INTRODUCTION INTO PARTICULAR NATURE OF MATTER

Matter – all substances around us

Mixture – combination of at least two substances in any Pure substances
proportions, the components retain their properties during mixing Elements – consist Compounds - consist of two
and can be separated by physical methods [crystallization, of only one kind of or more elements and contain
distillation, filtration, evaporation, chromatography] atom, the simplest the same ratio (fixed
Homogeneous - consist of one phase, Heterogeneous - consist substance that can’t proportions) of its component
is uniform, the composition throughout of two or more phases decompose in simple atoms; związki chemiczne
(solution, air, alloys – stopy metali) (colloids, suspensions - chemical methods Compounds -> molecules
zawiesiny) Elements -> atoms (cząsteczki) -> atoms

State of matter:
Solids
*fixed volume and shape, it can be
slightly compressed
*the particles are packed tightly In fixed
position forming arrangement called
(crystal) lattice, they can only vibrate
*there are strong attractive forces
between particles holding them together
Liquids
*Fixed volume but not shape – they take
the shape of the dish
*The particles can free move, they can
translate (przesuwają się), rotate and
vibrate
*The interactions between particles are
weaker, but particles are still close together
Gases
*Not fixed shape and volume
*The particles move freely but
faster and in more chaotic way
than in liquid, they can rotate,
translate and vibrate
*The interactions are taken zero

Solid -> liquid Melting

Solid -> gas Sublimation
Liquid -> gas Vaporization (parowanie) <- The heating curve of
Liquid -> solid Freezing water
A–B As the ice is heated, the particles faster vibrate so their kinetic energy
Gas -> liquid Condensation (skraplanie) arise and as a result temperature rise until the melting point is reached.
Gas -> solid Deposition B–C At the melting point all energy is used up to break the bond and
overcome the interactions between the particles. So there is no increase In kinetic energy and temperature remains
unchanged and the solid-liquid equilibrium is set up
C–D When liquid is heated the particles are vibrating, rotating move faster and the kinetic energy increases and
temperature rise until the boiling point is reached.
D–E at the boiling point, when all energy is used up to interact between particles there is no increasing kinetic energy and
rising temperature.

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS FORMULAS

Types of reaction
synthesis - Simple for more complex
decomposition (rozpadu) – complex into simpler
replacement/displacement (wymiana)
A+BC -> AB+C – single replacement
AB+CD -> AD+BC – double replacement
combustion – carbon dioxide and water as products

Rules for chemical equations

must be balanced
2 Al Cl3 (współczynniki chemiczne) 2->coefficient, 3->subscript
State of matter (sometimes needed): s, g, aq (aqueous, roztwór wodny), l (substancja występuje jako ciecz)

Reakcje z metalami
Metal (gr1, Ca, Ba, Sr, Mg Orly H2O steam) + woda -> zasada + H2
Metal (aktywniejszy od wodoru) + kwas (z wyjątkiem st. HNO3 i st. H2SO4) -> sól + H2
Metal (aktywniejszy od tego w soli) + roztwór soli innego metalu -> sól + metal
Decomposition reactions
Carbonate (solid) -> CO 2+ metal oxide
Chlorate (V) -ClO 3 (mainly solid) -> O2+ metal chloride -Cl
Heavy metal hydroxide (solid) -> metal oxide + H 2 O

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS

1. If zeroes proceed (poprzedza) non-zeroes digits they are not significant eg. 0.0036= 2 significant figures
2. If zeroes follows non-zeroes digits they are significant eg. 0.500 (no 0.5)
3. If there are no zeroes after dot
a) 3.00x103 <- 300. - three significant figures
b) 3x103 <-300 - one significant figure

How many significant figures are there in following numbers? Write these numbers using scientific notation.
a) 0.0040 4.0x10−3
b) 401 4.01x102
c) 401.0 4.010x102
d) 40.10 4.010x101

When adding or subtracting (odejmowanie) the final result should have the same number of decimal places [miejsca po
przecinku] as the number with the least decimal places
35.52+10.3=45.82=45.8

When multiplying or dividing the final result should be reported with the same number of significant figures as the number
with the least significant figures
6.26(3 sig)x5.8(2 sig)=36.308=36
0.037x0.763=0.028231=0.028
200.13/7.2=27.795833=28
3.76x105 -276=3.76x105
0.00137+3.762=3.76337=3.763

TOK - Tok elements: esej z toku, dyskusje, ask and question, nie na teście

NOS - Nature of science: obowiązkowe na maturze, ale nie dużo

THE CONCEPT OF MOLES

One mole is the amount of substance that contains the same number of particles (atoms, molecules, ions) as they are
exactly in 12 grams of carbon – 12 [C 12]. This number is known as Avogadro’s constant and is equal 6.02x10 23. It is obtain by
dividing 12 gram by the mass of single carbon atom, determined experimentally by means of spectrometer

m[g ]
n ( number of moles )=
M [ g/mol]

TOK part
One mole is enormous number beyond the scope of our everyday experience. How do we understand a number as
large? – to understand enormous number we need to compare it with a huge number of things which we know
from the life. For example, one mol is one tenth of all groins of sand on Sahara dessert.

2CuSO4-> two moles of CuSO4; two moles of copper, two moles of sulphur, eight moles of oxygen

12.04x1023 molecules of CuSO4 2Cu+2S+8O=12 atoms

EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR RORMULA

Empirical – P2O5 informs about the simplest whole number ratio of atoms present in the molecule uproszczony, stosunek
najmniejszych liczb
Molecular formula – P4O10 Informs about the real number of atoms of each type in the molecule
Ustal wzór – liczba moli atomów

THE MEASUREMENT IN CHEMISTRY. THE UNCERTAINTY AND ERRORS IN CHEMISTRY

Difference between precision and accuracy
Precision – means how close the several measurements of the same quantity are to each other. It is associated with
random errors
Accuracy – means how the obtained (final) result is close to generally accepted and literature value. It is associated with
systematic errors and measured by percentage error

%error = |experimentalliterature
value−literature value
value |x 100 %
How to determine the precision of the equipment if it is not stated by a manufacturer
For analogue ± half of the smallest division on the scale
For digital ± the smallest scale division (last number)
Random errors are caused by for example: insufficient data (we need to make more than one measurement and take the
average), the change in the surrounding (like air current or temperature), parallex error(eye on the level of the liquid in
dish), the incorrect interpretation of observer, they can be reduce by repeating measurements
Systematic errors are caused by poorer designed or presage and the examples also include incorrect technique of
measurement (measure the value from the top instead from the top of meniseues), not calibrating digital instruments, the
reaction time of experiment of observer (spóźniony refleks), they can’t be reduced by repeating measurements
Each measurement has uncertainty (±) associated with it and each calculated has uncertainty associated with it
Rule 1. Add absolute uncertainties when adding or subtracting results
Rule 2. Add percentage uncertainties when dividing and multiplying the result and then convert it into absolute ones
(20.0±0.2)+(5.0±0.3)=25±0.5
544±1x45.0±0.1=24480±X
1
x 100 %=0.2 %
544
0.1
x 100 %=0.2 %
45.0
X=0.4%(0.2+0.2)=97.92=98

Data processing (obróbka danych)

1. Calculate the average mass of sample

a. Trial 1: mass of substance+crucible+lid – crucible+lid with uncertainty
b. Trial 2: -||-

Theoretical yield - The amount of product that can be obtained according to equation
Experimental yield – the amount of product (!) which is obtained in experiment
experimental yield
Percentage yield = × 100 %
theoretical yield
Limiting reactant – it is the substance which is completely used up/consumed in the reaction. The amount of product
depends on limiting reactant
Reactant in excess – it is not used up in reaction

AVOGADRO’S LAW. MOLAR VOLUME OF GASES

The equal volume of different gases measured at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of
molecules
2SO2(g)+ O2(g) -> 2SO3(g) 2:1:2

All
 1) Reactants and products are gases
2) The volumes are measured under the same temperature and preassure
Ratio of number of moles and ratio of volumes are the same
One mole of a gas at stp (standard temperature=273K=0°C and pressure=100kPa) occupies 22.7 dm 3

KINETIC THEORY OF GASES. IDEAL GAS EQUATION

Kinetic molecular theory

1. Particles of a gas are in constant motion and collide with both one another (with each other) and the container
2. The gas is mostly empty space (the particles are far apart)
3. Pressure is exerted when the particles hit the side of the container
4. We assume that the particles do not interact with each other (the interactions are negligible, collisions are elastic)
5. Average kinetic energy in the gas in proportional to the temperature (in Kelvins) – if temperature goes up,
particles move faster

The Ideal gas model was introduced to explain the behaviour of real gases. At STP real gases behave as ideal gases (all
postulates of kinetic theory are true). However at low temperature and high pressure the real gases deviate from ideal
gases
At high pressure the molecules are more closely together therefore the interactions and forces between them are not
negligible. What’s more the volume of gases molecules increases to about 20% of total volume of container so also the
volume of particles are not negligible
At low temperature move slower. Lower kinetic energy favours (sprzyja) stronger inter molecular forces

pV=nRT
p – pressure (kPa)
V – volume (dm3)
kPa x d m3
R – gas constant (8.31 )
mol x K
T – temperature (K)
[Pa] -> [m3]
Piston - tłok

GAS LAWS

Boyle’s law
It describe the relationship between volume and pressure for the fixed amount of gas at constant tempreture
pressure is inversely proportional to the volume
pV=constant
if p1V1 means initial conditions and p2 V2 means final conditions, this law can be represented by expression if p 1 x
V1= p2 xV2
p [Pa] ± 0.25 Pa V [cm3] ± 0.5cm3
16.00 30.00
17.00 28.00
19.50 25.00
21.00 22.00
24.25 20.00

Charles’ law
States the relationship between volume and temperature at fixed pressure and for fixed (constant) amount of a
V
gas =constant
T
Volume is directly proportional to the temperature
 V1 V2
If T1, V1 are initial and T2, V2 are final, true is statement =
T1 T2

Guy Lussac’s law

p
For fixed volume and number of moles/amount of a gas =constant
T
Pressure is directly proportional to temperature
p1 p2
If p1, T1 means initial conditions and p2, T2 means final conditions, =
T1 T2

Experiment
1. A piece of cotton is soaked in alcohol, light on fire and put in the flask.
2. The egg is placed on the top of the flask
3. The pressure sucked the egg inside
4. The flame heats and expands the air and when the flame goes out, the air cools and the pressure decrease

p1V 1 p2V 2
Combined laws --- =
T1 T2

SOLUTIONS

Solution is homogeneous mixture that consist from only one phase. This is made of solute (one or more) and solvent (only
one). Saturated [nasycony] solution that contains the maximum at given temperature mass of solute. Methods of
separating– crystallization, evaporation and distillation, filtration

n( solute)
CM= [mol/dm3]
V ( solution)

Preparation of molar concentration

Prepare (write the instructions) 0cm3 0.5 mol/dm3 of NaCl solution

Calculate mass of solute

m
Cm=
M xV

Weigh the calculated mass of NaCl

Put the funnel into volumetric flask (100 cm 3) and place the substance into the flask

Rinse small beaker small amount of water few times until all solute is transfered

Pour the water into the flask up to the line (use a pipette if necessary) [through the funnel; remember about parallax and
bottom of menisque]

Stop the flask by the stopper and mix carefully

Dilute solution [rozcieńczony] is a solution that contains small quantity/amount of solute dissolved in large amount of
water

Titration [miareczkowanie] is the technique used to determine the concentration of unknown reactant. The standard
solution of exactly (3 or even 4 decimal places) that is poured to burette. Then drop by drop it is added to the given
volume of solution with unknown concentration. The progress of reaction is monitored using the indicator [wskażnik]
which changes its colour at the end point of titration. It is used for determination of concentration of unknown acid or
base, for determination the percentage purity or molar mass of the substance, for determination the amount of water in
hydrate. Back titration is used when it isn’t possible to directly titrate the solution of unknown concentration. In this case
the excess of standard solution is added and then this excess is titrated against indicator with next standard solution

QUANTITATIVE CHEMISTRY

Experiment to determine the molar mass of a gas

Trial 1 Trial 2
Mass of heated tube +CuCO3 before heating [g ±0.001] 33.910 33.912
Mass of heated tube +CuCO3 after heating [g ±0.001] 33.823 33.822
Volume of gas [cm3 ±0.5] 38.0 38.5
Temperature [K ±0.1] 293.0 293.0
Pressure [kPa ±0.1] 101.3 101.3

Bubles of gas were produced after heating. Solid turns its colour into black

m
pV= RT
M

Calculate the average mass of the gas produced +percentage uncertainty

Trial 1: 33.910-33.823=0.087 ±0.002g
Trial 2: 33.912-33.822=0.090 ±0.002g
Average: (0.087 ±0.002g + 0.090 ±0.002g)/2=0.177 ±0.004g /2= 0.0885 ±0.002g
Percentage uncertainty: 0.002/0.0885x100%=2.26%

Volume
Average: 38.25
%uncertainty= 1/38.25x100%=2.61%

0.089 x 8.31 x 293

M= −3 =56 g/mol
101.3 x 38.25 x 10

%uncertainty of pressure= 0.1/101.3x100%= 0.10%

%uncertainty of temperature=0.1/293.0x100%=0.03%
Absolute uncertainty= 2.26%+2.61%+0.10%+0.03%=5.00%

5%x56= ±2.8

56−44
%error= x 100 %=27%
44

Errors were mostly systematic (predominate): Measurement of carbon dioxide in the water is not correct technique
because carbon dioxide can dissolve in the water and the volume would be smaller that should bestopper in the test tube
doesn’t fit tightly so some gas could escape and the volume was smaller, the pressure was measured outside so refers to
surrounding and not to the probe and the pressure should be different (probably smaller); incorrect technique of
measurement, badly measured volume of gas, not calibrating digital instruments, the reaction time of experiment of
observer, used water wasn’t distillated, pure,

Improvements: before starting the experiment we should check whether the stopper fit correctly in the probe and doesn’t
change its position, The gas should be collected into the syringe, without the water, the pressure should be measured
inside the syringe by a pressure sensor

NATURE OF SCIENCE

Scientists need to understand the difference between errors and uncertainties, precision and accuracy . They also need to
use such ideas as standard deviation or average value. They also should decide which technique and equipment is the
most appropriate to the experiment. The example of flawed experiment in science is opera experiment. It shows the
importance of testing the reliability and validity of results in science.

The Opera experiment was to measure the time in which the neutrinos come from Italy to gran sasso experiment seemed
to show that there exist particles which are faster than light (neutrinos arrived 60 billionths of second earlier while the
uncertainty was ± 10 billionths). The repeating of the experiment didn’t change the results, so the scientists deduced there
were made systematic errors. Finally it happens that the errors were the timing gear and optical fibre connection.

Taking repeating measurements and large number of readings improve real ability and validity of results. The impact of
error is showed in the crash of mars climate orbiter space-craft

The NASA experiment which was lead with help of the climate orbiter was planned to show the history of water on Mars
and the potential for life in the planet’s past. The orbiter was designed specially to be able to cross Mars’ atmosphere, but
one of the engineering team interpretated data in metric units and the second used English units. In the end the Mars
orbiter burned in mars’ atmosphere and the experiment failed because of misunderstanding between two teams
THE ATOM
The concept of atom is originated by Greek philosopher, Democritus () but it was undeveloped until 19 th century by John
Dalton. Dalton’s theory was a paradigm shift (coined by Thomas Kichned). Dalton theory: the matter consist of very small
indivisible [niepodzielne] particles (not true due to discovery sub-atomic particles – proton, neutron, electron) the element
consist of the atoms of only one type (not true because of izotopes). The atoms of differ elements differ (true). the atoms
can join together forming molecules. In chemical reactions the atoms can’t be created or destroyed. They usually replace
each other. Dalton used indirect evidence comparing masses in reactions. Nowadays the evidence for the structure of
atoms is directed for example by studying the nature of radioactivity or by studying the light limited by excited gases
(spectra - widma).

The scanning tunnelling microscope [mikroskop skaningowy] can be used to see the surface of atoms

Three models of atoms

Thomson’s model (plum pudding) – the atom is spherical with positive charge in which there are randomly embedded
negative electrons
Rutherford model (compared to solar system) – in the centre there is positive nucleus and around it negative
electrons orbiting like the planets around the sun. The mass of the nucleus is large in comparison with the space
around (almost the whole mass of atom is concentrated in the nucleus is 10 000 times smaller than whole atom pear
bean to sport field)
Bohr’s model – in the centre there is positively charged nucleus. Around the nucleus there are negative electrons in
circular orbits. Each orbit has characteristic energy (the value increases with the distance from the nucleus) and both
energy and number of orbits are quantized (dozwolone są ściśle określone wartości)

Widma liniowe pierwiastków udowadniają słuszność postulatów Bohra. The electron can ’jump’ from one orbit into
another, emitting or absorbing the energy in the form of quantum
ΔE = h (Planck’s constant) x frequency
Absorption – if we have Bohr’s model and the electron jumps further from nucleus, it must absorb enegry
Emission – from further to closer orbit
Rutherford’s experiment - Radioactive radium was used by Rutherford in the experiment with thin gold foil. The particles
pass by gold foil and was detected by the circle screen, cowered by fluorescent substance. Almost all of particles passes
through the foil without any deflection, but some of them were deflected from their way and very few were bounced
backward. Taking into account the results of experiment Rutherford stated that the heavy positively charged alfa particles
can be deflected only by very small particle with the same charge and great mass. He stated that almost all space around
the nucleus was empty space. The deflection was caused by the positively charged heavy particle.
Modern view of an atom: in the centre there is positively charged nucleus containing protons and neutrons. Around the
nucleus negatively charged electrons are moving very fast forming electron cloud with the density decreasing with the
distance of the nucleus (far – less denser). This is probability model meaning that the pathway of the electron is unknown
and only probability of finding the electron in the space around the nucleus can be determined - electron position is
unpredictable. The concept of orbits is rejected and instead of them the energy levels [poziom energetyczny] are used.
Subatomic particles [cząstki elementarne]
relative charge relative mass
Proton +1 1
Electron -1 1/1840
Neutron 0 1
Relative – bez jednostki
Each atom is described by two numbers: Atomic number (Z) and mass number (A). Atomic number is the number of
protons in the atom. Mass number is the sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
42
20 Ca
p = 20 n = 22 e- = 20 relative nuclear charge = 20
Isotopes – they are atoms of the same element described by the same atomic number but different mass number hence
they differ in number of neutrons. They have the same chemical properties, but different physical (mass, density, melting
and boiling point)
Three isotopes of hydrogen
1 2 3
1 H (n=0 , light hydrogen) 1 H (n=1, heavy hydrogen , deuterium) 1H (n=2, tritium)
Almost all elements are the mixture of their isotopes (9 aren’t). The relative atomic mass of the element is calculated
taking into account the percentage abundance (zawartość) of the isotopes and their mass
A 1 % m1+ A 2 % m2 +…
Ar =
100 %
When the element consist from two isotopes
A 1 % m1+ A 2 % (100 %−m2)
Ar =
100 %
Calculate the percentage abundance of two isotopes of boron. The first has 5 neutrons, the second 6. You can find in the
periodic table the relative atomic mass
Different species – ions, anions, cations
Relative atomic mass is the average mass of all isotopes of an element relative to an mass of one atom of carbon-12 ( 12C).
The average taking into account the percentage abundance of the isotope.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Many of isotopes of elements are radioactive, because the nuclei of these atoms break down spontaneously and they emit
radiation ,  or . Radioisotopes can occur naturally or be created artificially. Some uses of isotopes are:
a) Dating artefacts (Egyptian mummies, carbon-14)
b) Treating cancerous cells (cobalt-60,  rays emitter)
c) Treating thyroid cancer or diagnosis whether a thyroid gland (gruczoł tarczycowy)is functioning normally (iodine-
131,  and  rays emitter)
d) Preservation of food (expose to isotopes to kill bacteria and viruses)
e) To generate energy in nuclear power stations (uranium-235)
f) Finding mechanism of chemical reactions
g) Sterilize surgical instruments in hospital
The relative abundances used to determine relative atomic mass are found
experimentally by means of a technique called mass spectrometry.
The sample (typically in an aqueous or organic solution) is injected into mass
spectrometer. Then it immediately vaporized by a heater [w stanie gazowym
łatwo zjonizować (utworzyć jony dodatnie - kationy) próbkę], and ionized
being bombarded by high-energy electrons. These electrons have enough
energy to knock electrons of the atoms creating positively charged ions.
These ions are accelerated in electric field and deflected by a magnetic field.
The deflection depends on the mass of ion and its charge. Lighter ions and
with the highest charge are deflected greater. The relative abundance for a
specific ion in the sample can be calculated taking into account mass-to-
charge-ratio (m/z, where m is a mass of the ion and z is equal to its charge) which is inversely
proportional to deflection

This probability model uses a wave function to describe mathematically the location of electrons in
the atom. This quantum model is a result of:
- De Broglie’s thesis: the electrons possess not only properties of particles but also properties of wave (show wave-
particular duality). Evidence for this is that electrons can be diffracted by passing them through very narrow slits. (this
process is characteristic only for waves). The electrons are described by such
quantities as: energy, momentum, mass, length of wave and frequency. The
movement of electron is characterized by the wave length =h/p
- Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle [zasada nieoznaczoności Heisenberga]: it is
impossible to know the exact position and momentum [pęd] of an electron at
the same moment of time. The more precisely the momentum is, the less
precisely the location is known
- Schrödinger’s equation which he describes the behaviour and energy of
electron. The solutions of this equation are wave functions called atomic
orbitals and they mathematically define the regions of space where electron is
likely to be found
orbital atomowy = funkcja falowa

Fro
m quantum theory it can be shown that the electron in an atom exist in orbitals
and each orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons. Each electron in the
atom is described by different quantum numbers – each number determines
different quantity like: energy, momentum or spin (internal movement of electron in magnetic field). The electron acts like
tiny magnet, spinning in magnetic field in two opposite directions: clockwise and anti-clockwise; (spinning can be pictured
in very simplistic way like the earth on its axis)
Shapes of orbitals
Each orbital shows the electron density for an
electron of a given energy. The shape of an atomic
orbital is visualized as a boundary surface [kontur
orbitalu]within the electron spends 95% of its
existence. Using complex calculations scientists
have deduced that orbits are spherically
symmetrical about the nucleus: they are sketched
as circles. P orbitals have two opposing lobes, one
on each side of nucleus – they are shaped rather
like a figure of eight: one lies along x axis (px), one
along y axis (py) and one lies along z axis (pz). They
differ in shape (s i p), size (s1 i s2), location in 3d
space ( px i py)
The way in which electrons are arranged in atomic orbitals is called electronic configuration. Electrons are arranged
according to three basic rules
 The building-up (Aufbau) principle – it states the electrons fill atomic orbitals in order to increase energy – 4s orbital
has lower energy than 3d, 5s lower than 4d
 The Pauli exclusion principle – no more than two electrons can occupy any one orbital and they must spin in two
opposite directions
 Hund’s rule – it states that the most stable arrangement of electrons in the orbital equal energy (e.g. 2px, 2py, 2pz) is
one with the greatest number of parallel spins. Therefore these orbitals will be filled with one electron each with
parallel spin before a second electron is added with the opposite spin
The ways in which electron configuration is showed
o Full electron configuration, using the symbols of orbitals and the number of electrons
o Electrons in boxes each orbital is showed as a box and the electrons as arrows in the boxes, graphical
Abbreviated form of configuration with the noble gas core. The outer electrons are represented by symbols of orbitals or
electrons-in-boxes. Within any energy sub-levels the orbitals having the same energy are called degenerate. There are one
orbital s, three orbitals p, five orbitals d, seven orbitals f. Valance electrons are those that take part in chemical reaction
and bond formation. They have the highest energy and they belong to the outermost [najbardziej odległy] energy level or
two energy levels with the highest energy.

There are two exceptions for configuration in block 4 – Cr and Cu. For the atomic number equal 24 (Cr) and 29 (Cu) the
sublevels spd are close having similar energy so the electron can be promoted from 4s to 3d obtaining more stable
configuration with minimal electrostatic repulsion between electrons. Generally half filled d sublevel or full d sublevel is
more stable arrangement.

Each shell contain n (number of energy level) sublevel. Each sublevel contain orbitals. 2n^2 maximal number of electrons
in each shell. Energy of orbitals depends on atomic number
First energy level (shell, max 2 electrons)  contains one sub-level (name is s)  1s atomic orbital
Second energy level (max 8 electrons)  contain two sub-levels (s, p)  four atomic orbitals (2s, 2px, 2py, 2pz)
Third energy level (max 18 electrons)  contain three sub-levels (s, p, d)  nine atomic orbitals (3s, 3px, 3py, 3pz, five
orbitals 3d)...

Cations are formed by removing the valance electron from neutral atom. The energy needed for this process is known as
ionization energy (endoenergetic process). Anions are formed by adding the electrons to the outermost energy level. In
this process the energy is released - electron affinity [powinowactwo elektronowe]. Elements create ions to reach the
configuration of stable gases (main groups) – the noble gas configuration are the most stable energically
d-block elements forming ions removing firstly electrons from s sub-level and then d-sublevel in the outermost energy
levels

Excited state of an atom – on the same energy level. Carbon in organic molecules is tetravalent [czterowartościowy].
Valency results from the configuration – as many electrons remain unpaired, as many bonds can form. Nitrogen can’t be in
excited state long due to the Lack of orbital d in reach of second energy level.

LINE SPECTRA

Electromagnetic spectrum

Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation. Radiation is the emission and transmission of energy through the space in the
form of waves described by the wavelength () and frequency (). All electromagnetic waves travel with speed c=× and
energy E=h× (h - Planck’s constant). The smaller the wavelength is, the higher the frequency and the energy.

Electromagnetic waves have a wide range of wavelengths ranging from low energy radio waves to very high energy –rays
(they have the smallest wavelength and the highest frequency).

There are two basic types of spectra

a) Continuous spectra – a spectrum having no lines or bands; the different colours merge smoothly into one another,
all frequencies are present. It can be produced when white light is passed through a prism. All frequencies are
pe]resent (violet – the highest frequency, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red – the lowest frequency). A
rainbow can be an example of continuous spetra
b) Line spectrum – only certain wavelengths are present; it usually refers to the emission lines (bright lines of specific
colours with black space in between) and absorption lines (dark lines in a continuous spectrum)
 Hydrogen spectrum:

The emission spectra are produced by thin gases in which the atoms do not experience many collisions (because of low
density). When the element is excited by e.g by heating or by being exposed to a high voltage, it will often emit light of a
characteristic colour at specific wavelengths. The light emitted by element is examined by a spectroscope

The electron in an atom can exist only at certain energy level. Under normal conditions, the electrons fill the lowest energy
levels first (so called ground state). When sufficient energy is supplied to the atom, it is possible to excite an electron to a
higher energy level. This state is unstable so the electrons drop back at lower energy levels emitting the excess energy as
electromagnetic radiation (called photon). The frequency of the light emitted by the element and hence a colour, depends
on the amount of energy according to the equation ΔE=h× (h – Planck’s constant) and is directly proportional to the
energy difference between those levels, this means that the radiation emitted when an electron falls from a higher to a
lower energy level can have only fixed frequencies (is quantized)
Every elements has unique emission spectrum. It is used in chemical analysis to identify unknown atoms, like fingerprints
used to identify people. Emission spectra give evidence for Bohr’s model and modern atomic structure.
Most of the spectrum is invisible to the eye because it is either in the infra-red or the ultra-violet. The complete spectrum
of hydrogen consist of separate series of distinct wavelengths concentrated in ultraviolet, visible and infrared regions of
the electromagnetic spectrum. The visible part of hydrogen spectrum consist of four lines of different colours which
converge [zbiegaja się, zbliżają się] to the high energy end of spectrum. The hydrogen spectrum consists of discrete lines
and that the lines converge towards the high energy (violet) end of the spectrum. The lines of the spectrum converge
because the energy levels converge. Each series corresponds to the transition (przejście) of electron to a particular energy
level.

IONIZATION ENERGY – evidence for energy levels and sub-levels

The first ionization energy can be obtained from emission spectra. In an atom the highest possible energy level
corresponds to the frequency at which the lines in the spectrum come together. So, determining the frequency at which
the converging spectral lines come together – the ionization energy of an element is found.
First IE is the energy needed remove one electron from the atom in gaseous state Me (g)  Me+ (g) + e-
How does ionization energy confirm the arrangement of electrons in atom?
Ionization energy is increasing with increasing number of group. Across the
period the trend is increasing and within the group it is decreasing. The
general plot of first ionization energy provides the evidence for main energy
levels. The noble gases have the highest values of first IE whereas the metals
from the first group the lowest. The noble gas the valance electrons at
different energy level which is closer to the
nucleus in comparison to the metal from
the first group. as result more energy is
needed to remove the electron from
outermost energy level. There are in the second and third period two drops in the values
of the ionisation energy. They provides the evidence for sub-shells.
Exceptions: Boron has lower energy than beryllium and oxygen lower than nitrogen.
Sulphur has lower energy than phosphorus and aluminium has lower energy than
magnesium.
It is easier to ionize an element which lie further from the nucleus of atom (boron). The electrons removed from beryllium
when the atom is ionized exist on 2s sublevel whereas the electron removed from beryllium there is on 2p sublevel which
is further from the nucleus so less strongly held by the nucleus so requires less energy.
Boron has its outermost electron in the p sublevel. As the p sublevel is further from the nucleus, the attractive force
between this electron and the nucleus is smaller and so less energy is required to remove the electron. In the case of
beryllium, the electron removed when a beryllium atom is ionized comes from 2s orbital which is closer to the nucleus
hence is stronger attracted by the nucleus.

There is also a decrease in ionization energy between nitrogen and oxygen. It can be explained by looking at the electron
configurations of these elements. The electrons removed when nitrogen and oxygen are ionized come from 2p orbitals.
However, there is an important difference in the way electrons are distributed in these atoms. Nitrogen has 3 unpaired
electrons in the 2p subshell, whereas oxygen has 2 unpaired and 2 paired electrons. In the case of oxygen, the electron –
electron repulsion between the two paired electrons in one p orbital make the pair slightly easier to remove.
SUCCESSIVE IONIZATION ENERGY

The evidence for main energy levels and sub-levels also comes from the successive ionization energy (energy needed to remove all the
electrons from the atom)

In graph there are two significant increases in energy between

removing 1 and 2 electron and between removing 9 and 10. The
increase occur when the electron is removed from a new energy level,
closer to the attractive charge of the nucleus.
The second IE is illustrated by equation M+(g) -> Me2+(g) + e-
the third by equation Me2+ (g) -> Me3+ (g) + e-
The second electron removed has higher The second electron comes
from the sublevel closer to the nucleus and in the positively charged
ion there are more protons than electrons so there are stronger
attractive forces between the nucleus and electron. In case of cations
there is stronger attraction forces

Ionization energy when the electron are removed from the same
because there is gradually less repulsions between remaining
electrons after successive removal as a result these electrons are
pulled in closer to the nucleus and stronger attracted

There can be seen the difference in increase in ionization energy

between 7 and 8 removed electrons so they must be derived from the
same energy level, but they are from different sub-levels. One of them
(sub-levels) is further from the nucleus and the energy there isn’t
significant difference in energy between them so they belong to the
same energy level

EMISSION SPECTRA AND IONIZATION

At the limit of convergence the lines merge forming a continuum. Beyond the continuum the electron can have any energy so is no
longer under influence of the nucleus: the electron is outside the atom so ionization occurred. The frequency of the radiation in the
emission spectrum at a limit of convergence is used to determine value of IE.
ΔE=h =c/ ΔE=hc/
Nature of science: Scientific theories must be supported by experimental evidence to be accepted. CERN is the European organization
for nuclear research. The CERN project involves over 20 countries from Europe and some outside Europe. It is an example of
international collaborative scientific research. The experimental results are obtained by means Large Hadron Collider [wielki zderzacz
Hadrona] give the evidence for the existence of high boson particle. Its existence was predicted by the theoretical model known as the
Standard Model describing how the universe is constructed and is responsible for the forces that occur in nature.
Scientific ideas often start as speculations which are later confirmed experimentally (nature of science statement). E.g. the existence of
Higgs boson particle was suggested by Higgs but it taken almost 40 years when two separate teams working with Large Hadron Collider
independently announced that they collected evidence to support Higgs statement
Many scientific discoveries involved flashes of intuition comes from simple curiosity e.g. de Broglie speculated on the wave properties
of sub-atomic particles by combining Einstein and Planck’s theory.

What is the significance of the models in chemistry? Scientists create

models to help them to visualize complex properties, structures or
behaviours and help us in better understanding of abstract concepts
and they are representation of reality. Models are not real, they do not
always look like actual objects. It is attempt to describe unfamiliar
things by familiar ideas.

What we currently believe to be true is only a temporary resident

waiting only for the day when its limitations are discovered. Can a
model be changed? A model can be changed as new information is
collected. Scientific model 
Co się powinno znaleźć we wniosku [conclusion]

1. Cel ćwiczenia, użyta metoda (bez procedury) np. ustalenie wzoru poprzez prażenie substancji; krótko
2. Krótki komentarz na temat precyzji i dokładności naszych wyników
3. Jeśli liczy się wielkość należy porównać ją z literaturą i zrobić procentowe odchylenie – należy podać źródło, z
którego zaczerpnęliśmy wielkość. Natomiast jeśli badamy trend też musi być porównanie z literaturą trendu wraz z
podaniem źródła
4. Jeśli jest trend, musi być uzasadnienie teorii

Evaluation

1. Zdecyduj, czy popełnione zostały błędy systematyczne, czy przypadkowe, jakie mogły one być wraz z
uzasadnieniem – trywialne nie są brane pod uwagę (brudna waga, coś nie tak, nieprzeczytana instrukcja – trzeba
to skorygować wcześniej)
2. Ulepszenie – do każdego zaproponowanego błędu trzeba podać rozwiązanie. Muszą być realistyczne i
wyszczególnione (konkretna dokładność wagi).

The most important systematic errors in the experiment with determining the formula of oxide or hydrate. Method of
cooling of the compound - The substances that are moisture sensitive should be cooled using vacuum desiccated
The second cause of error may be the fact that substance that is heated contain some impurities – it must have maximum
purity or have the sign “analytical grade” written on container.
Czysty do analiz – cz.d.a analytical grade
Some substance has not react completely