1.

Material Science and Metallurgy

1.1 Types of materials and material selection

Materials Science centers on the relationships among the processing,

structure, properties and performance of six major classes of materials:

• Metals
▪ Metals are comparatively malleable, optically reflective, and
electrically conductive.
▪ Good conductors of electricity and heat.
▪ High thermal conductivity

• Ceramics
▪ A ceramic is a non-metallic material composed of inorganic
compounds, normally prepared by heating a powder or slurry.
▪ Many common ceramics are made up of oxides or nitride
compounds
▪ Low conductor of electricity but more resistant to high temperature
and other environment condition

• Polymers
▪ Plastics/polymers are made up of millions of repeated links to
make long molecules or networks that are tangled or crosslinked
together.
▪ Almost all polymers use carbon atoms in very long chains.
▪ Polymers may or may not have an orderly arrangement of atoms.
• Composites
▪ Composites are mixtures of two or more bonded materials.
▪ Composites are the mixture of multiple materials, which in
combination offer superior properties to the materials alone.
▪ Structural composites usually refer to the use of fibers which are
embedded in a plastic.
▪ These composites offer high strength with very little weight.

• Semiconductors
▪ Semiconductors are a special case of electronic material that
combines two differently electrically conductive materials, usually
ceramics.
▪ A semiconductor is also known as a P-N junction, where one
material allows ‘loose’ electrons to move through an ordered
structure, and the other allows holes (where an electron could be,
but is not) to move in the same way.

• Biomaterials
▪ A biomaterial is any substance that has been engineered to interact
with biological systems for a medical purpose - either a therapeutic
(treat, augment, repair or replace a tissue function of the body) or a
diagnostic one.
▪ The study of biomaterials is called biomaterials science or
biomaterials engineering.
▪ Biomaterials science encompasses elements of medicine, biology,
chemistry, tissue engineering and materials science.
 Material Selection
• Material selection is the foundation of all engineering applications
and design. This selection process can be defined by application
requirements.
• Material selection is a step in the process of designing any physical
object.
• In the context of product design, main goal of material selection is
to minimize cost while meeting product performance goals.
• Systematic selection of the best material for a given application
begins with properties and costs of candidate materials.
• Material selection is often benefited by the use of material index or
performance index relevant to the desired material properties
• For example, a thermal blanket must have poor thermal
conductivity in order to minimize heat transfer for a given
temperature difference.
• It is essential that a designer should have a thorough knowledge of
the properties of the materials and their behavior under working
conditions.

General considerations for selection of materials

• Mechanical strength
• Ductility
• Design
• Stability
• Availability
• Fabricability
• Corrosion resistance
• Cost
1.2 Imperfections in atomic arrangement
1. Slip
• It is shear deformation that moves atoms by many interatomic
distances in one crystal plane over atoms of another crystal plane.
• Intermediate layers with strongly distorted lattices are called slip
planes

2. Twinning
• Process by which a portion of crystal takes up an orientation which
makes that portion a mirror image of parent crystal.
• Produced suddenly and accompanied with sound.
3. Dislocation
• Line defects, or dislocations, is a linear disturbance of atomic
arrangement which can move very easily on the slip plane through
the crystal.
• They extend along some direction in an otherwise perfect crystal.
• Line defects can weaken or strengthen solids.
 1. Edge dislocation
▪ An extra plane of atoms within a crystal
structure accompanied by zones of
compression and tension
▪ Burger’s vector is always perpendicular to
dislocation line

2. Screw dislocation
▪ May originate from partial slipping of a
section of crystal plane
▪ Burger’s vector is parallel to dislocation line
4. Point defects
• Also called zero dimensional defect
• Vacancy: Missing atom within a metal , comes up as a result of
imperfect packing during crystallization or thermal vibration of
atoms at high temperature
• Interstitial: When atom is placed into crystal at a site that is
normally not a lattice point
• Schottky : Two ions of opposite sign leave or are missing from
the lattice.
• Frenkel: Ion dislodged from the lattice into an interstitial site
• Substitutional: When atom is removed from a regular lattice point
and replaced with a different atom, usually of a different size.
5. Surface defects
• Surface defects may arise at the boundary between two grains, or
small crystals, within a larger crystal.
1. External defect
▪ Defects or imperfections represented by a boundary
▪ External surface of material is an imperfection itself,
because the atomic bonds don’t extend beyond it
2. Internal defect
▪ Grain boundaries:--- Those imperfections which separate
crystals or grains of different orientation
▪ Tilt Boundary:---- Series of aligned dislocations which
tend to support dislocation movements
 ▪ Twin Boundaries: --- Special type of grain boundary
across which there is specific mirror lattice symmetry ie.
Atoms on one side of boundary are located in mirror-
image position of atoms on other side
▪ Stacking fault:---- Arise from stacking of one atomic
plane out of sequence on another while lattice on either
side of fault is perfect or are parallel to each other

1.3 Mechanical Properties and Testing

The following are the mechanical properties of materials.

1. Strength
2. Elasticity
3. Plasticity
4. Hardness
5. Toughness
6. Brittleness
7. Stiffness
8. Ductility
9. Malleability
10. Fatigue
11. Creep
1. Strength

• Strength is the mechanical property that enables a metal to resist

deformation load.
• The strength of a material is its capacity to withstand destruction under the
action of external loads.
• The stronger the materials the greater the load it can withstand.

2. Elasticity

• Elasticity is the ability of an object or material to resume its normal shape

after being stretched or compressed.
 • When a material has a load applied to it, the load causes the material to
deform.
• The elasticity of a material is its power of coming back to its original
position after deformation when the stress or load is released.
• Heat-treated springs, rubber etc are good examples of elastic materials.

3. Plasticity

• The plasticity of a material is its ability to undergo some permanent

deformation without rupture(brittle).
• Plastic deformation will take place only after the elastic range has
been exceeded.
• Materials such as clay, lead etc are plastic at room temperature, and steel
plastic when at bright red-heat.

4. Hardness

• The resistance of a material to force penetration or bending is hardness.

• The hardness is the ability of a material to resist scratching, abrasion,
cutting or penetration.
5. Toughness

• It is the property of a material which enables it to withstand shock or impact.

• Manganese steel, wrought iron, mild steel etc are examples of toughness
materials.

6. Brittleness

• The brittleness of a property of a material which enables it to withstand

permanent deformation.
• Cast iron, glass are examples of brittle materials.
• They will break rather than bend under shock or impact.
7. Stiffness

• It is a mechanical property.
• The stiffness is the resistance of a material to elastic deformation or
deflection.
• The stiffness of a structure is important in many engineering applications, so
the modulus of elasticity is often one of the primary properties when
selecting a material.

8. Ductility

• The ductility is a property of a material which enables it to be drawn out

into a thin wire.
• Mild steel, copper, aluminium are the good examples of a ductile material.

9. Malleability

• The malleability is a property of a material which permits it to be

hammered or rolled into sheets of other sizes and shapes.
• Aluminium, copper, tin, lead etc are examples of malleable metals.

10. Fatigue

• The fatigue is the long effect of repeated stress which causes the strain or
break of the material.
• It is the term ‘fatigue’ use to describe the condition of material under
repeatedly applied forces.
11. Creep

• The creep is a slow and progressive deformation of a material with time at

a constant force/load.
• Some metals are generally exhibiting creep at high temperature, whereas
plastic, rubber, and similar amorphous material are very temperature
sensitive to creep.

TESTING
1. Tensile/Tension testing

• Tensile testing, also known as tension testing is a fundamental materials

science and engineering test in which a sample is subjected to a
controlled tension until failure.

• From these measurements the following properties can also be

determined: Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio, yield strength, and strain-
hardening characteristics.

• The main difference between testing machines being how load is applied
on the materials.

2. Impact testing

• The impact test is a method for evaluating the toughness, impact

strength of engineering materials.
• This test is designed to determine how a specimen of a known
material will respond to a suddenly applied stress. The test ascertains
whether the material is tough or brittle.
• Engineers test the ability of a material to withstand impact to predict
its behavior under actual conditions.
• Many materials fail suddenly under impact, at flaws/cracks or
notches.
• The most common impact tests use a swinging pendulum to strike a
notched bar; heights before and after impact are used to compute the
energy required to fracture the bar.
• Charpy test--- Testpiece held horizontally between 2 vertical bars.
 --- Striking point is at middle of sample.
• Izod test---- Specimen stands erect, like a fence post.
----Striking point is at top of sample.

3. Hardness testing

These tests are done to determine the resistance to penetration under a localized
pressure or resistance to abrasion. The indentation or penetration test are as
follows:
1. Brinell
2. Vicker’s
3. Rockwell
1. Brinell hardness test
• Standard hardened steel ball is pressed into surface of specimen
by a gradually applied load that is maintained on specimen for
definite time
• Impression so obtained is measured by microscope and Brinell
Hardness number (B.H.N) is found out by equation,
(B.H.N)= Load/(Area of impression/indentation)

• Test is carried with a hardened steel or carbide ball of 10mm

diameter.
• A 3000kg load is used for testing ferrous alloys and alloys of
similar hardness.
• For brass and soft alloys, 500kg load is used.
• Time of loading is specified between 10 and 30 seconds
depending upon alloy being examined.

2. Vicker’s Hardness Test

• The Vickers test is often easier to use than other hardness tests
• Uses load upto approximately 120kg on polished surface
• The Vickers hardness test is a test performed to measure the
hardness of materials, specifically thin sections and small parts.
 • It is comprised of a diamond indenter and a light load to
produce an indentation on the subject under testing.
• The unit of hardness given by the test is known as the Vickers
Pyramid Number (HV) or Diamond Pyramid
Hardness (DPH).

3. Rockwell Hardness Test

• Mostly used method for hardness testing

• Rockwell testers use much smaller penetrators and loads than
does the Brinell tester.
• This test takes measurements of the permanent depth indentation
caused by a load or force on a particular indenter
• Rockwell hardness test is performed primarily through a test
force, more commonly known as a minor load or preload. This is
applied to a specific sample with the help of an indenter.
• The depth indentation is measured when load is increased from
minor load to major load and major load removed

4. Fatigue Testing

• Fatigue testing is a specialised form of mechanical testing that is performed

by applying cyclic loading to a structure.
• A fatigue test helps determine a material’s ability to withstand cyclic fatigue
loading conditions.
• A fatigue test is also used for the determination of the maximum load that a
sample can withstand for a specified number of cycles.
• There are several common types of fatigue testing as well as two common
forms: load controlled high cycle and strain controlled low cycle fatigue. A
high cycle test tends to be associated with loads in the elastic regime and low
cycle fatigue tests generally involve plastic deformations.
 1.3 Cold Working and Hot Working
Comparison Chart
Hot working
Hot working is carried out above the
recrystallization temperature but below
MP, so deformation of metal and
recovery takes place
simultaneously
During the process, residual stresses
are not developed in the metal
Because of higher deformation
the temperature used, the stress
required for deformation is less
Hot working refines metal grains,
resulting properties.
No hardening of metal takes place.
If the process is properly performed, it
does not affect ultimate tensile strength, yield and fatigue strength but reduces
hardness, corrosion and fatigue
resistance of metal
Cold working
Cold working is carried out below the
recrystallization temperature and as
such, there is not the appreciable
recovery of metal
During the process, residual stresses
are
developed in the metal
The stress required to cause
deformation is much higher
Cold working leads to distortion of
grains
Metal gets work hardened.
It improves ultimate tensile strength,
the corrosion resistance of the metal
 Hot working Cold working

It also improves some mechanical During the process, impact strength

properties like impact strength and and elongation are reduced
elongation

Due to oxidation and scaling, poor Cold worked parts carry better surface
surface finish is obtained finish.

Close dimensional tolerances cannot be Superior dimensional accuracy can be

maintained obtained

Hot working is most preferred where Cold working is preferred where work
heavy deformation is required hardening is required

Hot Working Processes

1. Hot rolling: Convert large section to desired shape

(a) Two-high rolling mill: Two rolls rotate at same

speed in opposite direction
(b) Three-high rolling mill: Upper and bottom rolls
rotate in same direction and middle roll
(c) Four-high rolling mill: Two Working rolls and
two backup rolls (db>dw)
2. Hot forging
3. Hot spinning
4. Hot extrusion
5. Hot drawing
6. Hot piercing

Cold working Processes

1. Cold rolling
2. Cold forging
(a) Sizing (b) Cold Heading---- For making bolts (c) Rotary swagging
3. Cold spinning
4. Cold extrusion
5. Cold drawing
6. Cold peening
7. Cold bending

1.4 Types of Steel

• Alloy of carbon and iron with maximum carbon content of
1.5%
B. Carbon Steel

Impurities in steel: Silicon, Sulphur, Manganese and Phosphorus

 C. Stainless Steel

D. Alloy Steel
Element Properties Application
Tungsten Raises critical temp of steel High speed cutting tools
Nickel Steels of 2-5% nickel improve tensile Pendulum clock,
strength, raises elastic limit, impart precision measuring
hardness, toughness and reduce rust instruments
formation.. Invar ( 36% nickel)
Chromium Increases strength, hardness and Axles, gears, motor car
corrosion resistance crankshaft
Vanadium Added in LCS and MCS to increase Crankshafts, high speed
yield and tensile properties tool steels
Manganese Strength and hardness improve and Mining, rock crushing
wear resisting and railway
Silicon Strength and hardness increase without Transformer, generator
lowering ductility in form of laminated
cores
Molybdenum Has extra tensile strength Air plane fuselage and
automobile parts
Cobalt Strength and hardness improve but too
much decreases impact resistance of
steel, increase residual magnetism

E. Free Cutting Steel/Free machining Steel

- Contain sulphur and phosphorus

- Used where rapid machining and high quality surface
finish after machining is needed
1.5 Phase Transformation and Heat treatment

Iron-Carbon Equilibrium diagram

 Important Terms
▪ Hypo eutectoid steel
▪ Hyper eutectoid steel
▪ Hypo eutectic cast iron
▪ Hypo eutectic cast iron
▪ Upper critical point
▪ Lower critical point
▪ Critical Temperature lines (A0,A1,A2,A3,Acm)
▪ Transformation Reactions
 Heat Treatment

Heating the metal to a set temperature (the heating stage), keeping it at that
temperature for a specific length of time (the soaking stage), and cooling it down to
room temperature with a method that depends on the type of metal and the desired
properties (the cooling stage).

8. Annealing
▪ Done to relieve stress, soften the metal, increase ductility,
and improve their grain structures.
▪ To anneal steels and other ferrous metals to produce the
highest level of ductility, you must heat the metal slowly to
 the appropriate temperature, soak it, and then allow it to
cool slowly by either burying it in some sort of insulating
material or by simply turning off the furnace and letting
both the furnace and the part cool slowly together.
▪ Full annealing:----- Heating steel 30-50 degree above
UCT for hypo-eutectiod steel and by same above LCT
for hyper-eutectoid steels. Held for sometime and slowly
furnace cooling.
▪ Process annealing:---- Heating steel to a temperature
below or close to lower critical temperature, , hold for
sometime and then cooled
▪ Spheroidising:---- Heat steel to temperature above
LCT(730-770 degree),hold for sometime and cooled
slowly to a temperature of 600 degrees
▪ Diffusion Annealing(Homogenization)--- Heat steel to
high temperature(1100-1200 degree), hold for long hours
and cooled to (800-850 degree) in furnace for 6-8 hours
and then finally cooled in air to room temperature
7. Normalising
▪ Purpose of normalizing is to remove any internal stresses from heat
treatment, machining, forging, forming, welding, or casting.
▪ Metal failure can result from uncontrolled stress, so normalizing steel
before any hardening can help ensure the success of projects.
▪ Heat steel 30-50 degree above UCT for hypo-eutectoid steels or Acm
line for hyper eutectoid steels, hold for sometime and cooled in air

8. Hardening
▪ The intent of hardening is not just to harden the steel, but also to make
it stronger.
▪ Heat metal 30-50 degree above UCT for hypo-eutectoid steels and by
same temperature for sometime and quenched in cooling medium
▪ Austempering/Isothermal quenching---Steel is heated above UCT
at about 875 degree,quenched in salt bath/lead bath maintained at
temperature of 250-525 degree
▪ Martempering/Interrupted quenching--- Heat steel above upper
critical point and then quenching in salt bath at suitable temperature
9. Tempering

▪ After you harden a metal, whether it’s by the case or flame, and introduce
internal stresses after the rapid cooling inherent in the process, steel is often
both harder than needed and too brittle.
▪ The answer may be to temper the steel to reduce that brittleness and remove
or relieve the internal stresses.
 ▪ During tempering,:

• Heating steel to a set temperature below its hardening temperature

• Hold the steel at that temperature for a specified period
• Cool the steel, typically in still air

10. Surface hardening/Case hardening

▪ Its desirable that a steel being used should have hardened surface to
resist wear and tear and soft and tough interior to absorb any shock
▪ Types: Carburising, Cyaniding etc.
 MCQS
Normalising of steel is done to

(A) Refine the grain structure

(B) Remove strains caused by cold working
(C) Remove dislocations caused in the internal structure due to hot working
(D) All of the above

Which of the following impurity in cast iron makes it hard and brittle?

(A) Silicon
(B) Sulphur
(C) Manganese
(D) Phosphorus

14. For a steel containing 0.8% carbon

(A) There is no critical point

(B) There is only one critical point
(C) There are two critical points
(D) There can be any number of critical points

15. Nickel in steel

(A) Improves wear resistance, cutting ability and toughness
(B) Refines grain size and produces less tendency to carburisation, improves
corrosion and heat resistant properties
(C) Improves cutting ability and reduces hardenability
(D) Gives ductility, toughness, tensile strength and anti-corrosion
properties

Which of the following statement is wrong?

(A) Steel with 0.8% carbon is wholly pearlite

(B) The amount of cementite increases with the increase in percentage of
carbon in iron
(C) A mechanical mixture of 87% cementite and 13% ferrite is called pearlite
 (D) The cementite is identified as round particles in the structure

The alloy, mainly used for corrosion resistance in stainless steels is

(A) Silicon
(B) Manganese
(C) Carbon
(D) Chromium

Answer: Option D

2. The correct sequence for descending order of machinability is

(A) Grey cast iron, low carbon steel, wrought iron
(B) Low carbon steel, grey cast iron, wrought iron
(C) Wrought iron, low carbon steel, grey cast iron
(D) Wrought iron, grey cast iron, low carbon steel