| UNIT - I | JET ENGINE COMBUSTION CHAMBERS SS a 5 1. COMBUSTION CHAMBERS | The combustion process occurs inside the combustion chamber in which heat is added to the compressed air. The combustion chamber is also known as combustor ‘or bumer. The combustion chamber is situated between the compressor and ubine, where the high pressure air from the compressor is burned with the fuel and delivers hot gas to the turbine. The energy of combustion is partially absorbed ty the turbine to run the compressor and the remaining energy is used to exhaust the hot gases at high velocity to produce thrust. Combustion in gas turbine engines is a continuous process that takes place at |high pressure in a smaller space at high temperature. An electric spark or igniter is required for initiating the combustion process, then the flame is self-sustaining inside the combustion chamber. The design of combustion chambers is a complex process involving aerodynamics, chemical reactions and mechanical design. The uses of computational fluid dynamics make the design process easier with better understanding of complex flow inside the combustor and reduce their experimentation. The main requirements of combustors are identified as follows: * The combustion pressure loss should be minimum, * The length and frontal area of the combustor must remain within limits set by other engine components. Combustion efficiency should be high at different Operating conditions. * The outlet temperature distribution must be uniform to maximize the life of the turbine blades and nozzle guide vanes,It should be free from pressure fluctuations and other combustio, instabilities, ” * The complete combustion of fuel must be achieved in small space of combustor in less time. It should meet the pollutant emissions regulations, i.e., low emissions of! smoke, unburned fuel. | 4 Reliable and smooth ignition over wide range of atmospheric conditions, “It should have minimum cost and easy to maintain. + The formation of carbon deposits must be avoided because Particles | carried into the turbine in the high velocity gas stream can erode the turbine blades. “Durability and relighting capability. “Ability to utilize wide range of fuels. 3.2. CHEMISTRY OF COMBUSTION The rate of combustion is limited by the rate at which the fuel is vaporized and mixed with air. In most of the combustors, the fuel is injected as atomized spray into the combustion zone where it mixes with air and produces hot combustion gases. The rate of reaction (combustion) depends on the pressure and temperature inside the combustor. It is approximated by a form of the Arrhenius equation is given as = RT Reaction rate oc P" f(T) e where, n - number of molecules involved in a reactive collision F(T) - function that relates the reaction rate to the forms of energy -E en ~ number of molecular collisions in which the energy of one molecule relative to another exceeds the active energy (E) and R is the universal gas constantLa Fgine Combustion Chambers yeh (Fics = 15.571 las (ii) :Less air (70% of Stoichiometric) | fess air mee mixture is rich. So the amount of fuel will be more than stoichiometric. 9 ACsHs + 70% of {5(02 + 3.76 N,)} = a CO + bH,O + 70% {18.8 No} | gquating the molecules of C, H and O. 3A=a3 4N=b ; 0.7x5x2 = a+b | a+b=7 | 3N+40=7 1 =5-1 | so, a=3x1 3 by So a=3 base 4 CyHy + 0.7 x 5{O, + 3,76 Nz} => 3. CO +410 + 0.7% 18.8) No CyHy + 3.5 (O + 3.76 Np) = 3 CO* 4H,0 + 13.16 N, A _ 35.(2x 16) + 3.76 x 28.013 F rich = ~ (3 x12.011) + (8 x 1.008) - A F Jless air Answer : EN = (B levioriomerc = 15.571 A F Jless air 3.4. COMBUSTION PROCESS " 10.899 10.899 The combustion process occurs within the combustion chamber involves the following steps. aaoN Propition~) 1. Introduction of the fine Spray of fuel droplets and. mixing jt Wi compressed air flowing through the combustor. | 2. Vaporization of droplets with air. 3. Breaking down of heavy hydrocarbons into lighter fractions. 4, The intimate mixing of these hydrocarbon molecules with Oxygen molecules and the chemical reaction themselves. Swirl Vanes Flame Tube Air Casing Dilution Air Holes Sealing Ri Primary Zone ealing Ring Interconnector Corrugated Joint Fig. 3.1. Combustion Chamber Firstly, the temperature of the fuel droplets decreases before the combustion since both the enthalpy used in raising the temperature of the liquid fuel to its boiling point and the latest heat of evaporation of the fuel are absorbed from the enthalpy of the worm compressed air.Go zine Combustion Chambers S the temperature of the combustion {0 cool the combustion products to the des, $e acondlys the combustion Process. raises vot and the secondary air is introduced br temperature acceptable to turbine bla jimary Zone Dilution Zone Fig. 3.2. Airflow distribution inside combustor The working of the typical combustion chamber is explained as follows, | The compressed air from the compressor enters the combustion chamber at a ‘elocity range of 100-150 m/s. The first step is to decelerate the airflow to 20-30 las because the air speed is too high for combustion. The speed of the fuel droplets lee low, so it is blown away by high airspeed. Therefore, low-velocity regions ‘ae created inside the combustor using swirlers/bluff bodies for continuous ‘combustion. The overall air-to-fuel ratios (AFR) vary between 45:1 to 130:1 during ‘normal operation. However, the fuel droplets (kerosene fuel) burns completely at iaRR of 15:1, so the fuel must be bumed only with part of the air entering the mbustion zone. About 20% of air “combustor, that zone is called: as primary co) ‘eters the primary zone through snout. Immediately downstream of the snout are ‘svi vanes and a perforated flare, through which air passes into the primary zone. [Though the wall of the flame tube body, [leted number of secondary holes, through which a further 20% of the main flow i¢ from the swirl vanes and the air from adjacent to the combustion zone, are a lot air passes into the primary zone. The ail ihe secondary holes interacts with each other and creates a low velocity "eitculation zone, The temperature of the gases released by the combustion is jbo 1800°C - 2000°C, which is too high can’t acceptable by turbine blades. 0% of the main flow of air is introduced progressively into the flame tube hot gases in the dilution zone. An electric spark from an igniter plug12 = initiates the combustion process and then the flame is self-sustaineg by velocity recirculation zones within the combustion chamber. 3.5. COMBUSTION CHAMBER COMPONENTS The combustion chamber of the gas turbine engine consists of folloving components. 1. Casing 2. Diffuser 3. Liner 4. Snout 5. Swirler 6. Fuel Injector | 7. Igniter Cooling Slot secondary Holes _Dilution Holes Dome Fuel Nozzle Sag Outter Annulus \ Snout . N 4 Primary-zone Holes Cooling Slot. Casing Compressor Turbine Guide Vane Guide Vane Fig. 3.3. Components of the combustion chamber Casing \ 1 The casing is the outer shell of the combustor. The casing is protected from heating by the air flowing over it.Ge ‘pngine Combustion Chambers 3.13 pifuser (3.13] | ction of the di f | The oi Le diffuser is to slow down the compressed air from the | r to a veloci SS air frot ‘compress 'y acceptable for the combustion process. Diff sure 1088 and flow distortion while d ‘ process: Duhuser cone | : le deceleration process. The diffuser should be ned to be short as possible to avoid losses, js ‘uner Inside the liner, the combustion process occurs and has holes for injection of |imary, secondary and tertiary air into the combustion zone. The liner must be lgsigned and built to withstand high-temperatures, Liners are made from super aoys like Hastelloy X, which has high melting point. rut | Swirler ‘The swirler is attached to the dome are the part of the combusior into which the swirler is to create The snout is used as air splitter to separate primary air from the main flow through the combustor. |pimary air enters the combustion zone. The function of the |twbulence in the flow to rapidly mix the air with fuel. The swirler establishes a akes the combustion products to recirculate, creating |lcal low-pressure zone that mi turbulence must be limited to avoid pressure loss. fe high turbulence. However, ie the dome and swirler must be designed carefully for efficient combustion. [fuel Injector | ¢ fuel into the combustion zone and The fuel injector is used to inject th pPesible for mixing the fuel and air alon| |"elinjectors used. They are g with swirler. There are four types of 1. Pressure-atomizing 2. air blast 3. Vaporizing Pre-vaporizingPropuisig , 3.14 Igniter ss ‘i igni imilar to. spark ph Gas turbine engines uses electric spark igniters, si spark plugs Used 5 i ean automobiles. Igniter is used to provide sufficient heat energy to initiate the combustion process of fuel and air mixture. Igniter should be placed far UDstesn i by combustion. enough from the combustion zone to not damaged by 3.6. FACTORS AFFECTING COMBUSTION CHAMBER DESIGN The factors which influences the design of the combustion chamber fo, bs turbine engines are summarized as follows: “The temperature of the gases after combustion must be comparatively low to not affect the highly stressed turbine blade materials. Recen| developments in blade materials and cooling methods enable the turbine blades to withstand temperature upto 1850 K. ** The temperature distribution must be uniform at the exit of the combustion chamber. So that the turbine blades don’t suffer ftom local overheating which may damage the turbine blades. Sometimes, temperature distribution need not to be uniform, it may increase with radius over the turbine annulus because blade centrifugal stress decrease from root to tip. ‘+ The combustion process inside the combustor must be maintained in airstream with velocity range from 30 to 60 m/s. % The operation should be stable over a wide range of air to fuel ratio from ‘ich to lean mixture condition. The air to fuel ratio may vary from 60°! to 120 : 1 for gas turbine engines. The carbon deposits formation must be avoided especially of hard britle vanety. The carbon deposits may carried into the turbine in the high velocity gas stream which may erode the blades and biocks cooling & passages. The combustion process should be stable over a wide range of chambet Pressure which may change with respect to altitude and forward speed:Die | er aps eet ocean eee 2s ¢ Smoke coming out of the gas turbine engines must be limited. Smokes will create serious problems in airports in terms of visibility and in military aircrafts which make the enemy aircrafts to attack easily. The pollutants such as Nitrogen oxides (NO,), carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned Hydrocarbons must be controlled to very low levels because it may affect the environment. 3,7. CLASSIFICATION OF COMBUSTION CHAMBERS The combustion chambers used in gas turbine engines are classified into three main types. They are “Can type “> Annular type “> Can-Annular type 3.7.1, CAN-TYPE COMBUSTORS Compressor Outlet Main Fuel Manifold. Firescal Elbow Flange Joint : : SS. Combustion Chamber Primary Fuel Manifold Interconnector Fig. 3.4. Can type combustor3.16 Promise n The can type combustors are also known as tubular (or) multiple Comby, chambers. The first turbojet engine invented by Frank Whittle and Dr, Von Stion| oh, | air had can-type combustors. : This type of combustors have cylindrical chambers spaced around the shag connecting the compressor and turbine. The compressed air from the Compresso, ‘i split into a number of separate streams, each supplying a separate cans, The ca, | type combustors are well suited to engines having centrifugal compressors, Where the flow is divided into separate streams in the diffuser section of the Centrifga, compressor. Each cans are interconnected to allow stabilization of any Pressure fluctuations. Each can has own fuel injectors and ignition starts sequentially wig, the use of two igniters. (Example: Rolls-Royce Dart). Advantages “Easy to maintain, because if one can is damaged it can be removed and repaired easily. “Mechanically robust design. “+ Easy to test, because it requires only a small fraction of total engine air mass flow. Disadvantages “ Weight is quite larger. “High pressure loss compared to other combustors. | “Requires large frontal area and hence high drag. Can-type combustors are not used in current designs due to the above reasons. 3.7.2. ANNULAR TYPE COMBUSTORS In annular type combustor, an annular liner is mounted concentrically inside an| annular casing. This type of combustors allows clean aerodynamic design with low pressure loss than other combustors. Annular type combustor uses maximum spa? available within the engine. Enough space is left between the outer liner wall and the combustion chamber housing to permit the flow of cooling air from the \ _(oes Combustion Chambers sor. This type of com! Oe ibustors are compatible with axial flow compressors: co" esol: Rolls Royce Trent Series) Fl ‘lame Tube Combustion Turbine \ Outer Casing Nozzle guide Vanes |p. Compressor outler—~ Guide Vanes Combustion inner { Fuel Manifold \ é Rea Compressor casing Dilution ibaa mounting Air holes ange mounting flange Fig. 3.5. Annular type combustor Advantages & Minimum length and weight * Low pressure loss Simple in design gine frontal area. ing of fuel and air. Minimum en, Permits better mixii Less cooling air is required. *Proputsign , Disadvantages * Difficult to test, requires full engine air mass flow. Difficult to maintain stable outlet temperature. *%* Need to remove the engine from the airframe to disassemble for maintenance and overhaul. | 3.7.3. CAN-ANNULAR TYPE COMBUSTORS Can-Annular type combustors are also known as tubo-annular (or) cannular, jj consists of a series of cylindrical burners arranged within a common Single annulus. Thus, it is a combination of both can type and annular type combustors having best features. The cylindrical cans are no longer serve as-pressure vessel. The combustion chambers are enclosed in a removable shroud, that makes the burners Teadily available for any required maintenance. (Example: Pratt and Whitney JT3) Turbine: Outer Air Casing Dilution Air Holes Mounting Flange " J. ie ao Swirl Vanes _ Primary Air Scoop Igniter Plug iets Diffuser Case Fig. 3.6. Can-annular type combustors BEmies eb Oe aes eee ion Chambers Gap e Comb ‘povantoes ‘Shorter and lighter than can-type combustors. Low pressure loss Mechanically robust design. + Testing requires only a small fraction of total engine air mass flow. pisadvantages 4 Requires fuel connectors and can-connectors for communicating each cans. “Less compact than annular type combustors. 3,8, COMBUSTION CHAMBER PERFORMANCE The factors which influence the combustion chamber performance are as follows; ‘Pressure loss “* Combustion efficiency “ Combustion stability “Combustion Intensity. 38.1, PRESSURE LOSS The sources of pressure losses are either cold losses or hot losses. Cold losses occurs due to wall friction, mixing, turbulent dissipation and sudden expansion through holes. It is measured by flowing air without fuel through all the slots, holes, orifices etc. inside the combustion chamber. Hot losses occurs due to rise in mperature during combustion process. Hot losses will be low compared with the Sold losses. The overall will be low compared with the cold losses. The overall Pressure loss can be expressed by = AP ors Tis Pressure loss factor PLF) = —@ 7 Ky +K,| = -1 sar ot 2p, 2, \ \ cold losses) Hot losses3.20 Propay , “I where, m -— mass flow rate of air A,, - maximum cross-sectional area of combustion Chambe, P, - density at inlet | | K,, K, - performance constant Typical values of PLF for can, can-annular and annular combustion ch, nb are 35, 25 and 18 Tespectively at design operating conditions, ; Fundamental 40 | Pressure loss 8 3 5 304 mel ve 3 2 29 4 o K; - Cold losses * 104 1 2 3 Temperature ratio Too Tos Fig. 3.7. Variation of pressure loss factor 3.8.2. COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY Combustion efficiency is found out from a chemical analysis of combustion products. To obtain high efficiency, the following tequirements are needed, “Fuel and air should have enough Space and time to mix and react, * Full should be completely vaporized with air before burning. The combustion efficiency is given by — theoretical f for actual AT actual f for actual ATZegna Combustion Chambers (3.21) ie Normal operating. —= range Combustion efficiency | | | 50:1 70 90 110 130 Overall air / fuel ratio Fig. 3.8. Combustion efficiency Vs overall air fuel ratio ‘33. COMBUSTION STABILITY | Combustion stabilit | is the ability of the flame to remain stable over a wide jrange of operating conditions. There is a rich and weak limit to the air-to-fuel ratio lf a particular type of combustion chamber beyond which the flame is ‘tinguished. The highest and lowest fucl-to-air (FAR) ratios represents stability limits at which combustion is stable. The range of stable operation will reduce with lincrease in air velocity and air mass flow rate. Beyond a certain value of air vedocity and air mass flow rate, the flame will be extinguished. There are two causes for instability of combustion; Weak limit Air - to - Fuel ratio t 0 0.25 050 0.75 1.00 1.25 Air mass flow rate (kg/s) Fig. 3.9. Stability limitsAoopPee re PUlsign \ * Too lean or too rich fuel-air mixture. “ Velocity of gas stream is higher than flame speed (U > S). 3.8.4. COMBUSTION INTENSITY The heat released by the combustion chamber depends on the size of combustion chamber. So, the combustion area must be increased to achieve re heat release rate. But, the increase in area increases the average Velocities of a) which makes the burning more difficult. So, the intensity of combustion is within certain limits to achieve good combustion efficiency of about 98% to 10% kepy| 0%, The combustion intensity can be defined as | Heat release rate KW combustion volume x pressure m3atm Combustion Intensity = For aircraft engines, the combustion intensity will be in the range of 2 x 194 to! 5x 104 KW | 5x 104s atm: 3.9. EFFECT OF OPERATING VARIABLE ON PERFORMANCE * Fuel consumption has direct effect on the aircraft system range, payload and operating cost. So, the design combustion efficiency must be 100% as possible. Combustion efficiency is always depends on the reaction rate| of the fuel-air mixture. “Overall total pressure loss. also affects the performance of gas turbine engines. It is normally expressed as percentage of compressor delivery pressure. It is typically 4-5%. This pressure loss is necessary to attain | good pattern factor, effective turbine cooling, etc., It can also provide @ stabilizing effect of combustor aerodynamics. Total pressure loss has effect on engine thrust and thrust specific fuel consumption directly. “Exit temperature profile has effect on the performance of combustio® chamber and turbine. Pattern factor and profile factor are two importast parameters to be considered for designing combustion chamber. Pate) factor is calculated using exit temperature data. Profile factor shows the _burner average exit temperature profile.ancy ny (%) 6 € S 3 2 E S 3 95 b - Herbert function 95 95 95 Reaction rate parameter (0) Fig. 3.10. Combustion efficiency Vs reaction rate parameter max. allowable average 100 Circumferential max. local = average temperature = profie 2 3 2 °° $ : e |+— max. allowable (PF = 0.22) 0 ee (Fy— Tein)! Tearg~ Tu) Fig. 3.11. Radial temperature ‘profile at main burner exitProj io PUlsicg , T imasay Pattern Factor P) . tav Profile Factor P, = . tn tay Improper pattern factor and profile factor ranges results in shorter turbine jig ify | | | | | 3.10. FLAME STABILIZATION | Flame stabilization is a process of stabilizing flame inside the combus | chamber to attain continuous combustion. Flame is a self-sustaining Propagatio, |a localized combustion zone at subsonic velocity. Flames are hardly Stable, « | some mechanisms are used to stabilize flames. Mechanisms are as follows; j 5 Using Bluff-Bodies Bluff-bodies such as cylindrical rods, rectangular discs, baffles, cones or vez gutters are used to stabilize flames inside the combustion chamber. Bluff-bodies creates low velocity recirculation zones/ wakes in which combustion can ty initiated and maintained the propagation of flame to other regions inside th: combustion chamber by means of convective heat transfer. Old < Ring Rectangular disc Cone Vee - Gutter Fig. 3.12. Different bluff bodies shapes Mixi Recirculation yon! Zone J 222 Add) Sa Fig. 3.13. Flame stabilizat SBA bodiesGy Engine Comoustion Chambers i (er Bgine bers 3.25 (sing swirlers | gwitlers is a mechanism which consists of number of curved swirl vanes which jyave different angles such as 30°, 45° and 60° respectively. This curved switl anes promotes the formation of recirculation zones for stabilizing flames. The gvitl angle determines the, size and strength of the recirculation zone and flame properties. 7 Dilution air Secondary holes | Fuel. alt holes | nozzle 7 ——— | o 1 2 i 3 | a i ae Diffuser © | Intermediate, Dilution Jos £ zone} zone ie | a : Zz Swirlers Primary air holes Fig. 3.14, Flame stabilization using swirlers hit Bumer —~ ie | Unburned Using Pilot Flame Cooling Jacket Acetylene _Pilot Flame Mix Flame Front Flux F Burned Oud Product Fig, 3.15. Flame stabilization using pilot flamePropulsion.) ~| Pilot flame is an annular premixed flame located around the main jet flame which is used as a heat source to stabilize. the main jet flame. The pilot flame jg usually required to stabilize a main jet flame due to its high velocity. | Using Counter Flow Stabilising Technique | * Counter flow stabilizing technique is to make the direction of the fuel jet in ay| opposite direction to the airflow. This technique reduces the velocity of the combustible mixture (fuel) against the burning velocity. It also ensures goog mixing of fuel and air, which improves the combustion efficiency of the combustion chamber. Air 21% O2 + 79% No Flame sheet Stagnation plane Fig. 3.16. Flame stabilization using counter flow Stabilizing technique 3.11. COOLING PROCESS The cooling process of combustion chamber is important to reduce the| temperature of hot gases entering the turbine, Cooling air is used to protect the linet from heat transferred from hot gases by convective and radiative heat transfer. The temperature inside the combustor can reach 2000°C. About 60% of the total airflow is introduced progressively into the flame tube for coolin, ig. The following cooling techniques are used to cool the combustion chamber,Be gfe Combustion Chambers 3.27 rouver Cooling ver colin; ique 4 Louver ig technique consists of liner fabricated in the form of cylindrical gels. This cylindrical shell are assembled to form annular passages al intersection {points as shown in figure. A | os Hot side | A Section A-ASection Fig. 3.17. Lower cooling |splash Cooling In splash cooling technique, air enters the finer through holes of small diameter aranged in a row as shown in figure. The air jets impinge on the liner surface and then form a film along the liner inside wall. Cool air — Hot gas Fig. 3.18. Splash cooling Film Cooling A Cold side | ~F Hot side lamer < — A-ASection A- Section Film cooled liner Fig. 3.19. Film coolingC°LKwKw——————— N Preputin ced through liner to form a thin § In film Cooling technique, air is introdu i Pe in film of air protec! iner surg between the hot gas and liner surface. The thi from hot gases, ee technique is classified into two types Convective film cooling * Impingement film cooling Convective film cooling is simple convection cooling technique uses rougheney walls to provide a protective layer of cool air along the hot side of the liner wall, Impingement film cooling uses holes to impinge air jets on the hot side of liner wall. It is well suited for high temperature combustion. It has a comple, construction, So it is difficult to manufacture and repair. A Cold side Ss = — Hot side ( SQ i A-ASection A- Section Fig. 3.20. Convection film cooling * Impingement film cooled “,. liner — Cold side NN Ze Hot side | A- Section Fig. 3.21, Impingement film cooling Transpiration Cooling | all cooti ; siete am technique. It requires 50% of cooling *#! chniques. In this cooling technique, the cooling air flows theo! than other teGi rpngin€ Combustion Chambers | | reates 8 jiner wall. First, it removes heat from the liner wall and then © pao Jayer between the wall and hot gases. Transpiration cooled liner Cold side Hot side Fig. 3.22. Transpiration cooling 3,12, MATERIALS combustion chamber has to withstand severe environmental Materials used for sures and temperatures. sociated with operation at higher pre: conditions as: temperature and cheap. The basic Materials should have to withstand high requirements for materials used for combustion chamber are as follows; Itshould have high strength at hi 4 Itshould have oxidation and corrosio igh temperatures. n resistance. + It should have low density “It should possess low thermal expansion. Tt should have low young’s modulus (E) “It should be cheap and easily available. * Itshould be easy to fabricate Itshould have high thermal conductivity. eae and ceramics are used as materials for combustion chambers to temperature of about 1100K for long-term operation.Propulsion ») ee! Metal Alloys Jastelloy X has been wisely Used Nickel based alloys such as Nimonic 75 and F abe liners uses Nimonic 263 as sheet metals for combustor liners. Modern com! 4nd cobalt based Haynes 188 (HS 188) extensively. Ceramics igh temperatures. It has Ceramic materials have good mechanical strength eae metals and alloy, low density and are oxidatively stable. It is'more capi bide exhibits high strength Ceramics like monolithic silicon nitride and silicon car! d 1880K respectively and stiffness at higher temperature of about 1680K oe Satie: Ceramics don’t Possess toughness and ruggedness eas x toughness of ceramics is improved by adding particles/w1 2120 ainenare nn