Chapter 1

Introduction
Syllabus:
Classification of metallic materials
Concept of alloying
Classification of cooling curves
Equilibrium diagram
Introduction to solid solution and types (brief)
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
1. Strength
• Ability of the material to resist deformation under the action of tensile,
compressive or share stress
• The strength of the component is usually based on the maximum load that
can be allowed before failure
• The most common measure of strength is yield strength

2. Hardness
• Ability of the material to offer resistance to penetration or indentation
• It is also the ability to resist wear, abrasion, scratch or cutting
• The common tests for hardness are Brinell hardness test, Rockwell hardness
test and Vicker’s hardness test.

3. Toughness
• It describes a material’s resistance to fracture under impact loading
• Often expressed in terms of amount of energy a material can absorb before
fracture
• Tough material absorb considerable amount of energy while brittle material
can absorb very little
• The materials with high yield strength and high ductility have high toughness
• The most common test for toughness is the Charpy Impact Test
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
4. Brittleness
• It is the property of material by virtue of which a material breaks easily
under the action of shock load without appreciable deformation

5. Ductility
• It is the measure of the amount of deformation, a material can withstand
before breaking
• It is the ability of material by virtue of which it can be drawn into wires
• It is subjected to large deformation under the tensile force

6. Malleability
• It is the ability of the material by which it can be rolled into sheets
• It is subjected to large deformation under the compressive force

7. Elasticity
• It is the property of the material to regain its original shape after removal of
load
• Perfectly elastic -----------> if it recovers original shape
• Partially elastic
• Modulus of Elasticity---------- Degree of elasticity
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
8. Plasticity
• The property of material by virtue of which it undergoes permeant
deformation
• Opposite to elasticity
9. Rigidity (Stiffness)
• Property of the material by virtue of which the material resists elastic or
plastic deformation under the applied load
10. Machinability
• It refers to the ease with which a material can be removed during various
machining operations

11. Hardenability
• It indicates the degree of hardness that a material can acquire through a
hardening process
• It is the capability of the material to get hardened by heat treatment
• To test hardenability of a ferrous alloy, a Jominy test is used
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
12. Fatigue
• It is the strength of the material when subjected to cyclic or rapidly
fluctuating load conditions
• The material subjected to fatigue falls at a stress much below the ultimate
stress
• Endurance Limit- the maximum stress to which the material can be subjected
without fatigue failure

13. Creep
• It is the progressive deformation of the material under a constant static load
maintained for a long period of time
Criteria for Selection of the Material
for given Application
• Availability
• Cost
• Material cost
• Cost of processing the material into finished good

• Mechanical Properties
• Service conditions
• Functional requirements

• Manufacturing Considerations
• Casting, Welding, Forging, Extrusion etc.
Strength and Toughness
 Crystal Structures
• Study of crystal structure is done by using X-ray and electron microscopy
• Deals with the atomic arrangement in solids

Space Lattice or Point Lattice

The crystal structures observed in solids are
described in terms of idealizes geometric
concept called a space lattice

Lattice Points
Unit Cell
• Every point in the space lattice has
The structure of a perfect crystal is a
identical surrounding with every other point.
regular pattern of atoms, distributed on a
These points in the space lattice with
space lattice, the atomic arrangement
identical surrounding are called as lattice
can be described completely by
points.
specifying atom positions in some
• Lattice points can be arranged in only 14
repeating unit of the space lattice, such a
different arrangements, called Bravais
repeating unit of the space lattice is
Lattices
called Unit Cell.
Image by X-ray Microscope
 Cube

Three equal lengths at right angles

a=b=c, α=β=γ=900

Simple Body Centred Face Centred

 Trigonal

Three axes at right angles, two equal

a=b≠c, α=β=γ=900

Simple Body Centred

 Orthorhombic
Three unequal axes at right angles
a≠b≠c, α=β=γ=900
Simple Body Centred Face Centred Base Centred
Trigonal Hexagonal Triclinic

Simple Simple Simple

Three equal axes, equally Three unequal axes,

inclined unequally inclined and none
a=b=c, α=β=γ≠900 at right angles
a≠b≠c, α≠β≠γ≠900
 Monoclinic

Three unequal axes, one pair not at right angles

a≠b≠c, α=γ=900≠β

Simple Base Centred

Classification of Engineering Materials

Engineering
Materials

Ceramic and
Metals and Alloys Organic Polymers
Glasses
Classification of Metallic Material
 Concept of Alloying
• Alloy- A substance that possesses metallic properties and is composed of two or
more elements of which at least one is metal, is called an alloy
• Base Metal- The metal present in the alloy in largest portion
• Alloying Elements- Other elements which are in small proportion

Why Alloying elements are added? Why the properties of an alloy are
different from base metal?
Added intentionally , to get desirable
properties which are not found in the base As the structure of the alloy is
metal changed due to addition of alloying
• Tensile strength, hardness and toughness element.
• Corrosive and oxidation resistance The type and extent of change of
• Machinability properties depend on whether the
• Elasticity alloying elements are insoluble in,
• Hardenability dissolved in or form a new base with base
• Creep strength metal
• Fatigue resistance Each constituent of an alloy is called
component
Pure Metal- One component
Alloy- Two component, three
component etc
 Types of Alloys (Based upon no of components)
1. Binary alloys- composed of two components
Example- Steel (Iron and Carbon)
2. Ternary alloys- composed of three components
3. Multicomponent alloys- more than three components
Example- Alloy Steel

Types of Alloys (Depending upon base metal)

1. Ferrous Alloys
2. Nonferrous alloys

The improvement in the properties of an alloy system depends upon the following factors
1. The way in which two or more metals are mixed with each other
2. The percentage of different alloying metals or elements
3. Temperature at which these are cooled
Solution
It is the homogeneous mixture consisting of one phase only
Types of Solution
1. Simple Eutectic Solution
-The two components of an alloy system are soluble in liquid state but
separate out in the solid state, each maintaining its own identity.
-e.g. Cadmium and Bismuth
2. Solid Solution
- The two components of an alloy system are soluble in each other both
in liquid and solid state
- e.g. Copper and Nickel
3. Combination type solution
- on solidifying, the two components of a binary alloy may show limited
solubility
4. Intermetallic Compounds
- These types of compounds may find place in between the solid solution
and chemical compound
- Elements combine to form inter-metallic compounds on solidification,
when their affinity is great
- They are hard and brittle
- used as a bearing material
Example- in Copper-Zinc system, when the solubility of copper in zinc is
exceeded, a zinc rich β- phase appears with Copper rich α- phase
 Solid Solution
• Mixtures of two or more kinds of atoms of metals occur in the solid state
• A solid solution is formed when two metals are completely soluble in liquid state and
also completely soluble in solid state
• Solute- Minor part of the solution
• Solvent- Major part of the solution
• Examples - Sterling Silver (92.5% Silver + 7.5% Copper), Brass (64% Copper + 36%
Zinc)
Solid
Solutions

Substitutional Interstitial
solid solution solid solution

Ordered Solid Disordered

Solution Solid Solution
 Substitutional Solid Solution
• The atoms of the solvent metals are replaced in the crystal lattice by atoms of the
solute metal
• Formation is possible, if the atomic size of the two metals are nearly equal
• Copper atoms substitute for nickel without disturbing the FCC structure of nickel

Substitutional
solid solution

Ordered Solid Disordered

Solution Solid Solution
ORDERED SUBSTITUTIONAL SOLID DIS-ORDERED SUBSTITUTIONAL
SOLUTION SOLID SOLUTION
• Substitution of solute atoms in • No definite order
solvent atoms is by definite order • Soft
• Hard
 Interstitial Solid Solution
• Atoms of solute occupy the interstitial sites of solvents
• Atomic size of solute is very much small as compared to atomic size of solvent atoms
• Soft, ductile, and malleable
• Examples- Iron with Carbon, born, oxygen
 Interstitial Solid Solution
Vs
Substitutional Solid Solution
Interstitial Solid Solution Substitutional Solid Solution
1. In this solid solution the solute 1. In this solid solution the solute
atom occupies position in between atom replaces the position of
the interstitial sites or vacant solvent atom.
places of solvent atoms.
2. The atomic size of solute is smaller 2. The atomic size of solute and
than solvent atom solvent atoms are almost equal.
3. It is not governed by Hume 3. It is governed by Hume Rothery
Rothery rules. rules.
4. It produces more strong and hard 4. It produces less strong and hard
alloys. alloys.
5. e.g. Steel 5. e.g. Au-Cu solution.
 Hume Rothery Rules for the formation
of Substitutional Solid Solutions
1. Crystal Structure Factor
The two elements should have the
same type of crystal structure
3. Chemical Affinity Factor
Solid solubility is favoured when the two
metals have lesser chemical affinity

2. Relative Size Factor 4. Relative Valence Factor

For extensive solid solubility the • Metals of lower Valance tends to dissolve more of
difference in atomic radii of two a metal of higher valance than vice versa
elements should be less than 15% • Aluminium- Nickel Alloy system
• Al dissolves in Nickel 5%
• Nickel dissolves in Al only 0.04%
Element Atomic Crystal Difference Solubility
Radius Structure between
Atomic Radii
Silver 144 pm FCC 31pm (>15%) 1.5%
Lead 175pm FCC 0.1%
Copper 128pm FCC 4pm (<15%) Completely
Nickel 124pm FCC Soluble
 Gibb’s Phase Rule
Statement: Under the equilibrium conditions, the following relations must be satisfied
𝑃+𝐹 =𝐶+2
Where,
P= No. of phases existing in a system
F = Degree of freedom i.e. the no. of variables such as temp. press. or concentration that can be changed
independently without changing the number of phases existing in the system
C = no. of elements in the system and
2 = represents any two variables out of temp. press. or concentration

Most of the common studies are done at constant pressure i.e. 1 atm and hence pressure is no more
variable . For such cases Gibb’s Phase Rule becomes
𝐹 =𝐶−𝑃+1
 Significance of Gibb’s Phase Rule
• It enables us to predict and check the processes that can occur in alloys during
heating or cooling

• Using this rule, it is possible to determine whether the solidification process

takes place at a constant temperature or within a certain temperature
interval

• It also indicates the number of phases that can exists simultaneously in a

system
 Solidification of Pure Metal

Small nuclei act as centres Small dendrites begin to Dendrites continue to

for crystal growth develop from the nuclei grow

As the dendrites grow,

Solidification is complete; little the spaces between them
evidence of the dendrite structure fill in
remains
 Cooling Curves
• Cooling curve is a graph that represents the change of phase of a system typically from
gas to solid or liquid to solid
• The variable Time is taken on X-axis and Temperature on Y-axis

Types of Cooling Curves

1. for pure metal
2. for binary solid solutions
alloys
3. For binary eutectic alloy
4. for off-eutectic binary alloys

a cooling curve used in castings

 Cooling Curve for Pure Metals
Application of Phase rule
In region AB
P + F = C +1
1+F=1+1
Therefore, F = 1 (Univarient system)
The meaning of, F = 1 is that the temperature
can be varied without changing the liquid
phase existing in the system.

In region BC;
P + F =C + 1
In region CD: 2 + F = 1 + 1 Therefore, F = 0 (Non-variant
P+F=C+1 system)
1+F=1+1 The meaning of F= 0 is that the temperature
Therefore, F=1 cannot be varied without changing the liquid
and solid phases existing in the system.
The meaning of F =1, so temperature can be Hence pure metals solidify at constant
changed without changing the solid phase temperature.
existing in the system.
 Cooling Curve for Binary Solid Solution Alloy
Application of Phase rule
In the region AB:
P+F=C+1
1+F=2+1
Therefore, F=2
It means that, in the region AB, both the
temperature and concentration can be varied
independently without changing the liquid phase.

In region BC:
P+F=C+1
2+F=2+1
Therefore, F=1
In region CD: It means that any one variable out of temperature
P+F=C+1 and concentration can be changed independently
1+F=2+1 without changing the solid and liquid phases
F=2 existing in the system.
From this it is clear that solid solution alloys
solidify over a range of temperature.
 Cooling Curve for Binary Eutectic Alloy
Application of Phase rule

In the region AB:

P+F=C+1
1+F=2+1
Therefore, F=2
Bivarient system.

In region CD:
P+F=C+1
2+F=2+1 In region BC:
F=1 P+F=C+1
Univariant system 3+F=2+1
Therefore, F=0
Invariant system
 Cooling Curve for Off-eutectic Binary Alloy
Application of Phase rule

In the region AB:

P+F=C+1
1+F=2+1
Therefore, F=2
Bivarient system.

In region BC:
P+F=C+1
2+F=2+1
Therefore, F=1
In region DE: Univariant system
P+F=C+1
2+F=2+1 In region CD:
F=1 P+F=C+1
Univariant system 3+F=2+1
F=0
Nonvariant system
 Equilibrium Diagram
• Indicates the phases existing in the system at any temperature
and composition
• Parameters X-axis (Weight percentage of solute), Y-axis
(Temperature)
• Used to find out the amounts of phases existing in a given alloy
with their compositions at any temperature
• From the amounts of phases at room temperature, in certain
cases, it is possible to estimate the approximate properties of
the alloy.
 Plotting of Equilibrium or Phase Diagram
(Demonstrated by using Cu-Ni System)
• Plotted by the method of thermal analysis using the data obtained by
cooling curves
• Cu-Ni have 100% solubility in the liquid and solid state

Stapes used to obtain Phase Diagram

• Prepare large number of alloys of varying compositions, say with variations of
10% Ni and mark them as below ; Material no. 1 and 11 are pure metals, and no.
2 to 10 and alloys.

% Cu 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
% Ni 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Material No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Stapes used to obtain Phase Diagram
• Note down the liquidus and solidus temperatures of these
materials.
(Since material 1 and 11 are pure metals, they solidify at constant
temperature)
• Transfer these temperatures to temperature v/s concentration
graph.
• Corresponding to material 1 and 11 (Pure Metals) only one point
is obtained
• Draw the smooth curves through the points L1 to L11 and S1 to S11
which represents liquidus and solidus
Cooling Curves for pure metal solid solution
alloys
Liquidus Temperatures

L11
L10 S11
L9
L8
L7 S10
L6 11
L5 S9
L4 S8 10
L3 S6 S7 9
L2 S5 8
S4 7
L1 S3 6
S2 5
S1
4
2 3

1 solidus Temperatures

Time
Phase Diagram or Equilibrium Diagram
 Lever Rule

Fulcrum
Lever in balance

• After plotting the phase diagram, it is necessary to find out the amount of various
phases at a particular temperature for a given composition
• Used to determine the composition of various phases in a phase diagram
 Steps to Determine the amount of phases in a
binary system
Liquidus

Liquid

Liquid + Solid solidus

Temperature 0C

Solid

0
100
Weight % B
 Steps to Determine the amount of phases in
a binary system
Liquidus

Liquid Draw a vertical line for the

composition

Liquid + Solid solidus

Temperature 0C

Solid

0
100
Weight % B
 Steps to Determine the amount of phases in
a binary system
Liquidus

Liquid Draw horizontal line at the

required temperature (T) on
P Q R both sides of the composition
T
till it touches the liquidus and
Liquid + Solid solidus lines
solidus
Temperature 0C

Intercepts P and Q are called

arms of lever

Line PQ is called a Tie line

Solid

0
100
Weight % B
 Steps to Determine the amount of phases in
a binary system
Liquidus Consider the composition Q which
contains
Liquid (S) Amount of Solid and
(L) Amount of Liquid
P Q R Let,
T
S+L=1
Liquid + Solid Therefore,
solidus
Temperature 0C

L=1-S

Now,
Q=S×R+L×P
= S × R + (1 – S) × P
=SR + P – SP
Therefore,
Q – P = S (R – P)
Solid

0 𝐐−𝐏
100 𝐒=
Weight % B 𝐑−𝐏
 Steps to Determine the amount of phases in a
binary system
Therefore,
Liquidus The amount of Solid phase,

Liquid 𝐀𝐫𝐦 𝐏𝐐
𝐒=
P Q R 𝐀𝐫𝐦 𝐏𝐑
T
And
Liquid + Solid solidus The amount of Liquid phase,
Temperature 0C

𝐋=𝟏−𝐒

𝐀𝐫𝐦 𝑷𝑸
𝐋=𝟏−
𝐀𝐫𝐦 𝑷𝑹

Solid 𝐀𝐫𝐦 𝐐𝐑
𝐋=
𝐀𝐫𝐦 𝑷𝑹
0
100
Weight % B
 Steps to Determine the amount of phases in a
binary system
𝐀𝐫𝐦 𝐐𝐑
𝐀𝐦𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐢𝐝
Liquidus = 𝐀𝐫𝐦 𝐏𝐑
𝐀𝐦𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐋𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐝 𝐀𝐫𝐦 𝐏𝐐
𝐀𝐫𝐦 𝐏𝐑
Liquid
P Q R 𝐀𝐦𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐢𝐝 𝐀𝐫𝐦 𝑷𝑸
T =
𝐀𝐦𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐋𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐝 𝐀𝐫𝐦 𝑸𝑹
Liquid + Solid solidus
Temperature 0C

𝐀𝐦𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐢𝐝 × 𝐀𝐫𝐦 𝐐𝐑

= 𝐀𝐦𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐋𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐝 × 𝐀𝐫𝐦 𝐏𝐐

Solid

0
100
Weight % B
The tie line PR acts as a lever arm and point Q acts as a Fulcrum point, hence it is
called as Lever Rule

𝐀𝐫𝐦 𝐏𝐐 𝐎𝐩𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐞 𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐀𝐫𝐦

𝐀𝐦𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐢𝐝 = =
𝐀𝐫𝐦 𝐏𝐑 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐀𝐫𝐦

𝐀𝐫𝐦 𝐐𝐑 𝐎𝐩𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐞 𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐀𝐫𝐦

𝐀𝐦𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐥𝐈𝐐𝐔𝐈𝐃 = =
𝐀𝐫𝐦 𝐏𝐑 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐀𝐫𝐦

Lever Arm
P Q R

Fulcrum Point
LIQUID SOLID
 Types of Phase Diagram
• Isomorphous System
• Eutectic System
• Partial Eutectic System
• Layer System
 Isomorphous System

Complete liquid and solid solubility

Exemples: Cu-Ni, Au-Ag, Au-Cu, Mo-W,

Mo-V, Mo-Ti, W-V, Au-Ni, and Bi-Sb
 Eutectic system
Liquid and two solid phases exist in equilibrium at the eutectic composition and the
eutectic temperature

the melting point of the eutectic alloy is lower

than that of the components

Examples: Pb-As, Bi-Cd, Th-Ti, and Au-Si

 Partial Eutectic System
These diagrams are obtained for two metals which have complete solubility in the liquid
state and partial solubility in the solid state.

Examples- Ag-Cu, Pb-Sn, Sn-Bi, Pb-Sb, Cd-Zn, and Al-Si

 Layer Type System
These diagrams are obtained for two metals which have complete insolubility in the
liquid as well as solid state.

Examples- Cu-Mo, Cu-W, Ag-W, Ag-Fe etc.