B.A. / B.Sc.

(IIIrd Semester – Section A)

Paper: Climatology (GGB 351)
Topic: Insolation (Unit 1)

Introduction
The main source of heat and energy which controls all the physical and biological phenomena on
the earth surface is Sun.
Main Source: Sun (99.99 per cent)
Other Sources: Radioactive elements of earth’s crust (Thorium, uranium, and potassium etc.),
energy released from volcanic eruption, earth’s gravity, energy from gravitational attraction of
sun and moon etc.
Source of Sun’s heat: Nuclear reaction in the interior of sun due to fusion of Hydrogen into
Helium.
Insolation: Energy radiated by the Sun and received by the Earth in the form of short wave is
called Insolation or incoming solar radiation.
In: Incoming; So: Solar; Lation: Radiation
Earth receives only 1 part in the two billionth part of the total radiation of the sun.
Factors affecting the Insolation
The earth’s surface receives insolation at the rate of two calories per square centimetre per
minute. The total radiant solar energy that strikes the outer surface of the atmosphere, only half
(approximately 51%) is able to reach the earth’s surface directly or indirectly and is absorbed by
the earth. But not every part receives the same energy. The actual amount of insolation received
at a place on the earth varies due to various reasons.
The following astronomical and geographical factors govern the amount of insolation received
at any point on the earth's surface:
1. Angle / Inclination of Sun’s Rays
2. Length of the Day / Duration of Sun Shine
3. Distance between Earth and the Sun
4. Transparency of Atmosphere
5. Solar Constant/ Solar Output and Sun Spots
6. Land Sea Differentials

1 
 
 7. Effect of Elevation & Slope
(1) Angle / Inclination of Sun’s Rays
The altitude of the sun, i.e. the angle between its rays and a tangent to the earth's surface
at the point of observation, controls the amount of insolation received at the earth's
surface (see figure).
Since the earth is a geoid (irregular shaped) resembling a sphere, the sun’s rays strike the
surface at different angles at different places. This depends on the latitude of the place.
The higher the latitude, the less is the angle they make with the surface of the earth.
As the elevation angle decreases, the area over which the radiation is distributed
increases. The vertical rays of the sun heat the minimum possible area, but on the
contrary, the oblique rays are spread over a relatively larger area, so that the amount of
area over which the available solar energy has to be distributed in increased and the
energy per unit area on the earth's surface is decreased.
In addition, the oblique rays have to traverse a larger distance through the atmosphere
before they strike the surface of the earth. The longer their path, the larger the amount of
energy lost by various processes of reflection, absorption, and scattering, etc.
Thus, the energy gets distributed in a larger area and the net energy received per unit area
decreases. Thus, the amount of insolation received at the Earth's surface decreases from
equator towards the poles. The total amount of insolation received at the equator is about
four times higher than that of the poles.
At mid-day the intensity of insolation is maximum, but in the morning and evening hours
it is reduced because of the slanting rays of the sun. So is the case in winter and at high
latitudes, when the-amount of insolation received at the surface of the earth is small.
This is simply the effect of the low angle of incidence. The major factors that determine
the sun's altitude or the angle of incidence are the latitude of the place, the time of the day
and the seasons.

2 
 
 

Figure: Impact of Angle of Sun’s Rays on the Insolation

(2) Length of the Day / Duration of Sun Shine

Duration/length of the day varies from place to place and season to season. It decides the
amount of insolation received on the earth’s surface.
During the summer season days are longer than the night. The situation is reversed in the
winter season.
The longer the duration of the day, the greater is the amount of insolation received.
Conversely shorter the duration of the day leads to receipt of less insolation.

3 
 
 Undoubtedly, the longer period of sunshine ensures larger supply of radiation which a
particular area of the earth will receive.
Obviously, the latitudes exercise the most dominant control over the duration of sunshine
and thereby the length of the day. The latitudinal and monthly variations in the length of
days have been shown in table.

Table: Maximum length of day in different latitudes

Longest day Longest day
Latitude Latitude
or night or night
0 12 hours 63.4 20 hours
17 13 hours 66.5 24 hours
31 14 hours 67.4 1 month
41 15 hours 69.8 2 months
49 16 hours 78.2 4 months
58.5 18 hours 90.0 6 months
At the equator the length of days and nights is 12 hours.
Equinox: Sun centre exactly above the equator (equal day & night: both hemisphere)
On the autumn (23 September) and vernal equinoxes (21 March), the mid-day sun is
overhead at the equator. On these days all over the earth the days and nights are
equal. On these two days, the maximum amount of insolation is received at the
equator, and the amount goes on decreasing towards the poles.
But from the winter solstice (December 22) onward the length of day increases in the
northern hemisphere till the summer solstice (June 21). On the contrary, during this
period the length of day in the southern hemisphere decreases and the nights are
longer.
From June 21 to December 22 the length of day in the northern hemisphere decreases,
and in the southern hemisphere it increases. In other words, at the summer solstice the
northern hemisphere has the longest day and the shortest night.
The condition is reversed in the southern hemisphere. On the contrary, at the winter
solstice the southern hemisphere has the longest day, and the northern hemisphere has
the longest night.
At the respective summer solstice, under cloudless skies, a polar area may receive
more radiation per 24 hour-day than other latitudes. It may be pointed out that

4 
 
 because of the albedo of ice and snow surfaces the net radiation used for heating is
largely reduced
Thus, the longer the period of sunshine and shorter the night, the greater the amount
of solar radiation received, all other conditions being equal.
(3) Distance between Earth and Sun
The solar output received at the top of the atmosphere varies slightly in a year due to the
variations in the distance between the earth and the Sun.
Since the earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit, the distance varies during
the course of a year. The mean distance between the earth and sun is about 149 million
kilometers.
During its revolution around the Sun, the earth is farthest from the sun (152 million km)
on 4th July. This position of the earth is called aphelion.
On 3rd January, the earth is nearest to the sun (147 million km). This position is called
perihelion. Therefore, the energy received by the earth on 3rd January is slightly more
than the amount received on 4th July.
Although the amount of incoming solar radiation received at the outer boundary of the
atmosphere is a little greater (7 percent) in January than in July, there are other major
factors, such as the angle of incidence and the duration of sunshine that more than offset
its effect on seasonal temperature variations.
It may be interesting to note that the earth is relatively closer to the sun during the
northern hemisphere winter.
(4) Transparency of Atmosphere
Transparency of the atmosphere is an important control on the amount of insolation
which reaches the earth's surface. Reflection from dust, salt, and smoke particles in the
air is an important mechanism for returning shortwave solar radiation to space.
Similarly, reflection from cloud tops also depletes the amount of solar radiation that
would otherwise be available to the earth. The effect of certain gases, water vapour, and
dust particles on reflection, scattering, and absorption is well-known.
Obviously, areas with heavy cloudiness and turbid atmosphere will receive lesser amount
of radiant energy at the surface. But the transparency of the atmosphere varies with time
and place.

5 
 
 Transparency of the atmosphere is closely related to the latitude. In the higher latitudes
the sun's rays are more oblique, so that they have to pass through relatively thicker layers
of the atmosphere than at lower latitudes. In winter when the altitude of the sun is
relatively lower, there is greater loss of incoming solar radiation than in summer.

(5) Solar Constant / Solar Output and Sun Spots

As the energy emitted by the sun varies, the amount of insolation received at the surface
also changes. But the percentage of change in the solar constant (the rate at which the
earth is receiving the sun’s energy is called solar constant or solar output) is rather
negligible (Average solar constant is 1368w/m2). The variations in the solar constant are
caused by periodic disturbances and explosions in the solar surface.
Sunspots are created in the solar outer surface due to periodic disturbances and
explosions. Solar constant varies in proportion (± 1.5 %) due to sun spots.
The sunspots (relatively cooler areas of sun’s surface i.e. 3800℃ temperature they are
caused by interaction within the sun magnetic field which are not fully understood) are
cyclic in nature. The increase and decrease of number of sunspots is completed in cycle
of 11 years.

6 
 
 The sun-spot studies that have been carried so far establish that when the sun-spots
appear in larger numbers, the intensity of the solar radiation received at the surface is
increased. Naturally, therefore, as the number of sunspots decreases, the quantity of
radiation received at the earth's surface declines.
However, there is little doubt that the magnitude of the effect of the varying amount of
the solar constant on the amount of solar radiation received here on earth seems to be too
small.
(6) Land Sea Differentials
The uneven distribution of land and sea (antipodal arrangement: land and sea in opposite
direction) causes variation in the spatial distribution of insolation.
Land reflects large part of solar radiation and has high albedo (varies from 8 to 95 %)
while water reflect smaller part of solar radiation and has low albedo (7 % maximum)
Water keeps moving and insolation spread over wider area and therefore no layer of
water is heated fully. But the land area is static thus heat received per unit area is more in
land than water.
Water being transparent permit sun light to penetrate deeper but the land does not allow
light to penetrate deeper. Therefore, in the night land area cooled at very fast but water
takes time to cool.
(7) Effects of Elevation and Slope
At local level, elevation play important role in controlling amount of insolation. Places located at
higher at higher elevation receives more direct solar radiation due to smaller mass of air. The
concentration of insolation being more on the gentler slope raises the temperature of air above
them. Its lesser concentration along steeper slopes lowers the temperature. At the same time,
mountain slopes facing the sun are warmer due to high insolation than the slopes which are away
from the sun's rays. The southern slopes of Himalaya get high insolation than the northern
slopes.

Compiled by Naiyer Zaidy

7