STUDY CENTRE

WAVES

Wave motion is defined as a form of disturbance transferred from one point to another point involving
transfer of energy but no transfer of matter
Classification of Waves
1) Mechanical Waves : Waves which require a medium for their propagation. Mechanical wave can be
produced and propagated only in those material media which possess elasticity and inertia
eg  Waves on water surface, sound waves
2) Non mechanical waves or electromagnetic waves : EM waves do not require any material medium
for their production and propagation.
Eg.  light waves, radio waves, x-rays
3) Matter waves or de-Broglie waves : Matter waves are associated with the motion of microscopic
particles like electrons, protons, neutrons and other fundamental particles
Types of Mechanical Waves
(i) Transverse Waves : A transverse wave is the one in which the particles of the medium execute
oscillations in a direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation of waves.
Properties
1) It produce crest and trough in a medium
2) It changes shape of the medium
3) It can produce only in a medium with shear modules
4) It propagates only in solids or on the surface of liquids (due to surface tension)
(ii) Longitudinal Waves
In a longitudinal waves particles of the medium execute oscillations in a direction of propagation of
wave.
Properties
i) It produce compression and rarefaction in a medium
ii) Medium required Bulk modulus
iii) It propagate in all material media be it solid, liquid or a gas

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Path difference and phase difference

The mutual separation between two points is called path difference.

x  x 2  x1

Path difference  = phase difference 2

 When a wave travelling through a x distance the phase difference

2 2
  x or   t
 T
Equation of plane progressive simple harmonic wave
A wave which advances in a medium called a progressive wave. If the particles of the medium vibrate
simple harmonically and if the wave front is a plane wavefront, then it is called plane harmonic wave

Suppose a simple harmonic wave which starts from the origin O at t = 0 and travels along the positive
x direction with a speed v.
The displacement of the particle at x = 0 at any instant ‘t’ is given by

y 0,t   A sin t

If  is phase lag of a particle at P w.r.t the particle at the origin O, then the displacement of this particle
at P, at the same time ‘t’ can be written as

y x,t   A sin  t  

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2
At a distance x, the phase change = x


 2 
y x,t   A sin  t  x
  

2
Put  k  propagation constant or angular wave number


 y x,t   A sin  t  kx 

If 0 is the initial phase (for a general choice of the origin of time)

y x,t  Asin  t  kx  0 

If the wave travels in the –ve x direction, the equation of the wave

y x,t  Asin  t  kx  0 

–ve sign in between t and kx implies wave travelling along +ve x direction
+ve sign in between t and kx implies wave travelling along –ve x direction
Terms in wave equation

y x,t   The displacement of an element at position x at any instant t

A  Amplitude : Which is the measure of magnitude of the maximum displacement of the particle
from their equilibrium position.

 t  kx  0   phase : The argument  t  kx  0  is the phase of the wave. It describe the state
of motion of the element located at coordinate x at time t.

0  Initial phase (phase constant) : It describe the phase of the element at location x = 0 and at t =
0
  Angular frequency

2
  2 
T

2
k  Angular wave number k  

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 NEET 2023 LECTURE NOTE - PHYSICS [FIRST YEAR]

Y x,t   A sin  t  kx   0 
2
  2, k 

  x 
 y x,t   A sin 2   t    0 
   

The equation of the wave depends on the position of the observer which is taken as the origin of the
reference frame with respect to which the wave motion is observed.

If 0   2 If 0  


y x,1  A sin t  kx  
2  y x,1  A sin  t  kx   

 y x,t  A cos  t  kx   A sin  t  kx 

y x,t   A sin  kx  t 

Difference between A sin  t  kx  and A sin  kx  t 

y x,t   A sin  t  kx  y x,t   A sin  kx  t 

put t = 0 put t = 0

y  A sin  kx  y  A sin kx

dy dy
 Ak cos kx  Ak cos kx
dx dx
Slope  –ve slope  +ve

Wave equation - Longitudinal wave

S x,t   A sin  t  kx  0 

S x,t   displacement of particle along the direction of wave propagation

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Particle Velocity Acceleration of the particle

d2 y
y x,t   A sin  t  kx  ap 
dt 2

dy
 A cos  t  kx    a p  A2 sin  t  kx 
dt

Vp  A cos  t  kx  a 
p max  A2

V  p max  A

Speed of a travelling wave

displacement
General relation v   v
time


v for 1 time period T, displacement = 
k

 
v    or v 
T k
Velocity of a mechanical wave depends on elastic and inertial properties of the medium.
3. Relationship between particle velocity and wave velocity

y  x, t   A sin  t  kx 

dy  Vp  A cos  t  kx  
  Ak cos  t  kx 
dx  
 vp 
 cos  t  kx   
 A 

VP
Slope   Ak cos  t  kx    Ak 
A

Vp
Slope =  Vp  slope  V
V
Velocity of transverse wave on a stretched string
The speed of transverse wave on a string depends on (i) Tension (ii) linear mass density  (mass per
unit length)

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 NEET 2023 LECTURE NOTE - PHYSICS [FIRST YEAR]

T
v

Mass of the string M
T  
v Length of the string L
A

M MA
  A  Area of cross section
L LA

MA M
=   density  
V V
NOTE
Consider a vertically hanged massive string in which a transverse wave originating from the lower end
propagates to the upper part

At y tension in the string arises due to weight of hanging mass below it

 At y, T = mg
T  yg m  y

T yg
then v  
 

 v  gy  Velocity of wave when it travels a distance ‘y’ from the lower end.

Velocity of transverse wave in solids


v where   modulus of rigidity


  density

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Velocity of Longitudinal Wave

The speed of all mechanical waves follows an expression of the general form

elastic property E
v or V 
inertial property 

Velocity of longitudinal wave in a thin rod

v Y Y  Young’s modulus

  density
In fluids

B
v , B  bulk modulus


  density
In solids

4
B 
v 3 B  bulk modulus


  shear modulus
  density
Speed of Sound wave in a gas
Newton’s formula : He assumed that when a sound wave propagates through a gas, the temperature
variations in the layers of compression and rarefaction are negligible. Hence the conditions are
isothermal.

p
v PV = a constant


Partially differentiating

PV  VP  0

P
P
V
V

B  P
The speed of sound in air at this condition should be 280 m/s. but measured value is 332 m/s

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 NEET 2023 LECTURE NOTE - PHYSICS [FIRST YEAR]

Laplace’s Correction
Laplace suggested that the compression or rarefaction takes place to rapidly and the gas element
being compressed or rarified does not get enough time to exchange heat with the surrounding. Thus
it is an adiabatic process

P
P  = a constant, p 
V
V

p CP
V 
 CV

M
 Ideal gas equation PV = nRT
V
If n = 1 mole, then PV = RT

PV
V 
M
RT
V 
M

3RT
Vrms 
M

Vsound 

Vrms 3
Factors affecting speed of sound
1) Temperature

V1 T
V T or  1
V2 T2

Vt = V0 + 0.61t  For small values of t

V0  Velocity at 0oC
Vt  Velocity at toC
It is found that for every 1oC rise in temperature
Velocity of sound increases by 0.61m/s

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2) Pressure

p
If pressure changes density also changes in such a proportion, hence remains a constat (at constant

temperature). Hence pressure has no effect on the speed of sound in gas
3) Humidity
With the increase in humidity, the density of air decreases.  Speed of sound will increase
Wind
As the sound is carried by air, so its speed is affected by the wind velocity

Resultant velocity = V  Vw cos 

Intensity of a Wave
It is defined as the transfer of energy per unit time per unit area, perpendicular to the direction of
motion of the wave

Energy J Power watt

I unit  or I  unit 
Area  time m2s Area m2
The average intensity transmitted through the medium is given by

  density
1 v  velocity
I  V2 A 2
2
  angular frequency
 I  A2 A  amplitude

A human ear can tolerate and detect sound waves in the intensity range of 1 w w
12
to 10 . The
m2 m2
lowest intensity of sound that can be percieved by the human ear is called threshold of hearing,

I 0  10 12 w
m2 
Sound Level

I 
  10 log I I1  1 2  1  10log  2 
I0  I1 

I 2  2
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 NEET 2023 LECTURE NOTE - PHYSICS [FIRST YEAR]

Reflection of a wave
1) Reflection from a Rigid boundary

As the pulse reaches the wall, it exerts an upward force on the boundary. By Newton’s third law, the
wall exerts an equal amount of force on the string in downward direction. Thus an inverted pulse
produces which travels in reverse direction. Hence there is a phase reversal of 180o or  radian

Eg. Let the incident wave Y x,t   A sin  t  kx 

Reflected wave Y x,t   A sin  t  kx   

Reflection from a open boundary

When the pulse arrives at the ring, the string exerts an upward force on the ring due to which the ring
moves up the rod. As the ring moves, it pulls the string upward producing a reflected pulse of same
amplitude that travels back without any phase change along the string.
When a wave is reflected from a free boundary, it suffers no phase change

Eg. Let the incident wave y x,t   A sin  t  kx 

the reflected wave y x,t   A sin  t  kx 

Super Position of Waves

When any number of waves meet simultaneously at a point in a medium, the net displacement at a
given time is the algebraic sum of the displacement due to each wave at that time

y r  y1  y 2  y3  ......

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Here, we shall discuss the superposition of two individual waves only. There are three types of
superposition
1) Interference
2) Beats
3) Standing waves or stationary waves
1) Interference
When two or more waves of same frequency same wavelength and a constant phase difference
travelling along same direction, superimpose on each other give a new disturbance

Let y1  A1 sin  kx  t 

y2  A2 sin  kx  t  

y  x,t   y1  x, t   y2  x, t 

Y x,t   A r sin  kx  t   

 Ar  A12  A 22  2A1A 2 cos 

1  A 2 sin  
Initial phase   tan  
 A1  A 2 cos  

I  I1  I 2  2 I1I 2 cos 
Constructive Interference Destructive Interference

A r  max A r  min

If cos   1 , for this cos   1

  2n For this    2n  1 

where, n  0,1, 2,..... where n  1,2,3...

Path Difference Path Difference

2 2
  x  2n  1   x
 

2
2n  x 
 x   2n  1
2
x  n

 A max  A1  A 2  A min  A1  A 2

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 NEET 2023 LECTURE NOTE - PHYSICS [FIRST YEAR]

   
2 2
I max  I1  I2 I min  I1  I 2

2 2
A max A1  A 2 I max  I1  I2   A1  A 2 
    
A min A1  A 2 Imin  I1  I 2   A1  A2 

BEATS
The periodic variations in the intensity of sound due to the superposition of sound waves of slightly
different frequencies are called beats, one rise and one fall of the intensity constitute a beat.

Two harmonic sound waves of nearly equal angular freuqency 1 and 2 and fix the location to be

x = 0, for convenience, with a suitable choice of phase.  1  2 

Let S1  a cos 1t

S2  a cos 2 t

S  S1  S2

   2   1  2 
S  2a cos  1  t cos  t
 2   2 

 S  2a cos b t cos a t

1  2
where b 
2

1  2
a 
2

The resultant wave is oscillating with the average angular frequency a . However its amplitude is not
constant in time unlike a pure harmonic wave. In other words due to the variation of amplitude intensity
of the resultant wave waxes and wane.
Beat frequency

Number of beats per second, n  1  2

1 & 2  frequencies of super imposing waves

Beat Period
Time interval between two successive beats or time interval between two successive maxima or time
interval between two successive minima.

1
TB 
1  2

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TB 1
 A maxima and its nearest minima will differ in time by 2  2   
1 2

Stationary waves / Standing waves

When two identical waves of same frequency, same velocity travel in opposite directions along the
same path super impose each other give rise to a new wave. The resultant wave does not travel in the
either direction and therefore is called stationary wave.

Let y1  A sin  kx  t 

y 2  A sin  kx  t 

y  y1  y 2

y  2A sin kx cos t
In the resultant wave particles are oscillating with same angular frequency  , but the amplitude of the
particle is varies from point to point. Amplitude of the resultant wave is

A '  2A sin kx
Amplitude of the particle is determined by its position (x)
Node : The points at which amplitude is zero
Antinode : The points at which amplitude is the largest

Node Antinodes
Amplitude = 0 Amplitude  max

A  2A sin kx  0 A '  2A sin kx  2A  max 

i.e. sin kx  0 for this sin kx  1

For this kx  n  kx   2n  1 
2

2 2
x  n x   2n  1 
  2

x  n x   2n  1 
2 (n=0,1,2,...) 4
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Nodes occure at, x  0,  2 , , 3 2 ..... Antinode occures at , x =  4 , 3 4 , 5 4 .....

Distance between two adjacent nodes =  2

Distance between two adjacent antinodes =  2

Loop length =  2

Distance betwen a node to nearest antinode =  4

If the amplitude of the standing wave, A '  2A cos kx then the graph becomes

Properties of standing waves

1. From node to antinode amplitude gradually increases and decreases from antinode to nearest node.
Amplitude varies from 0 to 2A.
2. All the particles in a particular segment between two nodes vibrate in the same phase but the particles
in the neighbouring segment vibrate in opposite phase.
3. All the particles (except those at nodes) crosses their mean points simultaneously but with different
velocities.
4. Energy becomes alternatively wholly potential and wholly kinetic twice in each cycle.
Transverse standing waves in a stretched string
Consider a uniform string of length L under tension T lying along the x-axis with its ends fixed x = 0
and x = L.
The ends x = 0 and x = L are fixed, so they must be nodes. The boundary conditions are
x = 0, y = 0 for all time
x = L, y = 0 for all time

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At x = L, y = 0 (position of node)

A  2A sin x  0
For this kx  n
2
L  n

n
 L
2
2L

n

The frequency of vibrations of

 V
the string in its n th mod e    
 
nV
n  or
2L
 Natural frequency or Harmonics
n T
n 
2L 

If n  1  1st Harmonic / fundamental frequency

V
1 
2L
  2L
The lowest possible natural frequency of the system

If n  2  2 nd harmonic /1st overtone

V
2  2
2L
2  21
2L
2 
2

If n  3  3rd harmonic / 2nd overtone

V
3  3
2L
3  31
2L

3
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 NEET 2023 LECTURE NOTE - PHYSICS [FIRST YEAR]

Ratio of harmonics = 1 : 2 : 3 : ......... n

Difference between any two consecutive harmonics gives 1st harmonic n 1  n  1

Longest wavelength   2L 1st harmonic 

1 1 1
Ratio of wavelengths = 1: : : : .....
2 3 4
No.of segments/loops in nth harmonic = n
No.of antinodes in nth harmonic = n
No.of nodes in nth harmonic = n + 1
Laws of vibration
For a string excited to nth harmonic

n T n T
n =  ; 2
2L  2L A A  r

1
i. Law of length : If T and  are constants, then  
L

ii. Law of tension : If L and  are constants, then   T

1
iii. Law of  : If L and T are constants  


n T 1
Also n  2
ie  
2L r Lr
SONOMETER :
Its working is based on transverse standing wave.

If the frequency of a tuning fork happens to be equal to one of the natural frequency of the wire,
standing waves with large amplitudes are set up on it. The tuning fork is then said to be in resonance.

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Longitudinal standing waves

An organ pipe is a tube of uniform area of cross section in which air (or gas) is trapped to form an air
column. Sound waves in air entering from one end gets superimposed with its own reflected wave
from the other end to form longitudinal standing waves inside the tube.
Open pipe  Both ends of the pipe are open

Closed pipe  one end open other end closed

In a pipe, the closed end behaves as a rigid boundary and the open end behaves as a free boundary
for the displacement wave. Thus at the closed end displacement node or pressure antinode forms
and at the open end displacement antinode or pressure node forms.
Closed organ pipe

at x = 0, displacement node  A '  2Asin kx

At x = L (Position of an antinode)

A  2A sin kx  Max.
For this sin kx  1
kx   2n  1 
2
2
L   2n  1 
 2

L   2n  1 
4
4L V
 ; 
 2n  1 

V
n   2n  1
4L
Natural frequency / Harmonics
2n  1 
n 
4L 

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 NEET 2023 LECTURE NOTE - PHYSICS [FIRST YEAR]

n  0  1st Harmonic / fundamental frequency

V
0  ;   4L
4L

n  1 3rd harmonic /1st over tone

V
1  3
4L
1  3V0
4L

3

n  2  5 th harmonic / 2nd over tone

V
2  5  50
4L
4L

5

For a closed pipe only the odd harmonics of the fundamenal are the allowed frequencies.

n th overtone   2n  1 Harmonic
th

Ratio of frequencies = 1 : 3 : 5 : 7 .........

Longest wavelength = 4L

1 1 1
Ratio of wavelength = 1: : : ......
3 5 7
No.of nodes = No.of antinodes
Open organ pipe
Both ends are open, each end is an antinode

At x = 0 is the position of antinode  amplitude A  2A cos kx

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At x  L (Antinode)
A   2A cos kx  Max
For this cos kx   1

 kx  n 
2
L  n

n 2L
L or  
2 n

V
n  n
2L
n p  Natural frequency or Harmonics
n 
2L 

n  1  1st harmonic / fundamental frequency

V
1 
2L
  2L

n  2  2nd harmonic / 1st over tone

V
2  2
 2 1
2L
2L

2

n  3  3rd harmonic / 2 nd over tone

V 2L
3  3  3V1 ;  
2L 3

An open pipe generates all the harmonics

Ratio of frequency = 1 : 2 : 3 : 4 : ......

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 NEET 2023 LECTURE NOTE - PHYSICS [FIRST YEAR]

1 1 1
Ratio of wave length = 1: : : : .....
2 3 4
No. of nodes in the nth harmonic = n
No.of antinodes in the nth harmonic = n + 1
End correction
Till now we have assumed that antinodes are formed exactly at the open end of the tube. But due to
the inertia of vibrating particles antinodes are formed a little above the open end of the tube. This
additional distance is called end correction.
For a tube of radius r, e = 0.6 r
For closed organ pipe, the effective length = L + e
For open organ pipe, the effective length = L + 2e
Resonance column

It is used to determine the speed of sound in air with the help of tuning fork of known frequency. It is
a closed pipe whose length can be changed by changing level of liquid in the tube. When a vibrating
tuning fork is brought over its mouth, its air column vibrates longitudinally. The length of the air column
is varies until its natural frequency becomes equal to the frequency of fork, then resonance will occur
and loud sound is heared.

Ist resonating length L1  e   4 ...........(1)

IInd resonating length L 2  e  3 4 .......(2)

L 2  L1  
2

  2  L2  L1 

Velocity V  

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 STUDY CENTRE

V  2  L 2  L1 

L 2  3L1
From the eqns (1) and (2) e 
2
Doppler Effect
The apparent change in the frequency of sound due to relative motion between source and observer
is called doppler effect.
Consider a source of natural frequency  , when source is in relative motion with listner, the apparent

 VV 
frequency  measured by the listner is given by    
L

 V  Vs 

VL  Velocity of listner either towards/away from source

VS  Velocity of source either towards/away from the listner

V  Velocity of sound
Sign convention

    when source and listner approaches each other

    when source and listner moves away from each other

    when source and listner at rest ie. VL  VS  0 or source and listner moving with same
velocity along same direction
When oblique motion is considered, only velocity components in the line joining source and listner are
considered.

 v  v L cos 2 
1    
 v  vs cos 1 

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 NEET 2023 LECTURE NOTE - PHYSICS [FIRST YEAR]

 V0 
    
 V  VS cos  

 V 
    
 V  VS cos  

If    , then   
2
Note:
When a source and listner moving towards a stationary wall

Original force 

 V 
The frequency of sound perceived by the wall (wall listner)     
 V  Vs 
Frequency of the reflected sound perceived by the listner (wall source)

 V  VL 
    
 V 

    V  VL 
     
 V  VS   V 

 V  VL 
    
 V  VS 
Apparent wave length
Re lative velocity of sound with respect to source
' 
Original frequency

v  vs
' 


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