SPE 163769

Identification and Evaluation of Brackish Groundwater Resources and

Alternate Water Sources for Hydraulic Fracturing Operations
Dan Mueller, P.E., Zephyr Environmental Corporation

Copyright 2013, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Americas E&P Health, Safety, Security and Environmental Conference held in Galveston, Texas, USA, 18–20 March 2013.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not been
reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its
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Abstract
An important aspect of the hydraulic fracturing process is identifying and securing sufficient water resources. With the ever
increasing demands for higher quality water resources for domestic and agricultural needs, alternative water sources
including brackish groundwater and water reuse options are being evaluated and used for hydraulic fracturing operations.
To access alternate water sources both the availability and suitability of the water resource must be addressed. Available
alternate water sources are first identified within a reasonable distance to the wells that will be hydraulically fractured. Once
identified, the alternate water source must be evaluated to determine if it is suitable (in terms of both quality and quantity) to
meet the hydraulic fracturing requirements. If all conditions are met, the alternate water resource will provide a viable
solution to meet the water needs of the hydraulic fracturing operation and at the same time minimize impacts to more sought-
after water resources.

Examples of utilizing available groundwater information from public domain sources to identify brackish groundwater
resources and to map the horizontal and vertical extent of these resources are presented. The classification of brackish
groundwater includes a wide range of water quality parameters and only some of the brackish groundwater falls within the
technical specifications needed the hydraulic fracturing operation.

Water reuse in the form of treated wastewater effluent can provide a suitable water resource for the hydraulic fracturing
process. Examples of the identification and evaluation of wastewater effluent sources are presented. From initial
identification of potential wastewater effluent resources through the evaluation of these identified resources to determine the
viability to use these resources for the hydraulic fracturing process is presented.

Sustainable use of water resources is important under all circumstances with heightened concern when drinking water and
irrigation quality water is limited from higher demand and/or draught conditions. The effective and appropriate identification
and evaluation of alternate water sources is critical to the successful hydraulic fracturing process. This paper presents field
implemented processes and procedures used to identify and evaluate brackish groundwater and treated wastewater effluent to
meet hydraulic fracturing water needs.
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Introduction
An important aspect of the hydraulic fracturing process is identifying and securing sufficient water resources. With the ever
increasing demands for higher quality water resources for domestic and agricultural needs, alternative water sources
including brackish groundwater and water reuse options are being evaluated and used for hydraulic fracturing operations.
This paper presents information sources and procedures used to identify potential alternate water sources for hydraulic
fracturing including sub-quality groundwater and treated wastewater effluent from municipal and industrial sources.
Brackish water does not have an exact definition but is generally identified as water with a total dissolved solids (TDS)
content greater than 1,000 parts per million (ppm) with a further designation of slightly saline for water between 1,000 ppm
and 3,000 ppm and moderately saline between 3,000 ppm and 10,000 ppm. The use of brackish groundwater for hydraulic
fracturing is feasible even at higher TDS concentrations. This paper focuses on the identification of brackish groundwater
resources and the technical issues association with the management of these resources.

Wastewater treated effluent from both municipal sources and industrial sources have varying constituents dependant on the
wastewater stream being treated but at levels in compliance with issued discharge permits. As with sub-quality groundwater,
the use of wastewater effluent for hydraulic fracturing is feasible and the identification and proper management of these
potential water sources are presented.

Identifying Brackish Water Resources

The availability of information regarding the presence of sub-quality groundwater (for purposes of this paper identified as
groundwater with TDS levels greater than 1,000 ppm) varies from State to State. Historical groundwater data has been
typically compiled for groundwater of a quality deemed usable for domestic consumption. The demarcation for groundwater
that meets the standard for domestic consumption is typically 1,000 ppm TDS although there are instances where
groundwater with slightly higher TDS levels could be suitable (potentially with some form of treatment) for domestic
sources. For agricultural and livestock purposes, groundwater with TDS levels of 2,000 ppm or slightly greater may be used.
Therefore, historical data is potentially more readily available for slightly saline groundwater than groundwater with higher
levels of TDS. However, the availability of this data will still vary between geographic areas.

One good source of groundwater data of various quality is the United States Geological Survey (USGS). Figure 1 is a map of
Louisiana with the elevation of the of groundwater resources with TDS concentrations of 3,000 ppm shown. This map is
based on an aggregation of data across the State and, as with any depiction of data, interpolation of information between
known data points is required in order to develop the groundwater surface isopleths. The characteristics of groundwater are
not homogeneous and constituent concentrations will vary in both the horizontal and vertical direction. However, even with
the fact that some level of estimation and assumptions are made in the development of a map such as shown in Figure 1, the
graphical depiction of data provides valuable information when exploring the potential presence of brackish groundwater
sources. A similar map is available for the elevation of groundwater with a TDS concentration of 10,000 ppm (again for
Louisiana). As of the writing of this paper, additional maps have been located for other States but not all (example, a similar
maps for Texas have not been identified).

When using historically generated maps such as the one shown in Figure 1, it is important to note that the depiction of the
elevation of groundwater resources based on a particular parameter (in this case with TDS concentrations of 3,000 TDS) the
information presented is an estimate (as previously stated with variability in both the horizontal and vertical directions) based
on data available at the time of map generation. As additional groundwater quality data is collected, a map with greater
definition in the areas of additional data could be developed.

As previously mentioned, not as much data pertaining to sub-quality groundwater (groundwater of quality deemed not
sufficient for domestic, agricultural, or livestock sources) is available. However, this data to some degree does exist and, in
some geographical areas, in significant quantities. Specifically in areas where there is a long history of oil and gas
exploration and development, significant data has been collected pertaining to brackish and saline groundwater resources.
This data may have been complied and made available and potentially graphically presented in maps such as shown in Figure
1. Using Texas as an example, information on brackish groundwater has been documented in reports available in the public
domain. In 2003, the Texas Water Development Board issued a report titled “Brackish Groundwater Manual for Texas
Regional Water Planning Groups” (Texas Water Development Board, LBG-Guyton Association, February 2003). This
report contains tables, figures and analysis of groundwater resources across the State. Figure 2 shows a depiction of
groundwater resources based on water quality as presented in a report developed by the Texas Water Development Board
(published in 2011).
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Computer capabilities in the form of Geographic Information System (GIS) provide the ability to produce maps such as that
shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2. As long as the groundwater quality information is correlated, at least to some degree, with a
geographic location; spatial analysis of this information can be performed and maps of isopleths depicting similar levels of
TDS concentrations can be developed. Utilizing GIS capabilities allow for not only the initial development of maps but also
the efficient revision of the spatial analysis and development and updating of maps based on newly acquired data.

Identifying Treated Effluent Water Resources

All wastewater treatment facilities (domestic and industrial) that discharge into the waters of the United States must have a
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit. A federally mandated program, EPA may authorize
States, Territories, or Tribes to implement all or parts of the program. Therefore, an NPDES permit (whether issued federally
or from an authorized State, Territory, or Tribe) exists for every point discharge and information from this permit is
accessible through the respective regulatory entity that issued the permit.

By coupling the data management and analysis capabilities of a GIS and information on NPDES permits, a search can be
performed for all NPDES permits within a designated radius from a location where water is needed (i.e. an oil or gas well)
and this information presented graphically. A NPDES permit will contain the geographic location of the permitted discharge
point as well as other information regarding the permit holder and permitted discharge parameters. Figure 3 shows the results
of such a search. Based on an assumed radius distance from a specific location (30 miles in the case shown in Figure 3), all
NPDES permitted discharges are shown.

All of the identified NPDES permitted discharges represent a potential source of water that could be used for hydraulic
fracturing operations. However, more information is needed to determine the viability of these sources. Once identified,
other pertinent information must be gleaned from the permit including the following.

 Permit holder – required for determining contact information for discussions with the permitted entity 
to determine if the treated effluent is available for alternate uses. 
 Permitted discharge parameters including flow and quality.  It is important to note that NPDES permits 
can also address storm water driven discharges so permitted flows may not be consistent over time and 
therefore of limited use for hydraulic fracturing operations. 
 
Additionally, there are “no discharge” NPDES permits.  No discharge permits address wastewater 
treatment facilities in which treated effluent is potentially held in ponds/lagoons and allowed to 
evaporate or the flow is used for alternate sources that do not include direct discharge to a water body 
(i.e. irrigation purposes). 
 
Once a potential wastewater effluent source is identified and it is determined that NPDES permit holder is willing to divert
some or all of the treated effluent flow for reuse purposes (in this case hydraulic fracturing operations), other facets of reuse
must be addressed including the potential effect downstream of the permitted discharge if some or all of the effluent flow is
periodically diverted.

As part of the NPDES permitting process, the effect of other downstream water users and other wastewater discharges on the
ecosystem of the receiving water body is evaluated. If a permitted effluent is periodically diverted, as would be the case if
some or all of an effluent is used for hydraulic fracturing, adverse affects could be realized on the receiving water body. The
term “minimum flow” or “environmental flow” is used to describe an established flow regime (flow quality and flow quality)
that must not vary significantly in order to maintain a stable ecosystem in the subject water body.

Therefore, the use of treated effluent for hydraulic fracturing operations (apart from the determination that the water quality
meets the chemical parameters established by the operation engineers) entails the following steps.

1. Identification of potential NPDES permit holders within a defined radius. 
2. Evaluation of NPDES permit conditions resulting in a screened list of potential treated effluent sources 
that meet flow and quality parameters. 
3. Contacting screened list of permit holders to determine the willingness of permit holder to offer treated 
effluent for reuse. 
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4. Contacting regulatory authority (issuer of the NPDES permit) to determine permit conditions specific to 
potential diversion of effluent flow and if evaluations or studies will be required before a variation of 
permit conditions can be granted. 
 
As can be deduced from the above list, sufficient lead time must be allocated to obtain approval for use of treated wastewater
effluent. It is prudent to assume that a quick decision cannot be made regarding the reuse of treated wastewater effluent and
regulatory hurdles must be cleared in addition to NPDES permit holder approval before effluent can be diverted for reuse
options.

Management of Alternate Water Sources

The appropriate management of alternate water sources includes issues associated with transport and storage of the water.
Whether transporting and storing brackish water or wastewater effluent, some of the issues that must be addressed are similar
(i.e. concern of surface spills) while other are unique (i.e. odor issues associated with wastewater effluent).

Depending on the level of TDS in the brackish water sources accessed, surface spills must be handled similarly to a spill of
contaminated material. It is important to understand that the term “brackish” defines a fluid with significantly varied levels
of TDS. Prior to implementing a water management operation utilizing brackish water, appropriate regulatory agencies
should be contacted to determine the regulatory requirements (and potential regulatory determination) of the water based on
the specific water quality parameters. The design and implementation of a water transport system (i.e. piping, trucking, etc)
must address the potential for a surface spill, the quick identification when a spill occurs, and the implementation of
appropriate measures to address the spill.

Similarly, the transport of treated effluent must be appropriately performed and all spills must be appropriately handled. An
additional issue to be addressed is ownership of the treated effluent once diverted from the treatment facility. The
identification of the responsible party will be paramount in the event of a spill or inappropriate handling of a spill and
potential initiation of regulatory and legal actions.

In addition to transportation concerns, degradation of water quality and potential affect on the usefulness of the effluent water
for fracturing operations and nuisance concerns related to odor must be addressed. Treatment processes, both chemical and
biological, can continue to proceed even after the effluent has exited the treatment facility. Therefore, if the effluent is stored
prior to use (typically the case at least to a degree as part of the fracturing operation) then levels of constituents in the effluent
may change. With this change in the chemical makeup, the use of the water for hydraulic fracturing may be impacted.

Of particular note is biological activity in the effluent flow stream. Many treatment facilities (particularly facilities treating
domestic sewage) utilize biological processes to achieve treatment. This biological activity will continue even after the flow
exits the facility and, depending on the length of time the effluent is stored and the dissolved oxygen level in the water, the
continuing biological activity may consume all of the oxygen in the effluent (rendering the water anaerobic). Odor issues
will be realized when the effluent becomes anaerobic and measures that include aeration and/or chemical addition will be
required to address this condition - resulting in increased material management efforts and costs.

Summary
Sustainable use of water resources is important under all circumstances with heightened concern when drinking water and
irrigation quality water is limited from higher demand and/or draught conditions. The effective and appropriate identification
and evaluation of alternate water sources is critical to the successful hydraulic fracturing process. Viable alternate water
sources include brackish groundwater and treated wastewater effluent. Subsequent to the identification of alternate water
sources, appropriate management processes must be implemented and potential levels of effort and associated costs estimated
to determine the financial viability of use of these alternate water sources.
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