Name: Sanguita, Edna Saavedra

Course: Bachelor of Science in Agriculture and Forestry

Section: B

Year: 3rd year

Subject: AF 2 AGROFORESTRY RESEARCH METHODS

Instructor: Mr. Mark Vincent Cortez

Unit Number: I

Title of Unit: INTRODUCTION: WHAT IS RESEARCH?

C. Discussion Questions

1. How is a hypothesis like a road map?

Answer: When a researcher forms a hypothesis, this acts like a

map through the research study because it tells the researcher
which factors are important to study and how they might be
related to each other or caused by a manipulation that the
researcher introduces for example a program, treatment or
change in the environment. With this map, the researcher can
interpret the information he/she collects and can make sound
conclusions about the results.

2. Who is ultimately responsible for the design and conduct of a

research study?

Answers: The Principal Investigator (PI) is in charge of all

aspects of the research and creates what is called a protocol (the
research plan) that all people doing the research must follow. By
doing so, the Principal Investigator and the public can be sure
that the results of the research are real and useful to other
scientists.
3. How does following the research protocol contribute to
informing public health practices?

Answer: Research protocols, whether in Health Research or more

general scientific inquiry, are design to illicit information with as
little ambiguity as possible. With drugs, surgical procedures, etc.,
human trials are normally the final step prior to application for
approval. The protocols, when followed, it gives the researcher’s
and the government evaluator’s confidence in their results. When
protocols are not followed even apparently unimportant ones it
gives an appearance of sloppiness.

4. Can the investigator establish that lower-smoking rates and a

cigarette smoking rates and the absence of a chemical factory
explains the lower rate of cancer among those in community B?

Answer: Yes, it is because the largest employer was a department

store and on average, residents did not smoke as much as
resident from community.

Unit Number: II
Title of Unit: RESEARCH DESIGN

1. Explain how research is designed to gain new knowledge.

Answer: Research design "provides the glue that holds the

research

Project together. A design is used to structure the research, to

show how all of the major parts of the research project work
together to try to address the central research questions." The
research design is like a recipe. Just as a recipe provides a list of
ingredients and the instructions for preparing a dish, the
research design provides the components and the plan for
successfully carrying out the study. The research design is the
"backbone" of the research protocol. Protocol: The research plan
developed by the researcher that should be followed when
carrying out the study.

2. Describe the role(s) of research support staff in enhancing

research integrity.

Answer: Research studies are designed in a particular way to

increase the chances of collecting the information needed to
answer a particular question. The information collected during
research is only useful if the research design is sound and follows
the research protocol. Carefully following the procedures and
techniques outlined in the research protocol will increase the
chance that the results of the research will be accurate and
meaningful to others. Following the research protocol and thus
the design of the study is also important because the results can
then be reproduced by other researchers. The more often results
are reproduced, the more likely it is that researchers and the
public will accept these findings as true. Additionally, the
research design must make clear the procedures used to ensure
the protection of research subjects, whether human or animal,
and to maintain the integrity of the information collected in the
study.
Unit Number: II – Section A

Title of Unit: DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES

Section 1: Discussion Questions

1. What makes this a descriptive study?

Answer: A descriptive study is one in which information is

collected without changing the environment example nothing is
manipulated. Sometimes these are referred to as "correlational"
or "observational" studies. It defines a descriptive study as "any
study that is not truly experimental." In human research, a
descriptive study can provide information about the naturally
occurring health status, behavior, attitudes or other
characteristics of a particular group. Descriptive studies are also
conducted to demonstrate associations or relationships between
things in the world.

2. Why did the researcher collect information about the lifestyle

of community residents?

Answer: Descriptive studies, because researcher collect

information about the lifestyle of community residents, in which
the researcher interacts with the participant, and also it may
involve surveys or interviews to collect the necessary information.

What about the type of businesses present in each community?

Medical records?

Answer: Descriptive studies, in which the researcher does not

interact with the participant include observational studies of
people in an environment. Example; "fly on the wall". And also
the studies involving data collection using existing records.
Example medical record review .

3. Can the investigator establish that the chemical plant and

cigarette smoking are the cause for the higher rate of cancer
among those in Community A?

Answer: The researcher found that the headquarters for the

Toxico Chemical Plant is located in Community A, there is a
higher rate of cigarette smoking in this community and residents
tended to delay or skip going to the doctor for an annual
checkup.

4. Can the investigator establish that lower smoking rates and

the absence of a chemical factory explains the lower rate of
cancer among those in Community B?

Answer: In Community B, the largest employer was a department

store and on average, residents did not smoke as much as
residents from Community A. However, like individuals from
Community A, Community B residents tended to delay or skip
their annual checkup with their doctor.

Unit Number: II – Section B

Title of Unit: EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES

Discussion Questions
1. What makes both of these studies experimental?

Answer: Unlike a descriptive study, an experiment is a study in

which a treatment, procedure, or program is intentionally
introduced and a result or outcome is observed. The American
Heritage Dictionary of the English Language defines an
experiment as "A test under controlled conditions that is made to
demonstrate a known truth, to examine the validity of a
hypothesis, or to determine the efficacy of something previously
untried."

2. What type of information might the researcher collect in these

two studies to see if the treatment (e.g. shaded and unshaded
coffee) is effective?

Answer: Random assignment because it means that if there are

groups or treatments in the experiment, participants are
assigned to these groups or treatments, or randomly like the flip
of a coin. This means that no matter who the participant is,
he/she has an equal chance of getting into all of the groups or
treatments in an experiment. This process helps to ensure that
the groups or treatments are similar at the beginning of the study
so that there is more confidence that the manipulation group or
treatment "caused" the outcome.

3. Can the researcher establish cause and effect in either or both

of these two studies?

Answer: Yes, researcher can establish cause and effect in either

or both of these two studies because further income could be
derived from the firewood extracted over time. Therefore, both
ecological and economic aspects showed advantages compared to
the no-shade system, which suggests agroforestry with timber
trees as an attractive system of land use for farmers in the sub
optimal coffee growing conditions studied.

4. In your own understanding, discuss the objectives of these two

studies.

Answer: By the end of this unit, students will be able to:

1. Explain how experiment and its treatment, procedure, or

program is intentionally introduced and a result or outcome is
observed.

2. Describe the four elements: manipulation, control , random

assignment, and random selection.

5. What significant contribution of these two studies in the body

of knowledge?

Answer: The significant contribution of these two studies in the

body of knowledge are the test under controlled conditions that is
made to demonstrate a known truth, to examine the validity of a
hypothesis, or to determine the efficacy of something previously
untried.

Unit Number: III

Title of Unit: ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH

Unit Number: III – Section I

Title of Unit: VARIABLES

Section 1: Discussion Questions

1. In the second example what is the independent variable? Why?

Answer: Reading ability, because Independent variable is the

condition of an experiment that is systematically manipulated by
the investigator.

2. In the second example, what is the dependent variable? Why?

Answer: Effects of nutrition, because Dependent variable is the

outcomes that are measured in an experiment. Dependent
variables are expected to change as a result of an experimental
manipulation of the independent variables.

3. Identify which variables are dependent and independent in the

following examples:

Answer:

a. Positive feedback and self confidence

Dependent Variable: Positive feedback

Independent Variable: self confidence

b. Headache and aspirin

Dependent Variable: Headache

Independent Variable: aspirin

c. Muscle mass and weight-training

Dependent Variable: Muscle mass

Independent Variable: weight-training

d. Calcium consumption and bone density

Dependent Variable: Calcium consumption

Independent Variable: bone density

e. Blood pressure and salt intake

Dependent Variable: Blood pressure

Independent Variable: salt intake

Section 1: Discussion Questions

1. What are the variables that are under investigation in this

study?

Answer: Many children who live in the Bronx, a borough of New

York City, are developing asthma. In a descriptive study
investigating this problem, parents whose children have asthma
are asked about whether they smoke around their child, whether
they live near a freeway, whether their child regularly sees a
healthcare provider, their family income level and also if there is
a history in their family of asthma. Prior research has shown that
these factors may have an influence on the development of
asthma in children.
2. If you were the researcher, what other variables would you
study to see if it may contribute to developing asthma? Why?

Answer: In my opinion, the variables that I would study to see if

it may contribute to developing asthma is the “Asthma control”
because it has demonstrated good psychometric properties,
including internal consistency reliability,
convergent/discriminant validity, and known-groups validity.

3. Given the variables presented in the example and the variables

that you thought of, why would these variables be useful to the
researcher?

Answer: Variables are important to understand because they are

the basic units of the information studied and interpreted in
research studies. Researchers carefully analyze and interpret the
value of each variable to make sense of how things relate to each
other in a descriptive study or what has happened in an
experiment.

Unit Number: III – Section II

Title of Unit: ASSOCIATIONS AND CAUSE AND EFFECT

Unit Number: III – Section III

Title of Unit: SAMPLING

Section III: Discussion Questions

1. What is the purpose of selecting a smaller group of

participants from a larger group?
Answer: Sampling involves choosing a small group of participants
that will represent a larger group. Sampling is used because it is
difficult or impractical to include all members of a group.

2. Do the women included on this list represent the larger group?

Answer: Yes, because as the sampling is defined as the method

by which some members of a larger group are selected. The usual
goal is sample those members so that they are representative of
the group as a whole.

3. Would you choose participants differently if this was your

study? If so, how would you do it?

Answer: Yes, I will choose participants differently if this was my

study because sampling is used and it is difficult or impractical
to include all members of a group . However, research projects
are designed to ensure that enough

participants are recruited to generate useful information that can

be generalized to the group represented.

4. What would happen if the investigator chose individuals from

the list that she knew? Would this affect the results of the study?

Answer: Before further considering the oversight mechanisms

that would best protect research participants, it is useful to step
back to the initiation of a research study and consider the
relevant roles, responsibilities, and interactions of the primary
parties: the investigator, who asks a scientific question, and the
willing individual, who consents to help the investigator answer
the question. Both parties have preconceived expectations of
what this relationship will be like and how the exchange between
them will proceed. Yes, because in order to have a productive
partnership to occur, one that results in answering the research
question, it is important for both the investigator and the
participant to understand and fulfill their respective
responsibilities.

Unit Number: III – Section IV

Title of Unit: RANDOM SELECTION

Section IV: Discussion Questions

1. Do the women included on this list represent the larger group?

Answer: Yes, the women included the list that represents the
larger group because random selection is a form of sampling
where a representative group of research participants is selected
from a larger group by chance. This can be done by identifying all
of the possible candidates for study participation and randomly
choosing a subset to participate. This allows for each person to
have an equal chance of participating in the study.
2. Would you choose participants differently if this was your
study? If so, how would you do it?

Answer: Yes, I will choose participants differently if this was my

study because by allowing each person in the group they have an
equal chance to participate and it also increases the chance that
the smaller group possesses characteristics similar to the larger
group. This produces findings that are more likely to be
representative of and applicable to the larger group. Therefore, it
is extremely important to adhere to this procedure if it is
included in the research design. Ignoring or altering random
selection procedures compromises the research design and
subsequent results.

3. What if the researcher decided to ignore the random selection

procedures as described in this example (e.g. pulling names from
a hat, using a computer program to generate random numbers)?
How would this affect the results of the study?

Answer: Ignoring or altering random selection procedures

compromises the research design and subsequent results.
Similarly, it would be wrong to select only individuals who may
potentially benefit from study participation rather than randomly
selecting from the entire group of individuals being studied.
Ignoring random selection procedures when they are called for in
the research design reduces the quality of the information
collected and decreases the usefulness of the study findings
Unit Number: III – Section V

Title of Unit: RANDOM ASSIGNMENT

Unit Number: III – Section VI

Title of Unit: BLINDING

Section VI: Discussion Questions

1. Why are participants not told (blind to) their group

assignment?

Answer: Participants are not told blind to their group

assignments because blinding is a technique used to decrease
bias on the part of the researcher or the participant where the
participant, or both the researcher and the participant are not
told to which group they have been assigned.

2. Is this a single or double blind study?

Answer: Yes, this is called single blinding. And also there is

another level of blinding called double blinding where neither the
researcher nor the participant know which group the participant
is in until this information is revealed at the end of the study.
3. Do you think knowledge of group assignment (no blinding)
would affect the results? Why or why not?

Answer: Yes, because blinding can reduce the temptation to

ignore random assignment procedures and can reduce any
expectations about the potential effectiveness of the treatment or
program since group assignment remains unknown by the
participant, the researcher or both the participant and
researchers.

4. Do you think that the researcher’s knowledge of group

assignment would affect the results? Why or why not?

Answer: Yes, because the results are more likely to provide

information about the true effect of the treatment or program
being tested when blinding is used.
UNIT IV. SECTION 2.1

1. Imagine that the researcher decides to take the participants

blood pressure after he or she has completed a vigorous exercise
routine. Would this be consistent with the research design? Why
or why not?

Answer: Yes, it’s because the researcher can help the

participants.

2. In another situation, the researcher takes an individual’s blood

pressure in a noisy household where many young children are
playing in the same room would this be consistent with the
research design? Why or why not?

Answer: Yes, it can be consistent because the researcher focus in

gathering the study or collect different kinds of information in the
individuals blood pressure, not the noisy household where many
young children are playing.

3. A researcher accidentally breaks the digital blood pressure

monitor and decides to use a manual blood pressure cuff like a
nurse would use during a routine checkup. Would this be
consistent with the research design? Why or why not?

Answer: By using manual blood pressure cuff would not be

consistent because it requires a digital blood pressure monitor.
This are not the recommended type of blood pressure monitor for
us as a researcher.
SECTION 2.2 D

1. What would happen in each of the previous examples if an

accuracy check was not conducted?

Answer: It would be valid because the accuracy is to guarantee

the quality and integrity of the research findings.

2. What are some other ways to check for accuracy in these

studies?

Answer: The researcher ask individual a series question on a

survey about their smoking habit overs the last two week.
Section 2.3

1. If you were the researcher, how would you handle this problem
if you found out about it at the end of the study?

Answer: Try it again, because if the researcher continue the

study it can affect the over all, and it can be biased or error.

2. What are something’s the researcher should have done in the

first place to avoid this problem?

Answer: I think by improving or by being careful of your

information. Use better scale so that no problem in your
study/measurement of weight.

3. Is systematic error problematic in research in general if it can

be corrected? What if the researcher doesn’t know about the
systematic error?

Answer: It can be eliminated not totally, but usually to a

sufficient degree. This elimination process called “calibration”. If
the researcher did not know about systematic error, they would
have made a wrong conclusion. This example shows how
systematic error can occur in research because of faulty
instruments.
SECTION 2.3

1.Are the result of this study accurate? Why or why not?

Answer: It is not accurate because the researcher did not

measure the exact weight. The new result will not added about
the study.

2. Does the use of a slightly in accurate scale cause serious

problems with the study result?

Answer: I think No, because the researcher can manage the

serious problem with the result. The researcher know if it is
increasing or decreasing in the final result.

3. Is there anything that the researcher should have done to

avoid this problem?

Answer: Researcher can weigh each candidate more than once

and can use the main value of the readings. The more reading it
takes, the more accurate the result will be need.

4. Which do you think is more serious problem in research

systematic or random error?

Answer: I think the systematic error, because it is a bigger

problem in research with a random error, multiple measurements
will tend to cluster around the true value. Especially when the
collecting data from a large sample, the errors in different
directions will cancel each other out.

5. Which type of error- random or systematic is easier to control?

Answer: A random error can be minimized by increasing sample

size and average data. It is harder to compensate for systematic
error. The best way to avoid systematic error is to be familiar with
the limitation of instruments and experienced with their correct
use.

UNIT V.

SECTION 1

1. What is harm of her friends seeing this research information?

Answer: It would be confidential, it should be protected, specially

the individual that involved in that study. It can harm her friends
identity and other personal information that everyone saw it.

2. How could this type of situation be avoided?

Answer: Put the sensitive information in the safe place so that no

one see it.

3. How does this type of situation affect the integrity of the

study? How does this type of situation affect the participants?

Answer: A researcher obligation to protect the participants

information. The research need do not trump an individual
privacy rights. Those involves in designing, approving, and
carrying out research must determine how to conduct research
that , maintains participants confidentiality.

4. Why it is important to securely store research information?

Answer: Keeping data safe and secure is an important aspect of

good research data management. Backing up data helps to
ensure against accidental or malicious loss and damage to the
research data.
SECTION 1.1

1. How does this type of situation affect the integrity of the

study?

Answer: The study would become error. Documentation should

be completed as the research occurs not a later time.

2. What should you do if you forget to document important

information in the beginning of the study?

Answer: The study is not accurate, you should do it again

because the documentation is important for future reference.

3. Why is it important to accurately document research

information?

Answer: Proper documentation helps you organize your notes

and data. It also adds validity to you work, gives credit to other in
your field, and makes it easier to share research with others.
Section 2.

1.How do the research assistants action affect the integrity of the

study?

Answer: The information is used to affect recommendations for

parents on how to stimulate their child’s learning language
development.

2.What would you do if you are having trouble recruiting

participants who meet the study eligibility requirements?

Answer: Will I think we need to provide new eligibility

participants so that we can’t fail in the study.

3. Why is it important to adhere to the study eligibility

requirements when recruiting participants?

Answer: Enrolling participants with similar characteristics

ensures that the result will be due to what is under study and
not other factors. In this way, eligibility criteria helps researchers
achieve accurate and meaningful results.