,
though the fibre is two to ten times longer than the vessel elements. The thickness of the fibre is
responsible for the density and mechanical strength of hardwood fibre. In meranti, vascular or
vasicentric tracheids are present surrounding the vessels. The perforation plate is the hole formed
when the ends of the vessels contact together

Vessels
Vessel elements are specialised water-conducting cells of hardwoods, with open ends. As the
vessel elements are set one above another, they form a continuous tube, so the water can be
transported. The diameters of vessels in hardwood are varies, from small (<30 µm) to quite large
(>300 µm), but generally, they range from 50 to 200 µm. Typically, vessels can be observed
through a hand lens. Thus, vessels are the largest type of cells in hardwoods.

Ray
The structure of rays in hardwoods is diverse. Some hardwoods contain rays that are exclusively
uniseriate and similar to softwood rays. In most cases, the rays in hardwoods have more than one
cell wide, in fact, most species have rays with one to five cells.
Parenchyma
Parenchyma is living short cells with simple pits, that may arrange longitudinally (axial) or
radially (ray). Axial parenchyma is mostly present in hardwood but not in softwood. Parenchyma
cells often can be observed as white bands in hardwoods. There are two major types of
parenchyma, which are epithelial parenchyma and apotracheal parenchyma. In meranti, the
parenchyma is vasicentric, winged, and banded with embedded resin canals. While the
rubberwood has diffuse-in-aggregates and banded (reticulate) parenchyma.

4.2.2: Function of the vessel in wood

The vessels in hardwoods usually appear as holes, commonly known as pores. The main function
of vessels is to transport water within the tree. As the vessels are the largest cells in hardwoods,
the pores are clearly visible through a hand lens. The pores arrangement can be categorised into
3 main types, which are ring-porous, diffuse-porous and semi-ring porous. The different
arrangement of pores is generally named porosity.

Ring-porous Diffuse-porous Semi-ring porous

Ring-porous is usually found in hardwoods in the temperate zone. The large pores observed from
the diagram are located in earlywood, while the pores in latewoods appear more evenly
distributed and uniform in size. Woods with ring-porous are also known as open-grain woods.

The diffuse-porous arrangement is commonly found in many tropical species. The wood has
pores that are essentially uniform in size, and most of the time the diffuse-porous have a small
diameter, however, there are some tropical woods that have rather large pores. The woods with
this type of porous arrangement are known as closed-grain woods.
The semi-porous arrangement can be known as either semi-ring porous or semi-diffuse porous.
In certain species of wood, the pore sizes change slowly across the growth rings. The
semi-porous arrangement is more difficult to recognise.

From the observation under a microscope, we can see that both meranti and rubberwood have
diffuse-porous. However, both of the hardwoods have rather larger pores with no specific
arrangement. In meranti, tyloses are occasionally present. The rubberwood has tyloses and
heartwood minerals present as deposits.

4.2.3: Growth ring

Wood grows by the vascular cambium one layer of cell divisions at a time. For the wood to grow,
a large group of cells will be produced at the same time, which are functional cells to the tree.
These collections of cells produced together over a discrete time interval are known as growth
increments or growth rings. The cells produced at the early stage are the earlywood cells, while
the cells produced at the latter portion of the growth are latewood. Growth rings are distinct from
the trees from different types of forests. The temperate hardwood trees grow annually due to the
seasonal changes in temperate areas, which cause the growth rings to be distinguishable from the
cross-section of wood.

Hardwoods have 3 main types of growth rings, which are ring-porous, diffuse-porous and
semi-ring-porous. The ring pattern of ring-porous woods has vessel diameters decreasing
substantially. The vessel distribution often also differs as the vessel size changes. Thus the ring
pattern formed will be observed as large earlywood vessels around the inner portion of the
growth increment, and then accompanied by the denser, more fibrous tissue of latewoods. The
vessel distribution in diffuse-porous wood is rather hard to see the big difference or change in
size between the earlywood and latewood. The semi-ring-porous patterns contain both the
characteristic of the ring-porous and diffuse-porous.

As Meranti and Rubberwood are tropical hardwoods, the growth rings for both wood are difficult
to observe.
4.2.4: Perforation plate
Perforation plate developed at the end walls of the vessel. The position of the plates is usually
terminal, some may be sub-terminal or lateral. There are four types of perforations pattern, which
are
(i) simple with a single large pore at the end
(ii) Scalariform with several parallel elongated transverse pores
(iii) Foraminate with several more or less circular pores in groups
(iv) Reticulate with a network of small pores

From the observation made from the experiment, it was found that both the Meranti and
Rubberwood contain simple perforation plates.

4.2.5: Simple perforation plate and scalariform perforation plate

Simple perforation plates are found in most species of hardwoods. The characteristic of the
simple perforation plates is similar to the cell lumen, while the scalariform perforation plates
consist of a ladder-like array of pits, bar widths, and distances between bars.
4.2.6: Tyloses
Tyloses are the sac-like, large amount of parenchyma cells that are formed by the extension of
the cell wall of the living cells surrounding vessels of the hardwoods. The presence of tyloses
blocks the water movement. Tyloses plays important role in the process of making sapwood into
heartwood, and also in the defence system, where the tyloses grow abundantly and quickly at the
young roots that are infested by the pathogen, thus will block the further infection of the
pathogen into the plant.

4.2.7: Pit at cell wall

Pit is the thinner portion of the cell wall, which has secondary layers. The complementary pit
exists opposite the pit in the neighbouring cells. Generally, a pit has 3 main parts, which are pit
membrane, pit aperture and pit chamber. A pit membrane is a non-phospholipid membrane,
which is thin and semi-porous. The pit aperture is the hole that leads to the open area of the pit.
The pit chamber is the open area of the pit. There are 5 main types of pits:
(i) Intervessel pitting
It is the pitting between adjacent vessel elements.
(ii) Alternate pitting
It is the intervessel pits that are arranged in diagonal rows.
(iii) Opposite pitting
It is the intervessel pits arranged in short to long horizontal rows.
(iv) Scaliform pitting
It is the intervessel pits that are elongated or linear, arranged in a ladder-like series.

4.2.8: Fibre, fibre tracheid and libriform fibre

Fibres are the main parts of the wood that build up the wood. It is the wood cells that are
elongated and pointed at the ends. Each wood has its own respective average fibre length. Fibre
tracheid and libriform fibre are part of the xylem, which is known as xylary fibre. Fibre tracheids
are intermediate forms between tracheids and libriform fibres. Libriform fibres have extremely
thick walls and simple pits. Although both the fibre tracheid and libriform fibre are derived from
tracheids, the fact that the tracheid conducts water, tracheids are not fibre at all.

Fibre-tracheid is longer than libriform fibre but shorter than tracheids. The cell wall of
fibre-tracheids has a bordered pit, thicker than the tracheids, but the bordered pit is much thinner
than the libriform fibre. This causes the pit chamber to be smaller than the tracheids. Due to the
thickening and the right-angled to outer aperture formation, the inner aperture appears as a slit.

4.2.9: Apotracheal, paratracheal, banded and marginal parenchyma

Apotracheal parenchyma is a parenchyma cell arranged independently, maybe diffused or
banded. The apotracheal parenchyma is diffused or scattered when it is isolated or short
tangential aggregates. If the apotracheal parenchyma is in the form of fine and evenly spaced
broken or tangential lines, it is referred to as diffuse-in-aggregates. The apotracheal parenchyma
is said to be banded when the parenchyma forms conspicuous tangential bands.
Paratracheal parenchyma is distributed and associated with vessels. There are also many
variations of paratracheal parenchyma, including vasicentric, aliform, and long radial.
Vasicentric happens when the parenchyma associates with the pores very closely, which forms
light coloured sheath around the vessels. The aliform arrangement happens when the
paratracheal parenchyma surrounds the vessels in a wing-like lateral projections way. When the
pores are arranged so as to form long, radial rows of 3 to 6 or more, the paratracheal parenchyma
is said to be long radial multiples.
Banded parenchyma may be continuous, or discontinuous. If the band is thick, it will affect the
overall volume of some wood species, while the thinned band can be hardly visible with a hand
lens.
When the banded parenchyma occurs along the growth ring boundary, the parenchyma is known
as marginal parenchyma.
4.2.10: Heterocellular and homocellular ray parenchyma
Ray parenchyma is an essential tissue for tree functioning and survival. It plays a major role for
the storage and transport of water. There are two types of ray parenchyma, which are
heterocellular ray parenchyma and homocellular ray parenchyma. Heterocellular parenchyma or
ray parenchyma is a part of heterocellular ray systems or heterogenous rays. Heterocellular ray
consists of tracheids and parenchyma and heterocellular parenchyma consists of procumbent
cells, square cells and upright cells. Homocellular parenchyma or homogenous rays is a part of
the homocellular ray system or homocellular ray, in which homocellular rays only have one type
of cell, either tracheids or parenchyma.
5.0 CONCLUSION

The objective of the first experiment (wood anatomy) was to understand the anatomical
structure of hardwood samples which are Meranti and rubber wood. We also can differentiate the
difference of wood anatomy in three different sections which are cross section, tangential section
and radial section by using naked eyes, magnifying glass and also by using electron microscope
under 100X magnifying glass. Characteristic of hardwood that has anatomy such as pith,
earlywood, latewood, vessel, ray and growth rings has been study during this experiment
runs. In this experiment also we learn that to find the radial section is based on the grain
direction on the cross section. If we cut the wood sample parallel to the grain direction, the
section that we can identify is the radial section but for the tangential section can be identified if
we cut the wood sample perpendicular to the grain direction of the wood sample.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, I would like to express my appreciation to Assoc. Prof Dr. Mohamad Haafiz
Bin Mohamad Kassim, Dr. Nurul Fazita Binti Mohammad Rawi and Dr. Mohd Nurrazi Norizan
for their guidance and assistance for the laboratory class. I am grateful and appreciate the efforts
of all lecturers in providing information regarding the experiment to complete this laboratory
report. Next, I would like to extend my thanks to the laboratory assistant, Encik Azhar for his
help in offering me the resources when the experiment is conducted. Lastly, I would like to thank
my group mates and all those who lend me a hand to complete this laboratory report.
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