ENT-1253

Engineering
Properties
of
Matter

Part - II
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 -(02)- Types of Solid [ENT 1253 - Engineering Properties of Matter]
Types of Solid
Solids can be classified on the basis of the bonds that hold the atoms or molecules together.

❖ Crystalline solids

❖Amorphous Solids [addition solid type is Polymeric Solids]

(01). Crystalline solids

1. The solids in which the constituent particles of matter are
arranged and organized in a specific manner are called
Crystalline Solids.
2. These solids contain crystals in their structure and each
crystal has definite geometry.
3. single crystal consists of only one crystal and the
polycrystalline material consists of many crystals separated by
well-defined boundaries.
Examples: Quartz, Calcite, Sugar, Mica, Diamonds etc.

Applications of Crystalline Solids

• Diamond is widely used in making beautiful jewelry items and cutting tools.
• Quartz is extensively used in manufacturing of watches and clocks.
• Many crystalline solids are used as a raw material in many industries.

(02). Amorphous Solids

• The solids in which the constituent particles of matter are arranged in a random
manner are called amorphous solids.
Examples: Plastics, Glass, Rubber, Metallic Glass, Polymers, Gel etc.

Applications of Amorphous Solids

• The glass is widely used in packaging, domestic uses and construction industry.
• Rubber is mainly used in manufacturing of tires, footwear, ropes, camp cloth and as a raw material for
several industries.
• Use of polymer can be seen in manufacturing of kitchenware, pipes, medicines and as a raw ingredient
for many factories.
• Amorphous silicon is considered as the best photovoltaic material to convert sunlight into electricity.
• Optical memory devices
• Electro photographic application one of the most common, everyday used application is electro
photography or xerography
• X ray image sensors
• DVD (digital video/versatile disc)

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 Distinction between Crystalline and Amorphous Solids

Classification of Crystalline Solids

• Crystalline solids can be classified into
different categories depending upon the
type of constituent particles and the nature
of attractive forces operating between them.

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 [additional factors related to the above table]
Molecular Solids
• In these solids, the constituent particles which pack up together are molecules of the substance.
• Molecular solids are solids that are essentially collections of molecules held together by intermolecular
forces (IMFs).
• According to the type of the IMF, there are three types
1. Nonpolar: the attractive forces operating between the molecules are Vander Waal forces. E.g.: Dry Ice
2.Polar: the attractive forces operating between the molecules in solid state are dipole – dipole forces. E.g.:
HCl
3.Hydrogen: the interparticle forces are hydrogen bonds. E.g.: ice; solid, hydrogen fluoride (HF); solid
ammonia

Non-Polar Polar Hydrogen

Soft Soft Hard
Insulator of electricity Insulator of electricity Insulator of electricity
Very low melting point low melting point low melting point
IMF: Dispersion/London forces IMF: dipole-dipole interaction IMF: Hydrogen Bond

Ionic Solids
• the ionic crystal structure consists of alternating positively charged cations
and negatively charged anions.
• The number of ions that surround a particular ion of opposite charge it is
called co – ordination number of the ion. • Eg: NaCl
Characteristics of Ionic Solids

• They are poor conductors of electricity in solid state, however they become good conductors of electricity
in molten state or in dissolved state. • They are generally soluble in polar solvents like water.

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 Covalent Solids
• In these types of solids, the constituent particles are atoms of same or different elements connected to each
other by covalent bond network.
• These solids are also called network solids because the covalent bonds extend in three dimensions forming
a giant interlocking structure.
Eg: Diamond, silicon carbide, aluminum nitrite etc.
Metallic Solids
• In these types of solids, the constituent particles are metal atoms.
• The interparticle forces in these solids are metallic bonds.
• In the metallic crystals the metal atoms occupy the fixed positions, but
their valence electrons are mobile.
• The close packed assembly of metal kernels (part of metal atom without
valence electrons) remain immersed in the sea of mobile valence electrons.
• The attractive force between the kernels and mobile valence electrons is termed as metallic bond.
Characteristics of Metallic Solids
• They generally range from soft to very hard.
• Good conductors of heat and electricity.
• They possess bright luster.
• Have moderate heats of fusion.

(03). Polymeric Solids

• They consist of basic structural units called monomers, which are repeated many times in each molecule.
E.g.: Polyethylene

Types of Polymer
• Natural Polymer: Natural Rubber, Silk, Cellulose
• Synthetic Polymer: Polyethylene, Polypropylene, PVC

Characteristic of Polymers
• Polymers can be very resistant to chemicals
• Polymers can be both thermal and electrical insulators
• Generally, polymers are very light in weight with significant degrees of strength.
• Polymers are materials with a seemingly limitless range of characteristics and colors.
• Polymers can be used to make items that have no alternatives from other material.

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 Crystalline Materials
• In a crystalline material, the atoms are situated in a repeating or periodic array over large atomic distances.

E.g.: ❖All metals,

❖many ceramics: Silicon Nitride, Silicon Carbide

❖some polymers:

• Some of the properties of crystalline solids depend on the crystal structure of the material.
• Crystal Structure: the manner in which atoms, ions, or molecules are spatially arranged.

Crystal Lattice
• A three-dimensional array of points coinciding with atom positions.
Atomic hard-sphere model
▪ Atoms (or ions) are thought of as being solid spheres having well-defined diameters.
▪ Spheres representing nearest-neighbor atoms touch one another.
Unit Cell
• Unit cell (small repeat entities) is the basic structural unit or building block of the crystal structure.
• The “lattice parameter” is the length between two points on the corners of a unit cell.
• Lattice points are the positions of the crystal structure.

• Each lattice point has an identical environment. The positions of

the lattice points are defined by the lattice vectors.
• Lattice vectors connect two lattice points. (0,0,0)

Crystal Structures
• Simple Cubic
• Body Centered Cubic (BCC)
• Face Centered Cubic (FCC)
• The Hexagonal Close-Packed

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 The number of atoms per unit cell, N, can be computed using the following formula:

Coordination Number
• In a unit cell, an atom's coordination number is the number of atoms it is touching.
• E.g.: Coordination number of Simple Cubic- 6
• Atomic Radius(r) and Cube Edge Length (a): a=2r

Atomic Packing Factor (APF)

• The APF is the sum of the sphere volumes of all atoms within a unit cell (assuming the atomic hard-sphere
model) divided by the unit cell volume.

Atomic Packing Factor- Simple Cubic

The Face-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure

• The crystal structure found for many metals has a unit cell of cubic geometry, with
atoms located at each of the corners and the centers of all the cube faces.
• Some of the familiar metals having this crystal structure are copper, aluminum, silver,
and gold
• APF: 0.74 • Coordination Number: 12
The Body-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure
• Another common metallic crystal structure also has a cubic unit cell with atoms
located at all eight corners and a single atom at the cube center. This is called a
body-centered cubic (BCC) crystal structure.
• Chromium, iron, tungsten, and several other metals exhibit a BCC structure.
• APF: 0.68 • Coordination Number: 8

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 The Hexagonal Close-Packed Crystal Structure
• The top and bottom faces of the unit cell consist of
six atoms that form regular hexagons and surround a
single atom in the center.
• Another plane that provides three additional atoms to
the unit cell is situated between the top and bottom
planes.
• The atoms in this mid plane have as nearest
neighbors' atoms in both adjacent two planes.

Density Computations

Polymorphism
• Some metals, as well as nonmetals, may have more than one crystal structure, a phenomenon known as
polymorphism.
• When found in elemental solids, the condition is often termed allotropy.
• Polymorphs are crystalline materials that have the same chemical composition but different molecular
packing.
• The prevailing crystal structure depends on both the temperature and the external pressure.

E.g.: Graphite is the stable polymorph of C at ambient conditions, whereas diamond is formed at extremely
high pressures.
pure iron has a BCC crystal structure at room temperature, which changes
to FCC iron at 9120C.

Crystal Systems
• Crystal system is based on the unit cell geometry, that is, the shape of the
appropriate unit cell parallelepiped without regard to the atomic positions in
the cell.
• The unit cell geometry is completely defined in terms of six parameters:
the three edge lengths a, b, and c, and the three interaxial angles α, β, and γ.
Seven Crystal Systems
• Cubic • Tetragonal
• Hexagonal • Orthorhombic
• Rhombohedral • Monoclinic
• Triclinic

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 Bravais Lattice
• Bravais Lattice refers to the 14 different 3-dimensional configurations into which atoms can be arranged in
crystals.

(01). Cubic Systems

• In Bravais lattices with cubic systems, the following relationships can be observed.
a=b=c
𝛂 = 𝞫 = 𝝲 = 90o

(02). Orthorhombic Systems

The Bravais lattices with orthorhombic systems obey the following
equations:
a≠b≠c
𝛂 = 𝞫 = 𝝲 = 90o

Examples of Orthorhombic Systems:

•Rhombic Sulphur has a simple orthorhombic structure
•Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate (MgSO4.7H2O) is made up of a base center orthorhombic structure.
•Potassium Nitrate has a structure which is body-centered orthorhombic.
•An example of a substance with a face-centered orthorhombic structure is barium sulfate.

Tetragonal Systems
• In tetragonal Bravais lattices, the following relations are
observed:
a=b≠c
𝛂 = 𝞫 = 𝝲 = 90o
Examples of tetragonal Bravais lattices are – stannic oxide
(simple tetragonal) and titanium dioxide (body-centered tetragonal)
Monoclinic Systems
• Bravais lattices having monoclinic systems obey the following relations:
a≠b≠c
𝞫 = 𝝲 = 90o and 𝛂 ≠ 90o
The two possible types of monoclinic systems are primitive and base
centered monoclinic cells, as illustrated below.

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 Triclinic System
• There exists only one type of triclinic Bravais lattice, which is a
primitive cell. It obeys the following relationship.
a≠b≠c
𝛂 ≠ 𝞫 ≠ 𝝲 ≠ 90o
Example: potassium dichromate

Rhombohedral System
• Only the primitive unit cell for a rhombohedral system exists. Its cell
relation is given by:
a=b=c
𝛂 = 𝞫 = 𝝲 ≠ 90o
Example: Calcite and Sodium Nitrate

Hexagonal System
• The only type of hexagonal Bravais lattice is the simple hexagonal cell.
It has the following relations between cell sides and angles.
a=b≠c
𝛂 = 𝞫 = 90o
and 𝝲 = 120o
Example: Zinc oxide and beryllium oxide

Crystal Defects
An idealized solid does not exist; all contain large numbers of various
defects or imperfections.
A crystalline defect refers to a lattice irregularity having one or more of
its dimensions on the order of an atomic diameter.

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 (01). Point Defects
• When an atom is missing or an atom is in an irregular place in the lattice structure, the corresponding defects
are known as point defects.
• A point defect produces strain in a small volume of the crystal
surrounding the crystal.

❖ Vacancy

❖ Impurities

❖ Frankel Defect

❖ Schottky Defects

Vacancy
• The simplest of the point defects is a vacancy, or vacant lattice site, one
normally occupied but from which an atom is missing.
• At high temperatures when atoms are frequently and randomly change
their positions leaving behind empty lattice sites (Vacancies)
• Theoretically, at the absolute temperature (0 K) the crystals content no
defects. But, due to thermal excitation (such as high temperature) the
number of vacancies will be increased.
Impurities
• The impurity atoms can be dissolved in lattice structure at interstitial
positions or can substitute an atom of the parent material.
• Impurity point defects are found in solid solutions, of which there are
two types: substitutional and interstitial.
• For the substitutional type, solute or impurity atoms replace or
substitute for the host atoms
• For interstitial solid solutions, impurity atoms fill the voids or
interstices among the host atoms.
Substitutional and Interstitial Solid Solutions
• An example of a substitutional solid solution is found for copper and nickel.
• These two elements are completely soluble in one another at all proportions. the atomic radii for copper
and nickel are 0.128 and 0.125 nm, respectively; both have the FCC crystal structure.
• Carbon forms an interstitial solid solution when added to iron, the maximum concentration of carbon is
about 2%. The atomic radius of the carbon atom is much less than that of iron: 0.071 nm versus 0.124 nm.

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 Schottky Point Defect
• If a pair of cation and anion is missing from an ionic crystal without
changing the electrical neutrality of an ionic crystal, it is called as
Schottky Defect.

Frankel Defect
• If a cation is displaced from a regular site in an ionic crystal to an
interstitial site, then this particular point defect is called Frankel Defect
• The cation is generally smaller, and it is possible for them to get displaced
into the void place.
• Anions are normally do not get displaced since the void places are too
smaller for their size.
• The Frankel point defects do not affect the overall electrical neutrality of
the crystal.

(02). Line Defects

• Line defects, or dislocation is a linear or one-dimensional defect around which some of the atoms are
misaligned.
• Line defects can weaken or strengthen solids.
• There are two main types of line defects.

❖ Edge Dislocation

❖ Screw Dislocation

Edge Dislocation
• An extra portion of a plane of atoms, or halfplane, the edge of which
terminates within the crystal. This is termed an edge dislocation.
• It is a linear defect that centers on the line that is defined along the
end of the extra half-plane of atoms.
• For the edge dislocation as in the figure, the dislocation line is
perpendicular to the plane of the page

• If the extra plane of atoms presents above the slip plane it is called “Positive
Edge Dislocation “.

• If the extra plane of atoms presents below the slip plane it is called “Negative
Edge Dislocation”.

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 Screw Dislocation
• In this dislocation, the atoms are displaced in two separate planes
perpendicular to each other.
• It forms a spiral ramp around the dislocation.
• Speed of movement of a screw dislocation is lesser compared to edge
dislocation.
• Normally, the real dislocations in the crystals are the mixtures of edge and screw dislocation.

(03). Surface Defects

• Surface Defects (Interfacial defects) are boundaries that have two dimensions and normally separate regions
of the materials (polycrystalline materials) that have different crystal structures and/or crystallographic
orientations.
• These imperfections include

❖Grain Boundaries

❖Twin Boundaries

❖Tilt Boundaries

❖Stacking Faults

Grain Boundaries
• Boundary separating two small grains or crystals having
different crystallographic orientations in polycrystalline materials
is called Grain Boundary.
• Within the boundary region, which is probably just several atom
distances wide, there is some atomic mismatch in a transition from
the crystalline orientation of one grain to that of an adjacent one.
Grain
• Any of the crystallites (small crystals or grains) of varying, randomly distributed,
small sizes that compose a solid metal.
• Randomly oriented, the grains contact each other at surfaces by grain
boundaries.
• The structure and size of the grains determine important physical properties of the solid metal. (e.g:
Mechanical strength).
Tilt boundary
• When this orientation mismatch is slight, on the
order of a few degrees, then the term small- (or
low-) angle grain boundary is used.
• One simple small-angle grain boundary is formed
when edge dislocations are aligned in the manner
shown as the figure.
• This type is called a tilt boundary.

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 Twin Boundaries
• A twin boundary is a special type of grain boundary across which
there is a specific mirror lattice symmetry; that is, atoms on one side
of the boundary are located in mirror image positions to those of the
atoms on the other side

Stacking Faults
• Whenever the stacking of atomic planes is not in a proper sequence throughout
the crystal, the fault caused is known as stacking fault.
• For example, the stacking sequence in an ideal FCC crystal may be described
as A-BC-A-B-C- A-B-C-…
• But the stacking fault may change the sequence to A-B-C-A-B-A-B-A-B-C.
• This thin region is a surface imperfection and is called a stacking fault.

External Surfaces
• One of the most obvious boundaries is the external surface, along which the crystal structure terminates.
• Surface atoms are not bonded to the maximum number of nearest neighbors and are
therefore in a higher energy state than the atoms at interior positions.
• The bonds of these surface atoms that are not satisfied give rise to a surface energy,
• To reduce this energy, materials tend to minimize, if at all possible, the total surface area.

(03). Volumetric Defects

• Other defects exist in all solid materials that are much larger than those previously mentioned ones.
• These include pores, cracks, foreign inclusions, and other phases.
• They are normally introduced during processing and fabrication steps.

Importance of Defects
There are a lot of properties that are controlled or affected by defects, for example:
• Electric and thermal conductivity in metals (strongly reduced by point defects (Frankel Defects and
Schottky Defects).
• Electronic conductivity in semi-conductors (controlled by substitution defects).
• Diffusion (controlled by vacancies).
• Ionic conductivity (controlled by vacancies).
• Plastic deformation in crystalline materials (controlled by dislocation).
• Colors (affected by defects).
• Mechanical strength (strongly depended on defects).

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 ENT-1253
Engineering
Properties
Of
Matter

Part - III
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 (03)- Physical and Mechanical Properties of Solids

[ENT 1253 - Engineering Properties of Matter]

Importance of Engineering Properties of Material

• When developing a new product, material selection is an utmost important factor.
• Selecting a material for a product depends on the properties of that material
• Selection of best material will ensure the

❖Durability of the product

❖Safe operation without failure

❖Economical production

❖Light weight

❖Less environmental burden

Physical Properties vs. Mechanical Properties

• A material’s physical properties denote the physical state of materials that are exclusive of their chemical
or mechanical components like texture, density, melting point, conductivity, coefficient of expansion, etc.
• All such physical properties are measurable or observable. These properties are not constant (will change
when subjected to certain variables such as heat).
• Mechanical properties are how the materials perform when different forces are applied to them. That
includes things like strength, ductility, wear resistance, etc.
• The mechanical and physical properties of materials are determined by their chemical composition and
their internal structure, like grain size or crystal structure.
• The mechanical properties of materials are not constant; they continuously change when exposed to various
conditions, such as heat or loading rate

Material Selection for a steam Boiler

Application–used to supply steam for different systems
e.g. -steam turbine cycles, -Heating applications
Operating conditions
-High pressure and High temperature
Expected Material Properties
• Should have good heat conduction properties
• Should consider about Thermal expansion of the used materials
• High strength to withstand high pressure

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 Density (ρ)
• Density can be defined as mass per unit volume of a material.
• Metric Unit of the density is (kg/m3) and density is also expressed in g/cm3, this unit is mainly used for
solids
• For Liquid and gasses, the density can be measured in g/ml or g/l

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
Density =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Relative Density or Specific Gravity

• Relative density, or specific gravity, is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a given
reference material.
• Specific gravity usually means relative density with respect to water.
ρ substance
𝑆𝑔 =
ρ water

Apparent Density
• Apparent density(ρ0) is the dry mass per unit volume of substance under natural conditions.

Mechanical Properties of Solids

• Mechanical properties of the material are associated with the ability of the material to resist mechanical
forces and load.
• The mechanical properties of a material indicate how it responds under specific stresses, which helps to
determine its suitability for different applications.

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 Torsion is a variation of pure shear load.
Torsion load produces a rotational motion (twist) around the axis of symmetry.

Three principal ways to apply load on Solid

a) Tensile Load
b) Compressive Load
c) Pure Shear Load

Deformation
The changes in materials dimension to mechanical forces is called deformation.
Type of deformation under various loadings
• Elongation change in the length due to tensile load -Positive linear strain
• Contraction due to compression force - Negative linear strain

Engineering Stress
Engineering stress is defined as “the Force applied per unit area over the cross section before any load is
applied”

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 Engineering Strain
• Ratio between elongation or contraction to its
original length is known as strain
• Normally strain is expressed as a Percentage.
• In tension or compression strain measured in the
direction of the load applied is known as
longitudinal strain.
• Stress and strain are positive for tensile loads and negative for compressive loads

Tensile Testing
The tensile testing machine is designed to elongate the specimen at a
constant rate, and to continuously and simultaneously measure the
instantaneous applied load (with a load cell) and the resulting elongations
(using an extensometer).
A stress–strain test typically takes several minutes to perform and is
destructive (cannot use as a finish product)

Stress-Strain Behavior of materials

• The most common method for plotting a stress and strain curve is to subject a rod of the test piece to a
tensile test.

Stress-Strain Curve for Mild Steel

• Proportional limit (point A)
• Elastic limit (point B)
• Yield point (upper yield point C and lower yield point D)
• Ultimate stress point (point E)
• Breaking point (point F)

Elastic and Plastic Deformation

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 • Proportional limit is the highest stress at which stress is directly proportional to strain. It is obtained by
observing the deviation from the straight-line portion of the stress-strain curve.

• Elastic limit is the greatest stress the material can withstand without any measurable permanent strain
remaining on the complete release of load.

• Yield Point: Point where elastic region end is known as yield point. Normally yield
point occur at 0.2% strain

• Yield strength is the stress required to produce a small-specified amount of plastic

deformation. Yield Strength is measure of resistance to plastic deformation

• Ultimate Tensile Strength: Maximum Possible stress in tension

• Rupture Strength: Rapture strength is the strength of the material at rupture. This is also known as the
breaking strength

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 Tensile Strength
• The tensile strength [TS] (M Pa) is the stress at the maximum on the engineering stress–strain curve.

• This corresponds to the maximum stress that can be sustained by a structure in tension; if this stress is
applied and maintained, fracture will result.

Hooke’s Law
• Hooke’s law states that the strain of the material is proportional to the applied stress within the elastic limit
of that material.

σ=Eε
σ is the stress
E is the modulus of elasticity also known as Young’s modulus
ε is the strain

Poisson’s Ratio (ν)

• When a tensile stress is imposed on a metal specimen, an elastic elongation
and accompanying strain Pz result in the direction of the applied stress
(arbitrarily taken to be the z direction), as indicated in Figure.
• If the applied stress is uniaxial (only in the z direction) and the material is
isotropic, then Px = Py . A parameter termed Poisson’s ratio n is defined as
the ratio of the lateral and axial strains, or

For virtually all structural materials, Px and Pz will be of opposite sign; therefore, the negative sign is
included in the preceding expression to ensure that ν is positive.
Theoretically, Poisson’s ratio for isotropic materials should be 0.25. Furthermore, the maximum value for ν
(or the value for which there is no net volume change) is 0.50
For many metals and other alloys, values of Poisson’s ratio range between 0.25 and 0.35.

Shear Stress (τ)

• When an object is subjected to equal and opposite forces which will be acting tangentially across the body.
• It’s said to be under shear stress

F= load or force imposed parallel to the surfaces

A= Resistive Area

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 Shear Strain (𝛾)
• The shear strain 𝛾 is defined as the tangent of the strain angle ϴ, as indicated in the figure.
• When shear force is to a material rectangular shape of the body will be deformed as follows to a shape of
parallelogram.
• ϴ is the angular displacement.
• Usually θ is very small, tan θ is nearly equal to θ.
• Shearing strain = tan θ ≈ θ.

Shear Modulus/Modulus of Rigidity (G)

Shear Modulus is the ratio between shear stress to its corresponding Strain

Relationship among elastic parameters— modulus of elasticity, shear modulus, and Poisson’s ratio
• For isotropic materials, shear and elastic moduli are related to each other and to Poisson’s ratio according
to

Hydraulic Stress
• When an object is submerged in a fluid it will be subjected to stress due to the
pressure developed.
• Pressure is force acting per unit area.
• When it undergoes hydraulic stress volume will be decreased producing a strain
called volume strain.

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