Extraction and Preparation of Raw Materials

The main raw materials (limestone, clay chalk or basalt) are quarried from natural
rocks. They are crushed and transferred to pre-blending storage where other
substances (such as sand, iron ore, bauxite, shale, slag, fly ash) are added to get the
desired chemical composition.

Homogenization

The raw materials are ground in the raw mill where the particle size is reduced on a
90 um sieve and then transferred to a homogenization silo to ensure the production
of uniform and good quality clinker.

Pre-heating

The homogenous mixture of raw materials is heated and transformed into oxides
(that are ready for the burning phase in the kiln) in pre-heater cyclones fitted with a
pre-calciner fired with petroleum, natural gas or coal.

Kiln phase

Since clinker is a complex mixture of ingredients, it requires a multi-staged heat

treatment, which is done in the kiln. The main part of the manufacturing process of
clinker takes place in the kiln. The stages in the kiln phase are as follows:

 Evaporation of free water: A pressure above atmospheric is required to

vaporize the water from the slurry mixture of raw materials. Water becomes
superheated and the evaporation gradually stops when the temperature rises
above 120°C.

 Clay decomposition: “Clay” minerals account for most of the alkalis in the
raw materials, the most common of which is kaolinite, Al2Si2O5(OH)4. The
detached alkalis react with the acid gases present in the kiln at high
 temperature. The effective reactions here are:
Si2Al2O5(OH)2→ 2 SiO2 + Al2O3 + 2 H2O (vapor) KAlSi3O8 (orthoclase) +
0.5 SO2 + 0.25 O2 → 3 SiO2 + 0.5 Al2O3 + 0.5 K2SO4

 Dolomite decomposition: The magnesia in the raw-mix exists mainly as

dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2, but also as silicate or in carbonate form. Dolomite
reacts as follows:
CaMg(CO3)2>→ CaCO3 + MgO + CO2
Again, non-carbonate magnesium compounds (for example, phlogopite)
react thus:
KMg3AlSi3O10(OH)2 + 0.5 SO2 + 0.25 O2 → 0.5 K2SO4 + 3 MgO + 0.5
Al2O3 + 3 SiO2 + H2O (vapor)

 Low-temperature calcite decomposition Calcium carbonate, present in the

raw-mix as calcite, produces carbon dioxide, the amount of which exceeds
half the mass of the finished clinker. This requires a huge heat input. The
efficiency of this reaction is one of the factors that determine the output and
heat consumption in the kiln. Pure calcite in the kiln decomposes at around
650°C:
2 CaCO3 + SiO2 → Ca2SiO4 + 2 CO2
Reactive clay decomposition products and small amounts of alkali
sulphate/chloride-melt draw the products together by surface tension and act
as an ion transfer medium. Here, CO2 is produced but no free lime (CaO) is
formed. In the silicate phases, magnesium reacts with silica to produce
forsterite (which goes into solid solution in belite):
2 MgO + SiO2 → Mg2SiO4
Phosphorus (as apatite in raw-mix) reacts with a little free silica and
produces whitlockite (which also goes into solid solution in belite):
 Ca5(PO4)3OH + 0.25 SiO2 → 1.5 Ca3(PO4)2 + 0.25 Ca2SiO4 + 0.5 H2O
(vapour)
This stage ends when all the silica in the kiln is used up.

 Alumina and iron oxide react: Calcium carbonate continues to react with
other oxides and no free lime is yet formed. Though tricalcium aluminate is
stable here, poorly crystallized mayenite (Ca12Al14O33) seems to be formed.
The reactions at this stage are:
12 CaCO3 + 7 Al2O3 → Ca12Al14O33 + 12 CO2
4 CaCO3 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 → Ca4Al2Fe2O10 + 4 CO2
4 CaCO3 + Al2O3 + Mn2O3 → Ca4Al2Mn2O10 + 4 CO2

 Decomposition of remaining calcite: A little amount of calcite remains at

this stage and forms free lime for the first time:
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2

 Sintering: Sintering is the process of compacting and forming a solid mass

of material by heat or pressure to the point of liquefaction without actually
melting it. When the temperature inside the kiln reaches about 1300°C (the
eutectic melting point of aluminate, ferrite and silicate), clinker flux is
produced. The rate of melting varies, and when the liquid is formed, alite,
which becomes stable at above 1250°C, begins to form. The principal
reaction of this stage is as follows:
Ca2SiO4 + CaO → Ca3SiO5
The liquid formed both acts as a solvent of ion exchange between the solid
phases and draws the reactant particles together by surface tension. The
powdery or granular mixture quickly solidifies into spherical nodules of
clinker.
Cooling and storing

The mixture inside the slightly inclined kiln is rapidly cooled from 2000°C to
100°C-200°C. Thus, the final product, clinker, is produced, and then stored, ready
for the production of cement

Cement chemistry notation

Cement chemists use a form of notation which, at first sight - and maybe second or
third sight - may seem a little odd.

Oxides are referred to by their first letter: 'C' represents CaO; 'M' is MgO and so
on, for all the oxides likely to be encountered in cementitious systems, as shown
below.
"Normal chemists" who are unfamiliar with this notation may find it strange to use
"C" to represent calcium oxide, rather than carbon, but there is a point to all this - it
shortens what are otherwise very long names, for example:

Alite: Ca3SiO5 in terms of its oxides is 3CaO.SiO2. The CaO term is shortened to C

and the SiO2 to S. The compound thus becomes C3S.

Belite: Similarly, Ca2SiO4 is 2CaO.SiO2, which is shortened to C2S.

Tricalcium aluminate: Ca3Al2O6 is 3CaO.Al2O3. The Al2O3 term is shortened to A

and the compound becomes C3A.

Tetracalcium aluminoferrite: 2(Ca2AlFeO5) is 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3. Fe2O3 is

shortened to F and the compound becomes C4AF.

(With long names like this last one, the need for a shorthand description is all-too
clear.)

In other words, for each of the clinker main minerals, we now have at least three
possible descriptions, as below, as well as the full chemical formulae for the pure
compounds:

 Alite or tricalcium silicate or C3S

 Belite, or dicalcium silicate or C2S

 Tricalcium aluminate (or the 'aluminate phase') or C3ACalcium alumino-

ferrite (or the ‘ferrite’ phase) or tetracalcium aluminoferrite or C4AF
Manufacturing - the cement kiln
Most Portland cement is made in a rotary kiln. Basically, this is a long cylinder rotating about its axis
once every minute or two. The axis is inclined at a slight angle, the end with the burner being lower.

The rotation causes the raw meal to gradually pass along from where it enters at the cool end, to the hot
end where it eventually drops out and cools. They were introduced in the 1890s and became widespread
in the early part of the 20th century and were a great improvement on the earlier shaft kilns, giving
continuous production and a more uniform product in larger quantities.

For information on reactions in the kiln see the clinker pages.

Basic principle of a wet-process kiln.

Wet process kilns

The original rotary cement kilns were called 'wet process' kilns. In their basic form they were relatively
simple compared with modern developments. The raw meal was supplied at ambient temperature in the
form of a slurry.

A wet process kiln may be up to 200m long and 6m in diameter. It has to be long because a lot of water
has to be evaporated and the process of heat transfer is not very efficient.

The slurry may contain about 40% water. This takes a lot of energy to evaporate and various
developments of the wet process were aimed at reducing the water content of the raw meal. An example
of this is the 'filter press' (imagine a musical accordion 10-20 metres long and several metres across) -
such adaptions were described as 'semi-wet' processes.

The wet process has survived for over a century because many raw materials are suited to blending as a
slurry. Also, for many years, it was technically difficult to get dry powders to blend adequately.

Quite a few wet process kilns are still in operation, usually now with higher-tech bits bolted on. However,
new cement kilns are of the 'dry process' type.

Dry process kilns

In a modern works, the blended raw material enters the kiln via the pre-heater tower. Here, hot gases from
the kiln, and probably the cooled clinker at the far end of the kiln, are used to heat the raw meal. As a
result, the raw meal is already hot before it enters the kiln.

The dry process is much more thermally efficient than the wet process.

Firstly, and most obviously, this is because the meal is a dry powder and there is little or no water that has
to be evaporated.

Secondly, and less obviously, the process of transferring heat is much more efficient in a dry process kiln.
An integral part of the process is a heat exchanger called a 'suspension preheater'. This is a tower with a
series of cyclones in which fast-moving hot gases keep the meal powder suspended in air. All the time,
the meal gets hotter and the gas gets cooler until the meal is at almost the same temperature as the gas.

The basic dry process system consists of the kiln and a suspension preheater. The raw materials,
limestone and shale for example, are ground finely and blended to produce the raw meal. The raw meal is
fed in at the top of the preheater tower and passes through the series of cyclones in the tower. Hot gas
from the kiln and, often, hot air from the clinker cooler are blown through the cyclones. Heat is
transferred efficiently from the hot gases to the raw meal.

The heating process is efficient because the meal particles have a very high surface area in relation to
their size and because of the large difference in temperature between the hot gas and the cooler meal.
Typically, 30%-40% of the meal is decarbonated before entering the kiln.

A development of this process is the 'precalciner' kiln. Most new cement plant is of this type. The
principle is similar to that of the dry process preheater system but with the major addition of another
burner, or precalciner. With the additional heat, about 85%-95% of the meal is decarbonated before it
enters the kiln
 Bas
ic principle of a precalciner cement kiln.

Since meal enters the kiln at about 900 C, (compared with about 20 C in the wet process), the kiln can be
shorter and of smaller diameter for the same output. This reduces the capital costs of a new cement plant.
A dry process kiln might be only 70m long and 6m wide but produce a similar quantity of clinker (usually
measured in tonnes per day) as a wet process kiln of the same diameter but 200m in length. For the same
output, a dry process kiln without a precalciner would be shorter than a wet process kiln but longer than a
dry process kiln with a precalciner.
 Bas
ic principles of a precalciner cement kiln. See text.

In the diagram above of a precalciner kiln, raw meal passes down the preheater tower while hot gases rise
up, heating the raw meal. At 'A,' the raw meal largely decarbonates; at 'B,' the temperature is 1000 C -
1200 C and intermediate compounds are forming and at 'C,' the burning zone, clinker nodules and the
final clinker minerals form. A preheater tower is likely to have 4-6 stages, not the three shown here. Many
designs are more complex but this diagram illustrates the principle. See the 'Clinker' pages for more
information on reactions in the kiln.

The kiln is made of a steel casing lined with refractory bricks. There are many different types of
refractory brick and they have to withstand not only the high temperatures in the kiln but reactions with
the meal and gases in the kiln, abrasion and mechanical stresses induced by deformation of the kiln shell
as it rotates.

Bricks in the burning zone are in a more aggressive environment compared with those at the cooler end of
the kiln (the 'back end'), so different parts of the kiln are lined with different types of brick.

Periodically, the brick lining, or part of it, has to be replaced. Refractory life is reduced by severe changes
in temperature, such as occur if the kiln has to be stopped. As the cost of refractories is a major expense in
operating a cement plant, kiln stoppages are avoided as far as possible.
As the meal passes through the burning zone, it reaches clinkering temperatures of about 1400 C - 1500
C. Nodules form as the burning zone is approached. When the clinker has passed the burning zone, it
starts to cool, slowly at first, then much more quickly as it passes over the 'nose ring' at the end of the kiln
and drops out into the cooler.

The clinker cooler

There are various types of cooler - we will consider only one, the 'grate cooler'.

Grate cooler: the hot clinker falls out of the kiln and moves along the cooler, towards the foreground of
the image.

The purpose of a cooler is, obviously, to cool the clinker. This is important for a several reasons:

 From an engineering viewpoint, cooling is necessary to prevent damage to clinker handling

equipment such as conveyors.
  From both a process and chemical viewpoint, it is beneficial to minimise clinker temperature as it
enters the cement mill. The milling process generates heat and excessive mill temperatures are
undesirable. It is clearly helpful, therefore, if the clinker is cool as it enters the mill.

 From an environmental and a cost viewpoint, the cooler reduces energy consumption by
extracting heat from the clinker, enabling it to be used to heat the raw materials.

 From a cement performance viewpoint, faster cooling of the clinker enhances silicate reactivity.

The cooled clinker is then conveyed either to the clinker store or directly to the clinker mill. The clinker
store is usually capable of holding several weeks' supply of clinker, so that deliveries to customers can be
maintained when the kiln is not operating.

cement mill

Cement clinker is usually ground using a ball mill. This is essentially a large rotating drum containing
grinding media - normally steel balls. As the drum rotates, the motion of the balls crushes the clinker. The
drum rotates approximately once every couple of seconds.

The drum is generally divided into two or three chambers, with different size grinding media. As the
clinker particles are ground down, smaller media are more efficient at reducing the particle size still
further. 

Grinding systems are either 'open circuit' or 'closed circuit.' In an open circuit system, the feed rate of
incoming clinker is adjusted to achieve the desired fineness of the product. In a closed circuit system,
coarse particles are separated from the finer product and returned for further grinding.

Gypsum is interground with the clinker in order to control the setting properties of the cement. Clinker
grinding uses a lot of energy and the cement becomes hot - this can result in the gypsum becoming
dehydrated, with potentially undesirable results - see the link at the bottom of this page for more
information.
 Insi
de a (stationary!) cement mill. The part-ground clinker and steel grinding media are clearly visible.
(Picture courtesy Castle Cement)
Composition and preparation of Clinker

Clinker is a nodular material produced in the kilning stage during the production of
cement and is used as the binder in many cement products. The lumps or nodules
of clinker are usually of diameter 3-25 mm and dark grey in color.

Clinker consists of various calcium silicates including alite and belite. Tricalcium

aluminate and calcium aluminoferrite are other common components

Portland cement clinker is made by heating a homogeneous mixture of raw

materials in a rotary kiln at high temperature . The products of the chemical
reaction aggregate together at their sintering temperature, about 1,450 °C
(2,640 °F). Aluminium oxide and iron oxide are present only as a flux to reduce the
sintering temperature and contribute little to the cement strength. For special
cements, such as low heat (LH) and sulfate resistant (SR) types, it is necessary to
limit the amount of tricalcium aluminate formed. The major raw material for the
clinker-making is usually limestone mixed with a second material containing clay
as a source of alumino-silicate. Normally, an impure limestone which contains clay
or silicon dioxide (SiO2) is used. The calcium carbonate (CaCO3) content of these
limestones can be as low as 80%. Second raw materials (materials in
the rawmix other than limestone) depend on the purity of the limestone. Some of
the second raw materials used are: clay, shale, sand, iron ore, bauxite, fly
ash and slag.
Composition of Clinker

The composition of clinker is examined by two separate approaches:

 mineralogical analysis, using petrographic microscopy and/or x-ray

diffraction analysis

 chemical analysis, most accurately by x-ray fluorescence spectrometry

Portland cement clinker contains four principal minerals:

 Alite: approximately tricalcium silicate (typically about 65% of the total)

 Belite: approximately dicalcium silicate (typically about 15% of the total)

 Aluminate: very approximately tricalcium aluminate (typically about 7%

of the total)

 Ferrite: very approximately tetracalcium aluminoferrite (typically about

8% of the total) Other substances may be present in small amounts:

 Salt phases - various combinations of sodium, potassium and calcium

cations with sulfate and chloride anions, such as:

 Arcanite - K2SO4

 Calcium Langbeinite - K2Ca2(SO4)3

 Aphthitalite - K3Na(SO4)2

 Sylvite - KCl

 Low-temperature phases - various intermediate chemical species that have

escaped further thermal processing, such as:

 Spurrite - Ca5(SiO4)2(CO3)
  Ternesite - Ca5(SiO4)2(SO4)

 Ellestadite - Ca10(SiO4)3(SO4)3(OH)2

 Ye'elimite - Ca4(AlO2)6(SO4)

The chemical analysis of clinker is usually given in oxide form, as follows (in
oxide weight %):

SiO Al2O3 Fe2O3 Ca Mg K2O Na2O SO3 LO IR Tota

2 O O I l

21.5 5.2 2.8 66.6 1.0 0.6 0.2 1.0 1.5 0. 98.9
5

Free lime= 1.0% CaO

The balance is made by addition of alkali sulfates and minor impurities, such as
small amounts of oxides of titanium, manganese, phosphorus, and chromium.
The amounts of different components vary depending on the desired properties of
the produced clinker.

Types of Clinker
The most common type of clinker is produced for Portland cement and its blends.
The types of clinker vary depending on the type of cement for which the clinker is
produced. Aside from the Portland cement blends, some special types of cement
clinker are listed below:
1. Sulfate Resistant Clinker
2. Low Heat Clinker
3. White Clinker
4. Low-alkali Clinker
5. Belite Calciumsulfoaluminate Ternesite (BCT)
Sulfate Resistant Clinker
It contains 76% alite, 5% belite, 2% tricalcium aluminate, 16 % tetracalcium
aluminoferrite, and 1% free calcium oxide. Its production has decreased in recent
years because sulfate resistance can easily be obtained by using granulated blast
furnace slag in cement production.
Low Heat Clinker
It contains 29% alite, 54% belite, 2% tricalcium aluminate and 15 % tetracalcium
aluminoferrite, with very little free lime. It is no longer produced because cement
produced from ordinary clinker and ground granulated blast furnace slag has
excellent low heat properties.
White Clinker
It contains 76% alite, 15% belite, 7% tricalcium aluminate, no tetracalcium
aluminoferrite, and 2% free lime, but the composition may vary widely. White
clinker produces white cement which is used for aesthetic purposes in construction.
The majority of white cement goes into factory-made pre-cast concrete
applications.
Low-alkali Clinker
Reduction of alkali content in clinker is done by either replacing the raw-mix
alumina source with another component (thus obtaining a more expensive material
from a more distant source), or installing an "alkali bleed", which involves
removing some of the kiln system's high temperature gases (which contain the
alkalis as fume), resulting in some heat wastage.
Belite Calciumsulfoaluminate Ternesite (BCT)
This concept is used in producing a type of clinker with up to 30% less carbon
dioxide emission. Energy efficiency improves and the electricity costs for the
manufacturing process are about 15% lower as well.

Use of Clinker: Conversion to Cement

Clinker, combined with additives and ground into a fine powder, is used as a
binder in cement products. Different substances are added to achieve specific
properties in the produced cement. Gypsum added to and ground with clinker
regulates the setting time and gives the most important property of cement,
compressive strength. It also prevents agglomeration and coating of the powder at
the surface of balls and mill wall. Some organic substances, such as
Triethanolamine (used at 0.1 wt.%), are added as grinding aids to avoid powder
agglomeration. Other additives sometimes used are ethylene glycol, oleic acid, and
dodecyl-benzene sulphonate. The most notable type of cement produced is
Portland cement, but certain active ingredients of chemical admixtures may be
added to clinker to produce other types of cement, such as:
 ground granulated blast furnace slag cement
 pozzolana cement
 silica fume cement
Clinker is primarily used to produce cement. Since it can be stored in dry condition
for several months without noticeable deterioration, it is traded internationally in
large amounts. Cement manufacturers buy clinker for their cement plants in areas
where raw materials for cement are scarce or unavailable

5 types of cement one should know about

Cement is a binding material which makes a bond between aggregates and

reinforcing materials together. With the development of technology,
quality and types of cement have also developed. So there are different
types of cement for different construction works.
 Types of Cement

Cement is mainly classified into two categories depending on the

hardening and setting mechanism. These are- 

1. Hydraulic Cement

2. Non-hydraulic Cement

Along with these main types, depending on the composition and

characteristics there are many types of cement.  Followings are the other
cement types:

1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)

3. Rapid Hardening Cement

4. Quick Setting Cement

5. Low Heat Cement

6. Sulphate Resisting Cement

7. Blast Furnace Cement

8. High Alumina Cement

9. White Cement

10.Colored Cement

11.Air Entraining Cement

12.Expansive Cement

13.Hydrophobic Cement
Brief descriptions of these cement types with their uses are given below.

Hydraulic Cement

As the name indicates, hydraulic cement is those which harden by

hydration in the presence of water. Limestone, clay, and gypsum are the
main raw material to produce non-hydraulic cement. This raw material is
burned at a very high temperature to manufacture Hydraulic Cement.

Hydraulic cement (cement that not only hardens by reacting with water
but also forms a water-resistant product) produced by pulverizing clinkers
which consist essentially of hydraulic calcium silicates, usually containing
one or more of the forms of calcium sulfate as an inter ground addition.

ASTM C150

Non-Hydraulic Cement

The non-hydraulic cement doesn't require water to get harden. It gets with
the help of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air. This type of cement needs
dry conditions to harden. Lime, gypsum plasters, and oxychloride are the
required raw material to produce non-hydraulic cement.  Example: slaked
lime is a non-hydraulic cement.

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

In usual construction work, Ordinary Portland Cement is widely used.

Portland cement clinker is a hydraulic material which shall consist of at

least two-thirds by mass of calcium silicates, (3 CaO·SiO2, and 2
CaO·SiO2), the remainder consisting of aluminium- and iron-containing
clinker phases and other compounds. The ratio of CaO to SiO2 shall not
 be less than 2.0. The magnesium oxide content (MgO) shall not exceed
5.0% by mass.

European Standard EN 197-1

The composition of Ordinary Portland Cement:

 Argillaceous or silicates of alumina (clay and shale)

 Calcareous or calcium carbonate (limestone, chalk, and marl)

Uses of Ordinary Portland Cement

 It is used for general construction purposes.

 It is also used in most of the masonry works.

Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)

Pozzolans are natural or synthetic materials that contain silica in reactive

forms. It reacts with calcium hydroxide generated by hydrating cement to
form additional cementations materials when it is finely divided. The
composition of Portland Pozzolana Cement:

 OPC clinker

 Gypsum

 Pozzolanic Materials (Fly ash, volcanic ash, and Calcined clay or silica
fumes.)

Uses of Portland Pozzolana Cement

 PPC is usually used in hydraulic structures, marine structures, construction

near the seashore, dam construction, etc.

 It is also used in pre-stressed and post-tensioned concrete members.

 As it gives a better surface finish, it is used in decorative and art structures.

 It is also used in the manufacture of precast sewage pipes.

Read More:

 Difference Between OPC and PPC

Rapid Hardening Cement

When finely grounded Tri-calcium silicate (C3S) is present in OPC with

higher content, it gains strength more quickly than OPC. This type of OPC
is called Rapid Hardening Cement. It’s initial Setting Time 30 minutes
and Final Setting Time 600 minutes.

Uses of Rapid Hardening Cement

 Rapid hardening cement is mostly used where rapid construction is needed

like the construction of pavement.

 It also gives high strength. 

We have published three articles on rapid hardening cement on our

website. In case you want to learn more about RHC, you can visit the
following link.

 Rapid Hardening Cement - All You Need to Know

 Uses of Rapid Hardening Cement 

 Advantages & Disadvantages of Rapid Hardening Cement

Quick Setting Cement

 Quick setting cement is the cement which sets in a very short time. The
initial setting time is 5 minutes and the final setting time is 30 minutes.
The composition of Quick Setting Cement:

 Clinker

 Aluminum sulfate (1% to 3% by weight of clinker)

 The aluminum sulfate increases the hydration rate of silicate.

Uses of Quick Setting Cement

 It is used in underwater construction.

 It is also used in rainy & cold weather conditions.

 It is used a higher temperature where water evaporates easily.

 Used for anchoring or rock bolt mining and tunneling

Low Heat Cement

It is a spatial type of cement which produces low heat of hydration during

the setting. Some chemical composition of Ordinary Portland Cement is
modified to reduce the heat of hydration. The chemical composition of
low heat cement:

 A low percentage (5%) of tricalcium aluminate (C3A)

 A higher percentage (46%) of declaiming silicate (C2S).

Uses of Low Heat Cement

 It is used for the construction of dam’s large footing, large raft slabs, and
wind turbine plinths.

 It is also used for the construction of chemical plants.

 Sulphate Resisting Cement

Sulfate resisting cement is used to resist sulfate attacks in concrete. Due to

the lower percentage of Tricalcium aluminate, the production of calcium
sulpho-aluminates gets reduced.

Uses of Sulphates resisting Cement

 Construction in contact with soils or groundwater having more than 0.2% or

0.3 % g/l sulfate salts respectively.

 Concrete surfaces subjected to alternate wetting and drying such as bridge

piers, concrete surface in the tidal zone, apron, Building near the seacoast.

 Effluent treatment plans, Chimney, Chemical industries, water storage,

sumps, drainage works, Cooling towers, Coastal protective works such as
sea walls, breakwaters, tetrapods, etc.

Blast Furnace Cement

Portland cement clinker and granulated blast furnace slag are intergraded
to make blast furnace cement. A maximum of 65 percent of the mixture
could be comprised of blast furnace slag.

Uses of Blast Furnace Cement

 It is highly sulfate resistant

 Frequently used in seawater construction.

High Alumina Cement

High Alumina cement is obtained by mixing calcining bauxite (it’s an

aluminum ore) and ordinary lime with clinker during the manufacture of
OPC. In which the total amount of alumina content should not be lesser
 than 32% and it should maintain the ratio by weight of alumina to the lime
between 0.85 to 1.30.

Uses of High Alumina Cement

 It is used where concrete structures are subjected to high temperatures like

workshops, refractory, foundries, etc.

 It also used where the concrete is subjected to frost and acidic action.

White Cement

White cement is quite similar to Ordinary Portland Cement except for

color. Amounts of iron oxide and manganese oxide are low in White
Cement. It is expensive then OPC so not economical for ordinary work.

Uses of White Cement

 It is usually used in decorative work.

 It can also use for traffic barriers, tile grouts, swimming pools, roof tiles
patching materials, and terrazzo surfaces.

Read More about White Cement:

 What is White Portland Cement?

 Uses of White Portland Cement

Colored Cement

To make 5 to 10 percent of suitable pigments are ground with OPC. Types

of pigments are selected according to the desired color.

Uses of Colored Cement

 Colored cement is used for different decorative work.

 Air Entraining Cement

It is seen that entrainment of air or formation of gas bubbles while

applying cement increases resistance to frost action, fire, scaling, and
other similar defects. Air-entraining cement is a special type of cement
which entrains tinny air bubbles in concrete.

It is produced by grinding minute air entertaining materials with clinker

by adding some resinous materials e.g. vinsol resin to ordinary portland
cement. 

When the water in concrete gets frizzed due to low temperature, it

expands. When air-entraining cement, the air voids in concrete provides
space for water to expand without cracking concrete. But this type of
cement does not provide high strength in concrete.

Uses of Air-Entraining Cement

 Especially it is used in areas where the temperature is very low.

 It also resists the Sulphet attack.

 It is used where the de-icing chemical is used.

Expansive Cement

In the hydration process, the expansive cement expands its volume. It can
be possible to overcome shrinkage loss by using expansive cement.

There are three types of expansive cement:

1. K Type expansive cement

2. M Type expansive cement

3. S Type expansive cement

K Type expansive cement

Raw materials of these types of cement

 Portland cement

 Anhydrous tetracalcium trialuminate sulfate (C4A3S)

 Calcium sulfate (CaSO4)

 Lime (CaO).

M Type Expansive Cement

Raw materials of these types of cement

1. Portland cement clinkers

2. Calcium sulfate.

S Type Expansive Cement

Raw materials of these types of cement

1. Portland cement clinkers

2. Calcium sulfate (High amount)

 Tricalcium aluminate (C3A) (High amount)

Uses of Expansive cement

 It is used in the construction of the pre-stressed concrete component.

 It is also used for sealing joints and grouting anchor bolt.

 In the construction of different hydraulic structures, this type of cement is
used.

Hydrophobic Cement

To resist the hydration process in the transportation or storage stage,

clinkers are ground with water repellent film substance such as Oleic Acid
or Stearic Acid.  These chemicals form a layer on the cement particle and
do not allow water to mix and start the hydration process. When cement
and aggregate are thoroughly mixed in the mixer, protective layers break
and start normal hydration with some air-entrainment which increases
workability.

Uses of Hydrophobic Cement

 Usually, it is used in the construction of water structures such as dams,

spillways, or other submerged structures.

 It is also used in the construction of underground structures like tunnel etc

Composition of Cement

There are eight major ingredients of cement. The following image is

showing the ingredients of cement: 
The general percentage of these ingredients in cement is given below:

 Ingredient Percentage in
cement

Lime 60-65

Silica 17-25

Alumina 3-8

Magnesia 1-3

Iron oxide 0.5-6

Calcium Sulfate 0.1-0.5

Sulfur Trioxide 1-3

Alkaline 0-1
 Functions of Cement Ingredients

The main features of these cement ingredients along with their functions
and usefulness or harmfulness are given below:

1. Lime: Lime is calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide.

o The presence of lime in a sufficient quantity is required to form

silicates and aluminates of calcium.

o Deficiency in lime reduces the strength of property to the cement.

o Deficiency in lime causes the cement to set quickly.

o Excess lime makes cement unsound.

o The excessive presence of lime causes the cement to expand and

disintegrate.

2. Silica: Silicon dioxide is known as silica, chemical formula SiO2.

o The sufficient quantity of silica should be present in cement to

dicalcium and tricalcium silicate.

o Silica imparts strength to cement.

o Silica usually presents to the extent of about 30 percent cement.

3. Alumina: Alumina is Aluminium oxide. The chemical formula is Al2O3.

o Alumina imparts quick setting property to the cement.

 o Clinkering temperature is lowered by the presence of the requisite
quantity of alumina.

o Excess alumina weakens the cement.

4. Magnesia: Magnesium Oxide. The chemical formula is MgO.

o Magnesia should not be present more than 2% in cement.

o Excess magnesia will reduce the strength of the cement.

5. Iron oxide: Chemical formula is Fe2O3.

o Iron oxide imparts color to cement.

o It acts as a flux.

o At a very high temperature, it imparts into the chemical reaction with

calcium and aluminum to form tricalcium alumino-ferrite.

o Tricalcium alumino-ferrite imparts hardness and strength to cement.

6. Calcium Sulfate: Chemical formula is CaSO4

o This is present in cement in the form of gypsum(CaSO4.2H2O)

o It slows down or retards the setting action of cement.

7. Sulfur Trioxide: Chemical formula is SO3

o It should not be present for more than 2%.

 o Excess Sulfur Trioxide causes the cement to unsound.

8. Alkaline:

o It should not be present more than 1%.

o Excess Alkaline matter causes efflorescence.

Summary of the article:

 What are the ingredients of the cement?

 Describe the cement composition.

 What are the functions of different cement ingredients?

 What are the functions of lime in cement?

 What are the functions of Silica in cement?

 What are the functions of alumina in cement?

 What are the functions of Magnesia in cement?

 What are the functions of Iron oxide in cement?

Properties of Cement- Physical & Chemical

  

Physical Properties of Cement

Different blends of cement used in construction are characterized by their

physical properties. Some key parameters control the quality of cement.
The physical properties of good cement are based on:

 Fineness of cement

 Soundness

 Consistency

 Strength

 Setting time

 Heat of hydration

 Loss of ignition

 Bulk density
 Specific gravity (Relative density)

 These physical properties are discussed in details in the following

segment. Also, you will find the test names associated with these physical
properties.

Fineness of Cement

The size of the particles of the cement is its fineness. The required
fineness of good cement is achieved through grinding the clinker in the
last step of cement production process. As hydration rate of cement is
directly related to the cement particle size, fineness of cement is very
important.

Soundness of Cement

Soundness refers to the ability of cement to not shrink upon hardening.

Good quality cement retains its volume after setting without delayed
expansion, which is caused by excessive free lime and magnesia.

Tests:

Unsoundness of cement may appear after several years, so tests for

ensuring soundness must be able to determine that potential.

 Le Chatelier Test
This method, done by using Le Chatelier Apparatus, tests the expansion of
cement due to lime. Cement paste (normal consistency) is taken between
glass slides and submerged in water for 24 hours at 20+1°C. It is taken out to
measure the distance between the indicators and then returned under water,
brought to boil in 25-30 mins and boiled for an hour. After cooling the
 device, the distance between indicator points is measured again. In a good
quality cement, the distance should not exceed 10 mm.

 Autoclave Test
Cement paste (of normal consistency) is placed in an autoclave (high-
pressure steam vessel) and slowly brought to 2.03 MPa, and then kept there
for 3 hours. The change in length of the specimen (after gradually bringing
the autoclave to room temperature and pressure) is measured and expressed
in percentage. The requirement for good quality cement is a maximum of
0.80% autoclave expansion.
Standard autoclave test: AASHTO T 107 and ASTM C 151: Autoclave
Expansion of Portland Cement.

Consistency of Cement

The ability of cement paste to flow is consistency.

It is measured by Vicat Test.

In Vicat Test Cement paste of normal consistency is taken in the Vicat

Apparatus. The plunger of the apparatus is brought down to touch the top
surface of the cement. The plunger will penetrate the cement up to a
certain depth depending on the consistency. A cement is said to have a
normal consistency when the plunger penetrates 10±1 mm.

Strength of Cement

Three types of strength of cement are measured – compressive, tensile and

flexural. Various factors affect the strength, such as water-cement ratio,
cement-fine aggregate ratio, curing conditions, size and shape of a
 specimen, the manner of molding and mixing, loading conditions and age.
While testing the strength, the following should be considered:

 Cement mortar strength and cement concrete strength are not directly
related. Cement strength is merely a quality control measure.

 The tests of strength are performed on cement mortar mix, not on cement
paste.

 Cement gains strength over time, so the specific time of performing the test
should be mentioned.

Compressive Strength

It is the most common strength test. A test specimen (50mm) is taken and
subjected to a compressive load until failure. The loading sequence must
be within 20 seconds and 80 seconds.

Standard tests:

i. AASHTO T 106 and ASTM C 109: Compressive Strength of Hydraulic

Cement Mortars (Using 50-mm or 2-in. Cube Specimens)

ii. ASTM C 349: Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using

Portions of Prisms Broken in Flexure)

Tensile strength

Though this test used to be common during the early years of cement
production, now it does not offer any useful information about the
properties of cement.

Flexural strength
 This is actually a measure of tensile strength in bending. The test is
performed in a 40 x40 x 160 mm cement mortar beam, which is loaded at
its center point until failure.

Standard test:

i. ASTM C 348: Flexural Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars

Setting Time of Cement

Cement sets and hardens when water is added. This setting time can vary
depending on multiple factors, such as fineness of cement, cement-water
ratio, chemical content, and admixtures. Cement used in construction
should have an initial setting time that is not too low and a final setting
time not too high. Hence, two setting times are measured:

 Initial set: When the paste begins to stiffen noticeably (typically occurs

within 30-45 minutes)

 Final set: When the cement hardens, being able to sustain some load (occurs
below 10 hours)

Again, setting time can also be an indicator of hydration rate.

Standard Tests:

i. AASHTO T 131 and ASTM C 191: Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by

Vicat Needle

ii. AASHTO T 154: Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Gillmore Needles

iii. ASTM C 266: Time of Setting of Hydraulic-Cement Paste by Gillmore

Needles

Heat of Hydration
When water is added to cement, the reaction that takes place is called
hydration. Hydration generates heat, which can affect the quality of the
cement and also be beneficial in maintaining curing temperature during
cold weather. On the other hand, when heat generation is high, especially
in large structures, it may cause undesired stress. The heat of hydration is
affected most by C3S and C3A present in cement, and also by water-
cement ratio, fineness and curing temperature. The heat of hydration of
Portland cement is calculated by determining the difference between the
dry and the partially hydrated cement (obtained by comparing these at 7th
and 28th days).

Standard Test:

ASTM C 186: Heat of Hydration of Hydraulic Cement

Loss of Ignition

Heating a cement sample at 900 - 1000°C (that is, until a constant weight
is obtained) causes weight loss. This loss of weight upon heating is
calculated as loss of ignition. Improper and prolonged storage or
adulteration during transport or transfer may lead to pre-hydration and
carbonation, both of which might be indicated by increased loss of
ignition.

Standard Test:

AASHTO T 105 and ASTM C 114: Chemical Analysis of Hydraulic

Cement

Bulk density
 When cement is mixed with water, the water replaces areas where there
would normally be air. Because of that, the bulk density of cement is not
very important. Cement has a varying range of density depending on the
cement composition percentage. The density of cement may be anywhere
from 62 to 78 pounds per cubic foot.

Specific Gravity (Relative Density)

Specific gravity is generally used in mixture proportioning calculations.

Portland cement has a specific gravity of 3.15, but other types of cement
(for example, portland-blast-furnace-slag and portland-pozzolan cement)
may have specific gravities of about 2.90.

Standard Test:

AASHTO T 133 and ASTM C 188: Density of Hydraulic Cement

Chemical Properties of Cement

The raw materials for cement production are limestone (calcium), sand or

clay (silicon), bauxite (aluminum) and iron ore, and may include shells,
chalk, marl, shale, clay, blast furnace slag, slate. Chemical analysis of
cement raw materials provides insight into the chemical properties of
cement.

1. Tricalcium aluminate (C3A)

Low content of C3A makes the cement sulfate-resistant. Gypsum reduces
the hydration of C3A, which liberates a lot of heat in the early stages of
hydration. C3A does not provide any more than a little amount of strength.
Type I cement: contains up to 3.5% SO3 (in cement having more than 8%
 C3A)
Type II cement: contains up to 3% SO3 (in cement having less than 8% C3A)

2. Tricalcium silicate (C3S)

C3S causes rapid hydration as well as hardening and is responsible for the
cement’s early strength gain an initial setting.

3. Dicalcium silicate (C2S)

As opposed to tricalcium silicate, which helps early strength gain, dicalcium
silicate in cement helps the strength gain after one week.

4. Ferrite (C4AF)
Ferrite is a fluxing agent. It reduces the melting temperature of the raw
materials in the kiln from 3,000°F to 2,600°F. Though it hydrates rapidly, it
does not contribute much to the strength of the cement.

5. Magnesia (MgO)
The manufacturing process of Portland cement uses magnesia as a raw
material in dry process plants. An excess amount of magnesia may make the
cement unsound and expansive, but a little amount of it can add strength to
the cement. Production of MgO-based cement also causes less CO2
emission. All cement is limited to a content of 6% MgO.

6. Sulphur trioxide
Sulfur trioxide in excess amount can make cement unsound.

7. Iron oxide/ Ferric oxide

Aside from adding strength and hardness, iron oxide or ferric oxide is
mainly responsible for the color of the cement.
8. Alkalis
The amounts of potassium oxide (K2O) and sodium oxide (Na2O) determine
the alkali content of the cement. Cement containing large amounts of alkali
can cause some difficulty in regulating the setting time of cement. Low
alkali cement, when used with calcium chloride in concrete, can cause
discoloration. In slag-lime cement, ground granulated blast furnace slag is
not hydraulic on its own but is "activated" by addition of alkalis. There is an
optional limit in total alkali content of 0.60%, calculated by the equation
Na2O + 0.658 K2O.

9. Free lime
Free lime, which is sometimes present in cement, may cause expansion.

10.Silica fumes
Silica fume is added to cement concrete in order to improve a variety of
properties, especially compressive strength, abrasion resistance and bond
strength. Though setting time is prolonged by the addition of silica fume, it
can grant exceptionally high strength. Hence, Portland cement containing 5-
20% silica fume is usually produced for Portland cement projects that
require high strength.

11.Alumina
Cement containing high alumina has the ability to withstand frigid
temperatures since alumina is chemical-resistant. It also quickens the setting
but weakens the cement.

Stage of Cement Manufacture

There are six main stages of cement manufacturing process.

Stage 1

Raw Material Extraction/Quarry

The raw cement ingredients needed for cement production are limestone

(calcium), sand and clay (silicon, aluminum, iron), shale, fly ash, mill
scale and bauxite. The ore rocks are quarried and crushed to smaller
pieces of about 6 inches. Secondary crushers or hammer mills then reduce
them to even smaller size of 3 inches. After that, the ingredients are
prepared for pyroprocessing.

Stage 2

Grinding, Proportioning and Blending

The crushed raw ingredients are made ready for the cement making

process in the kiln by combining them with additives and grinding them to
ensure a fine homogenous mixture. The composition of cement is
proportioned here depending on the desired properties of the cement.
Generally, limestone is 80% and remaining 20% is the clay. In the cement
plant, the raw mix is dried (moisture content reduced to less than 1%);
heavy wheel type rollers and rotating tables blend the raw mix and then
the roller crushes it to a fine powder to be stored in silos and fed to the
kiln.

Stage 3

Pre-Heating Raw Material

A pre-heating chamber consists of a series of cyclones that utilizes the hot

gases produced from the kiln in order to reduce energy consumption and
make the cement making process more environment-friendly. The raw
 materials are passed through here and turned into oxides to be burned in
the kiln.

Stage 4

Kiln Phase

The kiln phase is the principal stage of the cement production process.

Here, clinker is produced from the raw mix through a series of chemical
reactions between calcium and silicon dioxide compounds. Though the
process is complex, the events of the clinker production can be written in
the following sequence:

1. Evaporation of free water

2. Evolution of combined water in the argillaceous components

3. Calcination of the calcium carbonate (CaCO3) to calcium oxide (CaO)

4. Reaction of CaO with silica to form dicalcium silicate

5. Reaction of CaO with the aluminum and iron-bearing constituents to form

the liquid phase

6. Formation of the clinker nodules

7. Evaporation of volatile constituents (e. g., sodium, potassium, chlorides, and

sulfates)

8. Reaction of excess CaO with dicalcium silicate to form tricalcium silicate

The above events can be condensed into four major stages based on the
change of temperature inside the kiln:

1. 100°C (212°F): Evaporation of free water

2. 100°C (212°F)-430°C (800°F): Dehydration and formation of oxides of
silicon, aluminum, and iron

3. 900°C (1650°F)-982°C (1800°F): CO2 is evolved and CaO is produced

through calcination

4. 1510°C (2750°F): Cement clinker is formed

The kiln is angled by 3 degrees to the horizontal to allow the material to

pass through it, over a period of 20 to 30 minutes. By the time the raw-
mix reaches the lower part of the kiln, clinker forms and comes out of the
kiln in marble-sized nodules.

Stage 5

Cooling and final grinding

After exiting the kiln, the clinker is rapidly cooled down from 2000°C to
100°C-200°C by passing air over it. At this stage, different additives are
combined with the clinker to be ground in order to produce the final
product, cement. Gypsum, added to and ground with clinker, regulates the
setting time and gives the most important property of cement,
compressive strength. It also prevents agglomeration and coating of the
powder at the surface of balls and mill wall. Some organic substances,
such as Triethanolamine (used at 0.1 wt.%), are added as grinding aids to
avoid powder agglomeration. Other additives sometimes used are ethylene
glycol, oleic acid and dodecyl-benzene sulphonate.

The heat produced by the clinker is circulated back to the kiln to save
energy. The last stage of making cement is the final grinding process. In
the cement plant, there are rotating drums fitted with steel balls. Clinker,
 after being cooled, is transferred to these rotating drums and ground into
such a fine powder that each pound of it contains 150 billion grains. This
powder is the final product, cement.

Stage 6

Packing and Shipping

Cement is conveyed from grinding mills to silos (large storage tanks)

where it is packed in 20-40 kg bags. Most of the product is shipped in
bulk quantities by trucks, trains or ships, and only a small amount is
packed for customers who need small quantities.

Chemical Reactions during Cement Manufacturing Process

The reactions that take place (after evaporation of free water) between the
reactants in the kiln phase of cement making process are as follows:

1. Clay Decomposition:
Si2Al2O5(OH)2 → 2 SiO2 + Al2O3 + 2 H2O (vapor)
KAlSi3O8 (orthoclase) + 0.5 SO2 + 0.25 O2 → 3 SiO2 + 0.5 Al2O3 + 0.5
K2SO4

2. Dolomite Decomposition:
CaMg(CO3)2 → CaCO3 + MgO + CO2
KMg3AlSi3O10(OH)2 + 0.5 SO2 + 0.25 O2 → 0.5 K2SO4 + 3 MgO + 0.5
Al2O3 + 3 SiO2 + H2O (vapor)

3. Low Temperature Calcite Decomposition:

2 CaCO3 + SiO2 → Ca2SiO4 + 2 CO2
2 MgO + SiO2 → Mg2SiO4
 Ca5(PO4)3OH + 0.25 SiO2 → 1.5 Ca3(PO4)2 + 0.25 Ca2SiO4 + 0.5 H2O
(vapour)

4. Alumina and Oxide Reaction:

12 CaCO3 + 7 Al2O3 → Ca12Al14O33 + 12 CO2
4 CaCO3 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 → Ca4Al2Fe2O10 + 4 CO2
4 CaCO3 + Al2O3 + Mn2O3 → Ca4Al2Mn2O10 + 4 CO2

5. Reaction of Remaining Calcite:

CaCO3 → CaO + CO2

6. Sintering:
Ca2SiO4 + CaO → Ca3SiO5

Uses of Cement

Some of the numerous functions of cement are given below.

1. It is used in mortar for plastering, masonry work, pointing, etc.

2. It is used for making joints for drains and pipes.
3. It is used for water tightness of structure.
4. It is used in concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels, beams,
stairs, pillars etc.
5. It is used where a hard surface is required for the protection of exposed
surfaces of structures against the destructive agents of the weather and
certain organic or inorganic chemicals.
6. It is used for precast pipes manufacturing, piles, fencing posts etc.
7. It is used in the construction of important engineering structures such as
bridges, culverts, dams, tunnels, lighthouses etc.
8. It is used in the preparation of foundations, watertight floors, footpaths etc.
9. It is employed for the construction of wells, water tanks, tennis courts, lamp
posts, telephone cabins, roads etc.
 Field Test of Cement
Sometimes it may be required to perform cement quality tests at a
site within a very short period of time for evaluating the condition of the
supplied cement. In most of the cases, it is not possible to have any
laboratory test in the short period of time. Therefore, the quality check is
performed with the help of some basic field tests. Although these tests are
not very accurate, they provide some basic idea to the civil engineer
regarding the quality of the cement.

Field Tests of Cement for Civil Engineers

1. Date of Manufacturing: As the strength of cement reduces with age, the

date of manufacturing of cement bags should be checked.

2. Cement Color: The color of cement should be uniform. It should be typical

cement color i.e. gray color with a light greenish shade.

3. Whether Hard Lumps are Formed: Cement should be free from hard

lumps. Such lumps are formed by the absorption of moisture from the
atmosphere.

4. Temperature Inside Cement Bag: If the hand is plunged into a bag of

cement, it should be cool inside the cement bag. If hydration reaction takes
place inside the bag, it will become warm.

5. Smoothness Test: When cement is touched or rubbed in between fingers, it

should give a smooth feeling. If it felt rough, it indicates adulteration with
sand.
6. Water Sinking Test: If a small quantity of cement is thrown into the water,
it should float some time before finally sinking.

7. The smell of Cement Paste: A thin paste of cement with water should feel
sticky between the fingers. If the cement contains too much-pounded clay
and silt as an adulterant, the paste will give an earthy smell.

8. Glass Plate Test: A thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of a
glass plate and it is kept under water for 24 hours. It should set and not
crack.

9. Block Test: A 25mm × 25mm × 200mm (1”×1”×8”) block of cement with

water is made. The block is then immersed in water for three days. After
removing, it is supported 150mm apart and a weight of 15kg uniformly
placed over it. If it shows no sign of failure the cement is good.

Fineness of Cement -
The size of the particles of the cement is its fineness. The required
fineness of good cement is achieved through grinding the clinker in the
last step of cement production process. As hydration rate of cement is
directly related to the cement particle size, fineness of cement is very
important. Importance of Cement Fineness

 The fineness of cement affects hydration rate, and in turn, the strength.

Increasing fineness causes an increased rate of hydration, high strength, and
high heat generation.

 Bleeding can be reduced by increasing fineness. However, increased

fineness can also lead to the requirement of more water for workability,
resulting in a higher possibility of dry shrinkage.
 The increased surface area-to-volume ratio will ensure a more available area
for water-cement interaction per unit volume.

Fineness Test of Cement

 AASHTO T 98 and ASTM C 115: Fineness of Portland Cement by the

Turbidimeter.

 AASHTO T 128 and ASTM C 184: Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by the

150-mm (No.100) and 75-mm (No. 200) Sieves

 AASHTO T 153 and ASTM C 204: Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by Air-

Permeability Apparatus o AASHTO T 192 and

 ASTM C 430: Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by the 45-mm (No. 325)

Sieve.