CHEMISTRY

Contents
Hydrochloric Acid, Nitric Acid and Sulphuric Acid..................................................................................2
Electrolysis.............................................................................................................................................8
Periodic Table......................................................................................................................................13
Acids, Bases and Salts..........................................................................................................................14
Practical Chemistry..............................................................................................................................15

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 Hydrochloric Acid, Nitric Acid and Sulphuric Acid

Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) Nitric Acid (HNO3) Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4)

SO3 + H2O  H2SO4
H2 + Cl2  2HCl 2NO2 + O2 + 2H2O  4HNO3 S + conc. 6HNO3  H2SO4 + 6NO2 +
2H2O
Lab Preparation Lab Preparation No Lab Preparation

T< 200˚C T< 200˚C

NaCl + conc. H2SO4  NaHSO4 + NaNO3 + H2SO4  NaHSO4 +
HCl HNO3

T> 200˚C T> 200˚C

2NaCl + H2SO4  Na2SO4 + 2NaNO3 + H2SO4  NaSO4 +
2HCl 2HNO3

T above 200˚C T above 200˚C

Na2SO4 forms a hard crust
High solubility of HCl is shown by
the fountain experiment (refer
text book for the experiment)
HNO3 decomposes to give NO2,
forms NaSO4
Apparatus
Only made of glass because HNO3
attracts rubber and plastic

HNO3 turns yellow in colour when

it has dissolved NO2 gas
 Yellow colour can be
removed by diluting it
with H2O or bubbling CO2
gas.
Collection
Collection
HCl -Collected by upward
HNO3 - Conc. HNO3 Vapours are
displacement of air/ downward
condense and are collected in the
delivery of gas
water-cooled (or ice bath)
• HCl is heavier than air
receiver
Not collected over water
• Highly soluble in water
Solubility – 452(gas): 1(water)
No Manufacture Manufacture Manufacture

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 Name – OSTWALD’S PROCESS Name - CONTACT PROCESS

Dry NH3 4NH3 + 5O2  4NO2 1. SO2

1 vol. + 6H2O + Δ S + O2  SO2
T – 700 - 800˚C FeS2 + H2O  2Fe2O3 + 8SO2
Catalyst– Platinum(Pt)
Cool the gas NO2 2. SO3
2SO2 + O2  2SO3
Dry air 2NO2 + O2  2NO2 T – 400 -500˚C
10 vol. T - 50˚C Catalyst – V2O5(Venadium
(Dust free) Pentoxide)/ Pt(Platinum)
4NO2 + 2H2O + O2 
.. 4HNO3 3. H2S2O7
SO3 + H2SO4  H2S2O7 (Oleum
Pyrosulphuric Acid)

4. H2SO4
H2S2O7 + H2O  2H2SO4 (98%)

Chemical Properties Chemical Properties Chemical Properties

(HCl – dilute) (HNO3 – very dilute) (H2SO4 - dilute)

H2 H2 H2
Zn + 2HCl  ZnCl2 + H2 Mg + 2HNO3  Mg(NO3)2 + H2 Zn + H2SO4  ZnSO4 + H2

CO2 CO2 CO2 (Avoid using Ca for H2SO4)

(Carbonate) (Carbonate) (Carbonate)
CaCO3 + 2HCl  CaCl2 + CO2 + Ca(CO3)2 + 2HNO3  Ca(NO3)2 + Na2CO3 + H2SO4  Na2SO4 + CO2 +
H2O 2CO2 + H2O H2O
(Bicarbonate) (Bicarbonate) (Bicarbonate)
Ca(HCO3)2 + 2HCl  CaCl2 + 2CO2 Ca(HCO3)2 + 2HNO3  Ca(NO3)2 + 2NaHCO3 + H2SO4  2Na2SO4 +
+ 2H2O 2CO2 + 2H2O CO2 + 2H2O

SO2 SO2 SO2

(Sulphite) (Sulphite) (Sulphite)
CaSO3 + 2HCl  CaCl2 + SO2 + H2O CaSO3 + 2HNO3  Ca(NO3)2 + SO2 Na2SO3 + H2SO4  Na2SO4 + SO2 +
(Bisulphate) + H2O H2O
Ca(HSO3)2 + 2HCl  CaCl2 + 2SO2 (Bisulphate) (Bisulphite)
+ 2H2O Ca(HSO3)2 + 2HNO3  Ca(NO3)2 + 2NaHSO3 + H2SO4  Na2SO4 + SO2
2SO2 + 2H2O + H2O

H2S H2S H2S

Na2S + 2HCl  2NaCl + H2S Na2S + 2HNO3  2NaNO3 + H2S FeS + H2SO4  FeSO4 + H2S

Neutralization Neutralization Neutralization

NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H2O NaOH + HNO3  NaNO3 + H2O NaOH + H2SO4  Na2SO4 + H2O

(Na2S2O3 + 2HCl  2NaCl + SO2 +

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H2O + S[Yellow Particles])

(HCl – concentrated) (HNO3 – concentrated) (H2SO4 - concentrated)

NH3 + HCl  NH4Cl (White fumes) C + 4HNO3  CO2 + 2H2O + 4NO2 C + H2SO4  CO2 + 2H2O + SO2

MnO2 + 2HCl  MnCl2 + 2H2O +
Cl2
Concentrated HCl reacts with any
oxidizing agent to liberate
chlorine
S + 6HNO3  H2SO4 + 2H2O +
6NO2
3Cu + 8HNO3 (cold and dil.) 
3Cu(NO3)2 + 4H2O + 2NO
Cu + 4HNO3 (conc.) Cu(NO3)2 +
S + 2H2SO4  3SO2 + 2H2O
These properties show that H2SO4
acts as an oxidizing agent
CuSO4 ● 5H2O (conc. H SO ) CuSO4
2 4

2H2O + 2NO2 + 5H2O

Reaction with conc. HNO3 gives These properties show that H2SO4
NO2 acts as a dehydrating agent
Reaction with dil. HNO3 gives NO
Reaction with very dil. HNO3 Dehydration of sugar
gives H2 C12H22O11 (conc. H2SO4) 12C + 11H2O
Aqua Regia – mixture of 3 parts of conc. HCl and 1 part of conc. HNO 3
conc. HNO3 + conc. HCl  NOCl (Nitrosyl Chloride) + 2H2O + 2[Cl] (nascent)
Oxidizing agent Salt

Aqua Regia
Constant boiling mixture is one when heated it loses its components as vapours in such a way that the
composition of the remaining mixture remains unaltered.
Dilution of an acid is done by adding acid H2O and not by adding acid to H2O as the reaction is highly
exothermic

Uses Uses Uses

 Manufacture of Chlorine  To etch designs on Copper  Preparation of CO and CO2
 Pickling of metals and Brass ware  In Lead accumulators
 Preparation of Aqua Regia  Preparation of fertilizers  As a lab reagent
 Preparation of Aqua Regia

Additional Questions

How do you separate a mixture of

(Copper) Cu and (Gold)Au?
Add dil. HNO3. Cu dissolves
forming Copper nitrate Cu(NO3)2
Soln. Filter Au out. To the
filtrated Cu(NO3)2 add Zn metal to
displace Cu from Cu(NO3)2

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Test for Chloride or dil. HCl Test for HNO3 Test for H2SO4

To dil. HCl, add AgNO3 soln.
 A white ppt. of AgCl is
formed
 AgCl2 is soluble in excess
NH4OH and insoluble in
cold water and dil. HNO3
AgNO3 [aq.] + dil. HCl  AgCl↓ +
HNO3
*(Other tests to be read from
text)
Brown Ring Test
To dil. HNO3 or NO3 soln., add an
equal quantity of FeSO4 (Ferrous
Sulphate) soln.
Along the sides of the test tube,
add a few drops of conc. H2SO4.
At the junction of the two
solutions, a brown ring is formed.
On shaking the soln., the brown
ring disappears.
6FeSO4 + 2HNO3 + 3H2SO4 
3Fe2(SO4)3 + 2NO + 4H2O
FeSO4 + NO  FeSO4●NO
To dil. H2SO4, add BaCl2 or
Pb(NO3)2 soln.,
 A white precipitate of
BaSO4 is formed
 BaSO4 is insoluble in dil.
H2SO4 and hence gives a
white ppt.
BaCl2 + dil. H2SO4  2HCl + BaSO4↓

Brown Ring – FeSO4●NO (Nitroso

Ferrous Sulphate)
Ferrous – Iron [ll]

Chemical Bonding

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Electrovalent Compounds are formed between a metal and non-metal
Covalent Compounds are formed between non-metals
Note: Bonding is not possible between two metals
Electrovalent Bonding
Metals give away electrons and non-metals gain electrons. Metals lose electrons as they have
low ionization potential.
Na (11) Cl (17)
2, 8, 1 2, 8, 7
Na  Cl  Na1+ Cl1-
Electrostatic force of attraction brings the two ions together.
Bond formation of Compounds
1. Aluminium Chloride
Al (13) Cl (17)
2, 8, 3 2, 8, 7
Cl  x Al x  Cl
Cl
Al3+ 3Cl-  AlCl3
2. Magnesium chloride
Mg (12) Cl(17)
2, 8, 2 2, 8, 7
Cl  x Mg x  Cl
Mg2+ 2Cl-  MgCl2
3. Calcium oxide
Ca (20) O (8)
2, 8, 8, 2 2, 6
Ca O
Ca2+ O2- CaO
Conditions for formation of electrovalent bond
 One of the elements should have low ionization potential (easy to lose electrons)
 One of the electrons should have high electron affinity
 Large electro-negativity difference

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  If the difference in electronegativities of 2 elements is higher, then transfer of
electrons will be easier

 Why are ionic compounds stable?

Strong electrostatic force of attraction makes ionic compounds stable.
Covalent bonds
Formed between non-metals by sharing of electrons
H (1) H (1)
Hx xH  H-H
Atomicity is the no. of atoms present in one molecule of an element
Bond formation of molecules
1. Chlorine
Cl (17)
2, 8, 7
Cl x x Cl  Cl – Cl
2. Water
H (1) O(8)
2, 6
Hx O xH
3. Ammonia
N (7) H (1)
2, 5
Hx N xH
H
Covalent compounds are held together by weak force of attraction.

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Electrolysis
Na + 3Cl  Na+ Cl-  NaCl

Ionic current

Electrolyte

Voltammeter – An electrolytic cell

Electrolyte
An electrolyte is a compound which in a solution or in molten state, conducts electricity and
undergoes chemical decomposition.
Electrolysis
Electrolysis is a process of decomposition of a compound in aqueous solution or in molten
state accompanied by a chemical change using direct electric current.

Dissociation Ionization
 Separation of ions already present  Formation of positively or negatively
in an ionic compound. charged ions from molecules which
are initially not in ionic state.
Electrovalent compounds show Polar covalent compounds show
dissociation. ionization.
KCl  K+ Cl- HCl H2O H+ Cl-

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Anions are non – metallic ions.
Cations are metallic ions.

 Strong electrolytes contain only ions.

 Weak electrolytes contain ions and molecules.
 Non – electrolytes contain only molecules.

Anode
 Anode is the electrode connected to
the positive terminal of a cell in a
voltameter.
 Anode gets reduced as it accepts
electrons from the anion.
Therefore, anode is an oxidizing
agent.
At the anode, oxidation reaction takes
place as anions lose electrons.
Hence, electrolysis is called as redox reaction.
Electrolysis of CuSO4 solution
Cathode
 Cathode is the electrode connected
to the negative terminal of a cell in a
voltameter.
 Cathode gets oxidized as it loses
electrons. Therefore, cathode is a
reducing agent.
At the cathode, reduction reaction takes
place as cations gain electrons.

Cu anode Cu cathode

CuSO4 solution

CuSO4  Cu2+ SO42- Total ions in the set up

H2O  H+ OH-
Reaction at the – Anode Cu – 2e  Cu2+
Cathode Cu2+ +2e  Cu
Observations
I. The blue colour of the electrolyte does not fade.
II. Anode loses weight and cathode gains the same weight.

1. Why don’t both sulphate and hydroxyl ions get discharged at the anode?
Because of the nature of the anode. Anode is made out of the same metal as the
metal present in the salt hence, atoms from the anode ionizes.
2. The blue colour of the electrolyte does not fade. Why?
Blue colour of the electrolyte does not fade as anode replenishes Cu ions into the
solution when Cu ions from the solution are discharged at the anode.

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 Note: if Cu anode is replaced by Pt for CuSO4 electrolysis, blue colour of the solution
will turn colourless as anode cannot replenish Cu ions of the solution.

Electrolysis of molten lead bromide

PbBr2  Pb2+ Br-

Reaction at the – Anode Br- – e  Br
Br + Br  Br2 OR 2Br- -2e Br2
Cathode Pb2+ + 2e  Pb (Grey)
Observations
I. Reddish Brown fumes of Br at the anode and grey deposits at the cathode.
II. No residue is left behind.
1. Why are Pt (Platinum) electrodes not used in this electrolysis?
Because Br vapours liberated at the anode, react with Pt.

Electrolysis of water/ acidulated water

2H2O  2H2 + O2
Volume of H2 : O2 - 2 : 1
Reaction at the – Anode 4OH- – 4e  2H2O + O2
OR OH- -e  OH
OH + OH  H2O + [O]
O + O  O2
Cathode H1+ + 1e-  H
2H + 2H  2H2
Dil. H2SO4 initiates ionization of H2O and does not take part in the electrolysis.

Application of electrolysis

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 1. Electroplating – Plating is always done a superior metal over an inferior metal.
Object to be plated is taken as cathode and the anode is a pure form of the metal
with which plating is done.
2. Electrorefining – Anode is an impure bar and cathode is a pure bar.

Electroplating with silver

Pure silver
Object to be plated

Sodium Argento Cyanide

(Na[Ag(CN)2])
Reaction at the – Anode Ag – e  Ag+
Cathode Ag+ + e  Ag

General Observations in electroplating

I. While plating, thickness of coating will depend on the duration of current passed.
II. In the process of electroplating, anode dissolves.
III. The concentration of the electrolyte during plating does not change.

If silver nitrate is used as an electrolyte, deposition of silver will be very fast and not smooth
and uniform. Hence, silver nitrate is not used as an electrolyte.

Additional Questions

 Cu wire conducts electricity but it is not called an electrolyte. Explain.

Cu wire conducts electricity by movement of free electrons and not by the
movement of ions. Hence, it is not call as an electrolyte.
 Here is an electrode reaction
Cu  Cu2+ + 2e
At which electrode would such a reaction take place? Is this an example of
oxidation or reduction?
The reaction would take place in the anode. The reaction is oxidation reaction as Cu
atom is losing electrons.
 A solution contains Mg2+, Fe2+, Cu2+ ions, on passing electric current through the
solution, which ion will be discharged at the cathode? Write the equation of the
cathode reaction.
Cu2+ ion will be discharged as it is lower in the series compared to the other two.
Equation: Cu2+ + 2e  Cu
At the cathode its always reduction reaction.
 Why is carbon tetrachloride a liquid and non-electrolyte?
CCl4 contains only molecules and no ions (does not ionize).
 During the electrolysis of molten lead bromide, which of the following take place?

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 a) Br2 is released at cathode
b) Pb is deposited at anode
c) Br ions gain electrons
d) Pb is deposited at cathode
e) Pb is deposited at cathode
Reason – Metals are deposited at cathode and non – metals at anode.
 Select the correct answer
The aq. Soln. of the compound which contains both ions and molecules is,
a) H2SO4
b) HCl
c) HNO3
d) CH3COOH (Acetic Acid)
d) CH3COOH (Acetic Acid)
Reason – It is a weak compound
 Correct the following statement
PbBr2 conducts electricity
Molten PbBr2 conducts electricity.
 A metal article is to be plated with Ag. The electrolyte selected is Na[Ag(CN)2].
a) What kind of salt is Na[Ag(CN)2]?
Complex Salt
Aq. Soln. of NiSO4 contains Ni2+ SO42- ions
b) Which ion moves towards the cathode?
Ni2+ ion moves up the cathode
c) What is the product at the anode?
O2 (SO42- OH- 4OH- -4e  2H2O + O2)

Periodic Table
Periods – Horizontal arrangement (rows)

Columns – Vertical arrangement (groups)

Mendeleef’s periodic law states that the physical and chemical properties of elements are
periodic functions of their atomic weights.

Moseley’s modern periodic law states that the physical and chemical properties id
elements ate their periodic functions of their atomic numbers.

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Modern periodic table

 7 periods
 1st period is shortest with 2 elements [H, He]
 2nd and 3rd periods are short with 8 elements each
 4th and 5th periods are long periods with 16 elements
 6th period is the longest period with 32 elements
 7th period is incomplete
 The number of a period indicates the number of shells present in an element

 18 groups
 8 ‘A’ groups and 10 ‘B’ groups
 The number of an ‘A’ group indicates the number of valence electrons
present in the element
 Group 1A – Alkali Metals
 Group 2A – Alkaline earth metals
 Group 7A – Halogens (salt producers – Halides)
 Group 8A -

Note: All inert gases are monoatomic in nature

Acids, Bases and Salts

Acids Bases
Acid is a compound which in solution gives Base is a metallic oxide or hydroxide
H3O+ ion as the only positive ions
HCl H2SO4 HNO3 H2CO3 CH3COOH Soluble
H3PO4 KOH NH4OH NaOH CaO
Insoluble
Mg(OH)2 CuO Al2O3 MgO
Strength of Acid Strength of Base
An acid is said to be strong if the degree of A base is said to be strong if the degree
ionization is greater than 30%. Eg. HCl,
HNO3, H2SO4

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Practical Chemistry
Colour of salts

Sodium (Na) – Golden Yellow

Potassium (K) – Lilac

Calcium (Ca) – Brick Red

1. Salt P when treated with conc. H2SO4 ggives red fumes. Salt P gives positive results for
brown ring test. On introducing it to the flames it gives golden yellow colour. Identify the
salt and name the reddish fumes
Only nitrates can answer the ring test
Reddish fumes are of HNO3. The metallic ions are Na (golden yellow flames) and the non-
metallic part is NO3 (answers the brown ring test).
Hence, the salt is NaNO3

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2. How is the brown ring test carried out?
i) To the given salt solution, add equal quantity of freshly prepared ferrous sulphate
solution.
ii) To this mixture, add conc. H2SO4 along the sides of the test tube.
iii) A brown ring is formed at the junction of the two solutions (Brown Ring – FeSO4●NO
Nitroso Ferrous Sulphate)
3. Name the following:
i) A black residue – CuO
ii) A yellow residue – PbO
iii) White when cooled – ZnO (/CaO)
iv) A reddish brown gas – NO2
v) A greenish- yellow gas – Cl
vi) Gas that turns Potassium Dichromate paper green – SO2
vii) A carbonate that does not decompose to give CO2 on heating – Na and K carbonates
(All carbonates are insoluble in H2O except Na and K carbonates)
viii) A nitrate on heating gives

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