EX.

NO:1

COMPARATIVE CONFIGURATION STUDY OF DIFFERENT TYPES

OF STEALTH AIRPLANES
Aim:
To study the comparative configuration of different types of stealth airplanes
Introduction:
1. Lockheed Martin F-22 raptor
2. Sukhoi su-57
3. Chengdu J-20
4. Northrop Grumman B-2 sprit
5. Lockheed Martin F-35 lightning ll
1.1 Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor

Fig 1.1 Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor

The Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor is a fifth generation, single seat, twin engine, all weather
stealth tactical fighter aircraft developed for United States Air force (USAF).The result of the USAF’s
Advanced Tactical Fighter Program, the aircraft was designed primarily as an air superiority fighter, but
also has ground attack, electronic warfare and signal intelligence capabilities.

1
 The prime contractor, Lockheed martin, built most of the f-22’s airframe and weapons system
and conducted finally assembly, while Boeing provided the wings, aft fuselage, avionics integration and
training systems. Lockheed Martin aeronautics, Boeing Defense, space and security are the
manufacturer of this aircraft.
The aircraft was variously designated F-22 and f/A-22 before it formally entered service in
December 2005 as the F-22A. After a protracted development and despite operational issues, the USAF
consider the F-22 critical to its tactical air power, and says that the aircraft is unmatched by any known
or projected fighter. The Raptor’s combination of stealth, aerodynamic performance, and situational
awareness gives the aircraft unprecedented air combat capabilities.
It is the first operational aircraft to super cruise, super maneuverability, stealth, and sensor
fusion in a singles weapons plat form. The raptor has clipped delta wings with a reverse sweep on the
rear, four empennage surfaces and a retractable tricycle landing gear. Flight controls surfaces include
leading edge, flaperons, ailerons, rudders on the canted vertical stabilizers, and all moving horizontal
tails; these surfaces also serve as speed brakes.
The F-22 was designated to highly difficult to detect and track radar measure to reduce radar
cross section include airframe shaping such as alignment of edges ,use of radar-absorbent
material(Ram),and attention to detail such as hinges and pilot helmets that could provide a radar return.
1.2 Sukhoi SU-57

Fig.1.2.Sukhoi SU-57

2
 The Sukhoi 57 is the designation for stealth, single seat, twin engine multirole fifth generation
jet fighter being developed for air superiority and attack operations. The aircraft is the product of
PAKFA a fifth generation fighter programme of Russian air force. Sukhoi’s internal name for the
aircraft is T-50 the su-57 will be the first aircraft in Russian military service to use stealth technology.
The fighter is designed to have super cruise, supermanoeurverability, stealth, and advanced
avionics to overcome the prior generation fighter aircraft as well as a ground and navel defenses .The su-
57 is intended to succeed the MIG-29 and SU-27 in the Russian Air Force. The aircraft is expected to
have a service life of up to 35 years.
The SU-57 has a blended wing body fuselage and incorporates all moving horizontal and vertical
stabilizers; the vertical stabilizers toe inwards to serve as the aircrafts air brake. The aircraft incorporates
thrust vectoring and adjustable leading edge vortex controllers designed to control vortices generated by
the leading edge root extensions, and can provide trim and to improve high angle of attack behavior,
including a quick stall recovery if the thrust vectoring system failed. The advanced flight control system
and thrust vectoring nozzle makes the aircraft departure resistant and highly maneuverable in both pitch
and yaw, enabling the aircraft to perform very high angles of attack maneuvers such as the pugachev’s
cobra and the bell maneuver, along with doing flat rotations with little altitude loss. The aircraft’s
aerodynamics and engine enables it to achieve mach 2 and is also capable of flying supersonic flight
without afterburner or super cruise; the high cruising speed and normal operating altitude is also
expected to give it a significant kinematic advantage over prior generations of aircraft.
1.3 Chengdu J-20

Fig.1.3.Chengdu J-20

3
 The Chengdu j-20 is a single seat, twin engine, all weather, stealth fifth generation fighter aircraft
developed by china Chengdu aerospace cooperation for the people liberation army air force .The J-20 is
designated as an air superiority fighter with precision strike capability; it descends from j-xx program of
the 1990.
The J-20 has a long and wide fuselage, with a chiseled nose selection and a frameless canopy.
Immediately behind the cockpit are low observable intakes. All moving canard surfaces with
pronounced dihedral are placed behind the intakes, followed by leading edge extensions merging into
delta wing with forward trailing edges. The aft section has twin outward canted all-moving fins, short
but deep ventral strakes, and conventional round engine exhausts.
One important design criterion for the J-20 is high in stability. This requires sustained pitch
authority at a high angle of attack, in which a conventional tail plane would lose effectiveness due to
stalling. On the other hand, a canard can deflect opposite to the angle of attack, avoiding stall and
thereby maintaining control. A canard design is also known to provide good supersonic and transonic
performance and improved short field landing performance compared to conventional delta wing design.
1.4 Northrop Grumman B-2 Sprit

Fig1.4.Northrop Grumman B-2 Sprit

The Northrop Grumman B-2 sprit also known as the stealth Bomber, is an American heavy
penetration strategic bomber, featuring lower observable stealth technology designated for penetrating

4
dense anti aircraft defenses, it is a flying wing design with a crew of two. The bomber can deploy both
conventional and thermo nuclear weapons .The B-2 is the only acknowledge aircraft that can carry large
air to surface standoff weapons in a stealth configuration.
The B-2 spirit was developed to take over the USAF ‘s vital penetration missions, able to travel
deep in to enemy territory to deploy their ordnance which could include nuclear weapons .The B-2 is an
flying wing aircraft, means that it has no fuselage or tail . It has significant advantages over previous
bombers due to its blend of low observable technologies with a high aerodynamic efficiency and large
payload. Low observable provides a greater freedom of action at high altitudes, thus increasing both
range and field of view for on board sensors.
The US Air Force reports it range as approximated 11,000 km at cruising altitude, the B-2 refuels
every six hours, taking on up to 45,000kg of fuel at a time. The B-2 has a crew of two, for comparison
the B-1B has a crew of four and B-52 has a crew of five.
1.5 Lockheed Martin F-35 lighting ll

Fig 1.5 Lockheed Martin F-35 lighting ll

The Lockheed Martin F-35 lighting ll is a family of single seat, single engine , all weather stealth
multirole fighters. The fifth generation combat aircraft is designated to perform ground attack and air
superiority missions. It has three main models the F-35A conventional take off and landing variant, the
F-35B short take off and vertical landing variant, and the F-35C carrier based catapult assisted take off
but arrested Recovery variant.
One major F-35 industry partners include Northrop Grumman, Pratt and Whitney and BAE
system. The F-35 is variants are to provide the bulk of crewed tactical air power of U.S. Air Force, Navy
and the marine crops over the coming decades.

5
 Lockheed Martin states the F-35 is intended to have close and long range air to air capability
second only to that of the F-22 Raptor Lockheed Martin has said that F-35 has the advantage over the f-
22 in basing flexibility and advanced sensors and information fusion. Lockheed has suggested that the F-
35 could replace the USAF F-15C/D fighter in air superiority role and the F-35E strike Eagle in the
ground attack role.
Comparison of different types of stealth aircraft
Name of Aircraft F-22 Raptor Sukhoi-57 Chengdu J-20 B-2 Bomber F-35
Lightning
ll
Type of Engine Pratt & Pratt &
Saturn AL- Shenyang General electric
Whitney Whitney
41 WS-10G F118
F119 F135
Engine Thrust(KN) 156 147 140 77 191

Max Speed (Km/hr) 2,410 2,140 2,750 1,010 1,930

Service Ceiling(m) 20,000 20,000 20,000 15,200 15,240

No of Engines 2 2 2 4 1
Range (km) 2,960 3,500 2,200 11,100 2,220
Weight (kg) 19,700 18,000 19,391 71,700 13,154
Max Takeoff Weight
38,000 35,000 36,288 1,70,600 31,800
(kg)
Wing Span(m) 13.56 13.95 12.88 52.4 10.7
Crew 1 1 1 2 1
Fuel Capacity(kg) 12,000 10,300 19,340 75,750 8,382
Type of engine Turbo Fan Turbo Fan Turbo Fan Turbo Fan Turbo Fan
Landing Gear Retractable Retractable Retractable Retractable Retractable
Mach 2.25 2 2.8 0.95 1.6

Conclusion:
Thus the configuration of different types of stealth aircraft is studied and compared.

6
EX.NO:2

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SPECIFICATION PERFORMANCE

DETAILS OF STEALTH AIRCRAFT
Aim:
To study the comparative specification and performance details of different stealth aircraft.
Introduction:
Each and every aircraft differ from the other based on its specification through the
application is same, the most highlighting specification of the comparative aircraft as follows.
2.1 F-22 Raptor
2.1.1 Wing Specification
Length: 18.92 m
Wingspan: 13.56 m
Height: 5.08 m
Wing area: 78.04 m2
2.1.2 Weight Specification
Empty weight: 19,700 kg
Loaded weight: 29,410 kg
Max takeoff weight: 38,000 kg
2.1.3 Power Plant Specification
Propulsion: Turbo fan
Engine model: Pratt & Whitney F119-pw-100 turbofan
No of engines: 2
Dry thrust: 116 KN
Thrust with after burner: >156 KN
2.1.4 Performance Specification
Crew: 1
Range: 2,960 km/hr
Max speed: 2,410 km/hr
Cruise Speed: 1,960 km/hr
Service ceiling: 20,000 m

7
2.2 F-35 lighting
2.2.1 Wing Specification
Length: 15.67 m
Wing span: 10.7 m
Height: 4.33 m
Wing area: 42.7 m2
2.2.2 Weight Specification
Empty weight: 13,154 kg
Loaded weight: 22,426 kg
Max takeoff weight: 31,800 kg
2.2.3 Power Plant Specification
Propulsion: Turbo fan
Engine model: Pratt & Whitney
Dry thrust: 125 KN
Thrust with after burner: 191 KN
2.2.4 Performance specification
Max speed: 1930 km/hr
Range: 2,220 Km
Service ceiling: 50,000 ft
Crew: 1
2.3 Sukhoi-57
2.3.1 Wing Specification
Length: 19.8 m
Wing span: 13.95 m
Height: 4.74 m
Wing area: 78.8 m2
2.3.2 Weight Specification
Empty weight: 18,000 kg
Loaded weight: 25,000 kg
Max takeoff weight: 35,000 kg
2.3.3 Power Plant Specification
Propulsion: Turbo fan
No of engines: 2

8
 Engine model: Saturn AL-41F
Dry thrust: 107 KN
Thrust with after burner: 176 KN
2.3.4 Performance Specification
Max speed: 2,140 km/hr
Cruise Speed: 1700 km/hr
Range: 3,500 km
Service ceiling: 20,000 m
Crew: 1
2.4 B-2 Bomber
2.4.1 Wing Specification
Length: 21.0 m
Wing span: 52.4 m
Height: 5.18 m
Wing area: 478 m2
2.4.2 Weight Specification
Empty weight: 71,700 kg
Loaded weight: 152,200 kg
Max takeoff weight: 170,600 kg
2.4.3 Power Plant Specification
Propulsion: Turbo fan
No of engines: 4
Engine model: General Electric F118-GE-100 turbo fan
Thrust: 107 KN
2.4.4 Performance Specification
Max speed: 1,010 km/hr
Cruise Speed: 900 km/hr
Range: 11,100 km
Service ceiling: 15,200 m
Crew: 2
2.5 Chengdu J-20
2.5.1 Wing Specification
Length: 20.30 m

9
 Wing span: 12.88 m
Height: 4.45 m
Wing area: 78 m2
2.5.2 Weight Specification
Empty weight: 19,391 kg
Loaded weight: 32,092 kg
Max takeoff weight: 36,288 kg
2.5.3 Power Plant Specification
Propulsion: Turbo fan
No of engines: 2
Engine model: Shengang WS-10G
Dry thrust: 87 KN
Thrust with after burner: 140 km/hr
2.5.4 Performance Specification
Max speed: 2, 7 50 km/hr
Cruise Speed: 900 km/hr
Range: 2,200 km
Service ceiling: 21,000 m
Crew: 1

Conclusion:
Thus compared and studied specification and performance details of stealth aircraft.

10
EX.NO:3

PREPARATION OF COMPARATIVE DATA SHEEET

Aim:
To prepare the comparative data sheet of stealth fighter aircraft.
Introduction:
The comparative data sheet includes the details of wing, weight, power plant and performance
specification.
3.1 Wing Specification
The most important specification is length, height, and wing area and wing span.
Aircraft F-22 Raptor F-35 Lightning Sukhoi-57 B-2 Bomber Chengdu J-20
Length (m) 18.92 15.67 19.8 21 20.30
Height (m) 5.08 4.33 4.74 5.18 4.45
Wing area (m2) 78.04 42.7 78.8 47.8 78
Wing span (m) 13.56 10.7 13.95 52.4 12.88

3.2 Weight Specification

The important specification is maximum takeoff weight, maximum structural payload and
empty load.
Aircraft F-22 Raptor F-35 Lightning Sukhoi-57 B-2 Bomber Chengdu J-20
Max takeoff 38,000 31,800 35.000 1,70,000 36,288
Weight (kg)
Loaded weight 29,410 22,426 25,000 1.52,200 32,092
(kg)

Empty weight 19,700 13,800 18,000 71,700 19,391

(kg)

3.3 Power Plant Specification

The most important specification is propulsion, engine model, number of engine and thrust.
Aircraft F-22 Raptor F-35 Lightning Sukhoi-57 B-2 Bomber Chengdu J-20
Power plant Turbo fan Turbo fan Turbo fan Turbo fan Turbo fan

11
Engine model F119-Rw-100 F-35 Saturn AL- F118-GE-100 10s-10G
41F1
No of engine 2 1 2 4 2
Thrust 116 125 107 77 87
(KN)

3.4 Performance Specification

The important specification is crew, range, maximum speed, service ceiling and cruise speed.
Aircraft F-22 Raptor F-35 Lightning Sukhoi-57 B-2 Bomber Chengdu J-20
Crew 1 1 1 2 1
Range (km) 2,960 2,220 3,500 11,100 2,200
Maximum 2,410 1,930 2,140 1,010 2,750
speed(km/hr)
Cruise 1,960 1,930 1,700 900 1,100
speed(km/hr)
Service 20,000 15,240 20,000 15,200 21,000
ceiling(m)

Conclusion:
Thus the comparative data sheet of different stealth fighter aircraft is prepared.

12
EX.NO:4

WORKSHEET LAYOUT PROCEDURES

Aim:
To know the worksheet layout procedures for drawing three view diagrams of aircraft.
Procedure:

RESULT:
Thus the above figure represents the worksheet layout procedures for drawing the three view
diagrams of the aircraft.

13
EX.NO:5

COMPARATIVE GRAPH PREPARATION AND SELECTION

MAIN PARAMETERS FOR DESIGN
Aim:
To prepare comparative graph and select main parameter for design.
Comparative graph:
The comparative graphs of the selected aircraft are follows
5.1 Wing Specification:

60

50

40
Length
30 Height
Wing Span
20

10

0
F-22 Raptor F-35 Lightning Sukhoi SU-57 B-2 Bomber Chendu J-20

Fig. 5.1 wing specification

5.2 Wing area:
600

500

400

300
Wing area
200

100

0
F-22 Raptor F-35 lighning ll Sukhoi SU-57 B-2 Bomber Chengdu J-20

Fig.5.2 wing area

14
5.3 Weight Specification:
180,000

160,000

140,000

120,000

100,000
Max takeofff weight
80,000 Loaded weight
60,000 Empty weight

40,000

20,000

0
F-22 Raptor F-35 Sukhoi SU- B-2 Bomber Chengdu J-
Lightning ll 57 20

Fig.5.3 weight specification

5.4 Power Plant Specification:
80000

70000

60000

50000

40000
Fuel capacity
30000

20000

10000

0
F-22 Raptor F-35 Lightning Sukhoi SU_57 B-2 Bomber Chengdu J-20
ll

Fig.5.4 (a) power plant specification

15
 140

120

100

80

Thrust
60

40

20

0
F-22 Raptor F-35 Lightning ll Sukhoi SU-57 B-2 Bomber Chengdu J-20

Fig.5.4 (b) power plant specification

5.5 Performance specification:
3000

2500

2000

1500 Maximum speed

Cruise speed

1000

500

0
F-22 Raptor F-35 Lighning ll Sukhoi SU-57 B-2 Bomber Chengdu J-20

Fig.5.5 performance specification

16
 Selected Parameters
Wing Specification:
Length: 19 m
Height: 4.5 m
Wing area: 77.8 m2
Wing span: 13 m
Weight specification:
Empty weight: 17,000 kg
Loaded weight: 8,100 kg
Crew weight: 150 kg
Max takeoff weight: 35,250 kg
Power specification:
No of engines:2
Fuel Capacity: 10,000 kg
Thrust: 147 KN
Performance specification:
Range: 3,400 Km
Crew: 2
Max speed: 2140 km/hr
Cruise speed: 1700 km/hr

Conclusion:
The comparative graph is prepared and main parameters of the aircraft design are selected.

17
EX.NO:6
PRELIMINARY WEIGHT ESTIMATION, SELECTION OF WEIGHT
PARAMETERS
Aim:
To estimate the overall weight of the aircraft.
Description:
There are various ways to subdivide and categorize the weight components of an airplane as
follows.
1. Crew weight - Wcrew - The crew comprises the people necessary to operate the airplane in flight.
2. Payload - Wpayload - The pay load is what the airplane is intended to transport passenger,
luggage’s etc.
3. Fuel weight -Wfuel -This is the weight of the fuel in the fuel tanks. It is variable, which decreases
during the flight.
4. Empty weight- Wempty -This represents the weight of the structure, landing gear, electronic
equipments and everything that is not payload, crew and passengers.
The sum of the total weight is the weight of the plane at an instant
Wo = Wcrew+Wpayload+Wfuel+Wempty
Wcrew+Wpayload
Also, Wtotal = Wf We
1− −
Wo Wo

Estimation of Wt/Wo is quiet complex. The amount of fuel required to carry the mission depends
critically on the efficiency of propulsion device. It depends also on aerodynamic efficiency lift to drag
ratio. These factors are principle players in the Breqt Raye equation.
npr L Wo
R = ∗ ∗ ln
𝐶 𝐶 W1
The wf/wo is measured by the mission profile. The mission profile is a useful tool to estimate fuel
weight, each segments of mission profile as the airplane at the end of the segment, divide by the weight
of the airplane at the beginning of segment.
Wc
Mission segment weight function, = Wc−1
W5 W1 W2 W3 W4 W5
The ratio of weight of airplane at end of the mission is, = ∗ W1 ∗ W2 ∗ W3 ∗ W4
W0 W0

The change in weight during each segment is due to consumption of fuel. At the end of flight the
fuel tank were completely empty then,
Wf = W0 – W5

18
 Wf W5
= 1 - W0
W0

There should be some fuel left in reserve at end of mission in case of weather problem or traffic
condition, required pilot to divert to other airport or spend a longer than normal time in a holding
pattern, Also geometric design of fuel tank loads to some trapped fuel that is available at the end of
flight. Typically,
6% of allowance is made, Thus
Wf W5
= 1.06 ∗(1 - W0 )
W0

Observation:
Wcrew = 150 kg
Wpayload = 8100 kg
Wfuel=10,000kg
Wempty = 17,000 kg

Altitude

8400kg
3 4

500kg 500kg

300kg
300kg
1 2 5 6
Time

At the beginning of mission profile, the aircraft is in equilibrium; therefore maximum takeoff
weight is represented as w0,
W0=35,250 kg
Before takeoff, aircraft covers a distance of 0.5 km required, 300kg of fuel for taxing, and
remaining weight is represented as W1,
W1 = 34,250 kg
W1
Ratio, = 0.99
W0

During takeoff, aircraft required 300kg of fuel to climb to 13.7 km and the remaining weight is
represented as W2,
W2=34,650 kg

19
 W2
= 0.9856
W1

During cruising the maximum range distance of 3,400 km the aircraft required 8,400 kg of fuel, the
weight at present is represented as W3,
W3 = 26,050 kg
W3
= 0.756
W2

During descending the aircraft takes 500 kg of fuel and the present weight is represented as W4,
W4=25,550
W4
= 0.98
W3

At landing aircraft covers a distance 0.208 km taking a fuel of 200 kg and the weight is represented
as W5,
W5= 25,250 kg
W5
= 0.98
W4
W5
Therefore, = 0.99 ∗ 0.9856 ∗ 0.756 ∗ 0.98 ∗ 0.98
W0
W5
= 0.70845
W0

Also,
Wf
= 1.06∗(1-0.70845)
W0
Wf
= 0.309
W0

Total weight of aircraft,

Wcrew+Wpayload
Wtotal = Wf We
1− −
Wo Wo

150+8100
Wtotal = 1−0.309−0.48226

Wtotal = 39,530.78 kg
Therefore total weight of aircraft, Wtotal=39,530.78 kg
Reserve fuel weight,
Wfr=Wtot – W0
Wfr =39530.78 – 35250
Wfr = 4280.7878 kg
Result:
Thus the overall weight of stealth fighter aircraft is estimated.

20
EX.NO:7

POWERPLANT SELECTION, AIRFOIL SELECTION, WING, TAIL

AND CONTROL SURFACES
Aim:
To select the power plant, airfoil, wing, tail, and control surfaces.
7.1 Power plant:
Type of power plant : after burning “turbo fan”
Name : Xian, ws-1
Weight of power plant : 485 kg
No of engine :2
Location : rear of fuselage
Length of engine : 3.91m
Diameter of engine : 0.71m
Specific fuel consumption : 0.125
Oil consumption : 0.5 ml/s
Special accessories : thrust boosters
Engine centre of gravity : (3.1, 2.3, 0)
7.2 Wing:
Airfoil Selection : symmetrical airfoil NACA 0018
Aileron area/Wing area : 0.1
Mean chord : 1.3 m
Span : 18.3
Area (m2) : 42.5 m2
Root chord : 3.49 m
Tip chord : 1.51 m
Aspect ratio : 8
Sweep angle (A°) : 10.75°
Incidence angle (iw°) : 1.5°
Dihedral angle (Γ°) : 2°
Taper ratio (𝜆) : 0.34
Wing type : mid

21
 Flap area : 0.45 m2
Twist (𝜀°) ∶ 2°
Aileron area : 4.25 m2
Location of spares : leading edge
Flap area/Wing area : 0.0106
Flap chord/Wing chord : 0.05
Construction : aluminum alloy
Type of high lift devices : split flap
7.3 Horizontal tail surface:
Elevator area : 1.92 m2
Span : 6.1 m
Area : 18.9 m2
Aspect ratio : 4.87
Taper ratio (𝜆) : 0.35
Location of horizontal tail : rear of fuselage
Sweep angle (A°) : 4.4°
Incidence angle (iw°) : 0.85°
Root chord : 2.81 m
Tip chord : 0.78 m
Tab area : 0.314 m2
Tab area/Elevator area : 0.16
Type of control : fly by wire
Construction : aluminum alloy
7.4 Vertical tail surface
Height : 3.1 m
Tip chord : 0.86 m
Root chord : 1.91 m
Sweep angle (A°) : 6.7°
Area : 14.13 m2
Aspect ratio : 1.84
Taper ratio (𝜆) ∶ 0.23
Rudder area : 1.25 m2
Location : end of fuselage

22
 Offset angle : 0°
Rudder chord : 0.34 m
Airfoil : symmetrical airfoil NACA 0018
Type of control : fly by wire
Construction : aluminum alloy
Tail area/Wing area : 0.33
Rudder area/Tail area : 0.08

Conclusion:
Thus the power plant, airfoil, tail and control surfaces are selected.

23
EX.NO:8

PREPARATION OF LAYOUTS OF BALANCE DIAGRAM AND

THREE VIEW DIAGRAM
Aim:
To prepare the layouts of balance diagram and three view of the stealth aircraft diagram.
8.1 Balance diagram:
The balance diagram of an aircraft deals with loading of the aircraft to ensure that they are not
overloaded and miss loaded.
The balance diagram investigates the moments created by each and every component of the
aircraft and their corresponding effect on the stability of aircraft.
The balance diagram focuses on the centre of gravity of each component and their corresponding
moments about the datum line which is a vertical plane located usually on the nose of the aircraft. The
balance of arm is the distance between the datum line and the centre of gravity. Thus the moment of
each component is the product of its load and the balance of arm.
Thus the centre of gravity is calculated by summing the moment about nose and dividing by sum
of weights.
(au+bv)
𝑋̅ =
(a+b)
Datum line

C.G payload Engine

b
a
v

Fig.8.1 balancing diagram

24
8.2 Three views of stealth aircraft:

Fig.8.2 top view, front view and side view of stealth aircraft

Conclusion:
Thus the layout of balance diagram and the three views of stealth aircraft are prepared.

25
EX.NO:9

DRAG ESTIMATION
Aim:
To estimate the overall drag of the stealth aircraft.
9.1 Drag estimation:
Drag is the enemy of the aircraft. It prevents the aircraft moving forward by pulling it back.
The total drag force created on an aircraft is classified as follows.

Drag

Zero lift drag Induced drag

miscellaneous
drag
Skin friction drag Form drag vortex Wave drag
drag

CI Volume
Nacelle Fuselage landing Flap
gear Struct dependent
dependent
Wing Tail

Interference Trim Cooling Compatibility

Fig 9.1 classification of drag

The drag is dividing into two parts lift related drag and non lift related drag
D=Do+Di CD=CDo+CD
9.2 Induced drag

26
 The induced drag is the drag directly associated with the product of lift. This result from
the dependency of the induced drag on the angle of attack .The induced drag itself consists of two parts.
The first part originates from the vortices around wing, tail, fuselage and other components. The other is
because of air compressibility effect.
CD=CDiv+CDw
9.3 Vortex drag:
The wing tip various downwash which results in pressure imbalance in the direction,
thus the pressure different creates drags so called vortex drag. It is represented as
CDiv=CL2/𝜋𝐴𝑅𝑒
Where,
CL- Lift coefficient
AR – Aspect ratio
e – Oswald’s efficiency factor
CL = 2L/𝜌V2S = 2*0.44*9.81/1.25*(244.44)2*430
CDiv = (2.687*10-7)2/3.14*8.8*0.3
= 8.705*10-15
9.4 Wave drag:
The aircraft wave drag is limited to supersonic flow. The non-cancelling static pressure
component to either side of a shock wave on the surface of the body is reason for wave drag. It has two
parts volume dependent wave drag and lift dependent wave drag.
CDW=CDwv+CDwL
The lift dependent wave drag is given by
CDW,L = KwiSCL2(M2-1)/2𝜋L2
Where,
Kwi =2(S/bL)
S- Wing reference area
b- Wing span
L- Aircraft fuselage length
Kwi= 2((42.5)/18.3*175)2
CDW,L=(3.522*10-4*42.5*(0.377)2(1.252-1))/(2𝜋*752)
=1.06*10-3
The volume dependent wave drag is given by
CDW,V= 175 Kwv v2/𝜋SL4

27
 Where,
Kwv=1.17(1+0.75𝛽(b/L))/(1+2𝛽(b/L))
𝛽 = √1.252 − 1
= 0.663
V- Aircraft total volume
Kwv = 1.17(1.246/1.657) = 0.880
CDW,V= (175*0.880*1802)/(𝜋*430*1744)
= 1.02*10-5
Wave drag CD,W= 1.02*10-5+1.06*10-7
= 2.08*10-5
Induced drag CDI= CD,iv+CD,W
= 3.14*10-3+2.08*10-5
= 3.1608*10-3
9.5 Zero lift drag:
The zero lift drag include all types of drag that do not dependent on production of lift every
aerodynamic component of aircraft generates zero lift drag, of all the types of drag the prime reasonable
drags are,
 Pressure drag – Due to imbalance of surface pressure acting in the drag direction. It is
referred as form drag.
 Friction drag – Due to the net effect of shear stress acting in the drag direction.
The sum of the skin friction drag and form drag is the profile drag, which is sometimes
referred as section drag. Each and every component of aircraft does have its associated profile drag.
Thus the total non- lift zero drag is represented as
CD,O=CD,O (profile drag) + CD (miscellaneous)
CD,O= CD,O (fuselage, wing, tail (vertical, horizontal), nacelle, flaps)+CDo (landing gear,
strut)+CDO(miscellaneous)
9.6 Profile drag:
9.6.1) CD,OF-fuselage
The zero lift drag coefficient of a fuselage is given by
CD,OF= CFFLDFM (Swet.F/S)
Where,
CF – Skin friction coefficient = 1.327/√𝑅𝑒 , Re = 𝜌𝜇L/𝜇

28
 FLD – Fuselage length to diameter ratio
= 1+ 60/(L/D)3+0.0025(L/D)
FM – A function of mach no = 1- 0.08 M1.45
Swet,F – Wetted area of fuselage
S- Reference area
Re = 1.25*250*75/ (1.93*10-5)
= 2.003*109
CF = 2.955*10-5
FLD = 1.056
FM = 0.902
CD,OF = 2.955*10-5 *1.056*0.92
= 1.169 *10-4
9.6.2 CDOW-Wings, CDOHT- Horizontal tail, CDOVT- Vertical tail
The zero lift drag coefficient of CDOHT, CDOW, CDOVT are given by

CDOW = CFW Ftcw Fm (Swet.W/S) (cdmin w/0.004)0.4

CDOHT = CFHT FtcHT Fm (Swet.HT/S) (cdmin /0.004)0.4
CDOVT = CFVT FtcVT Fm (Swet.VT/S) (cdmin /0.004)0.4
Where,
CF – Skin friction coefficient = 1.327/√𝑅𝑒 , Re = 𝜌𝜇L/𝜇
2 𝜆
𝑐̅ - Mean aerodynamic chord, = 3 cr (1- 𝜆 - 1+𝜆 )

Cr- root chord

𝜆- taper ratio
Ftc is a function of thickness ratio
Ftc = 1+2.7 (t/c) +100 (t/c)4max
Fm- function of Mach number = 1 – 0.08 M1.45
Swet – Wetted area of wing, elevator and rudder
S – Reference area
For wing:
Re = 2.42 *106
𝑐̅ = 2.527 m
CFW = 8.53 *10-4

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 FtcW = 1.7
CDOW= 1.177*10-3
For horizontal tail:
Re=0.76*105
CFHT=4.79*10-3
FtcHT= 1.7
CDOHT = 5.87*10-4
For vertical tail
Re =0.547 * 105
CFVT=5.67*10-3
FtcVT=1.65
CDOVT=6.75*10-4
9.6.3 CDOFL- Flaps
The zero lift coefficient of flaps are given by
CDOFL= (CF/C) A (𝛿 e)B
Where,
Cf/C=Average flap chord to average wing chord
𝛿- Deflection
A & B – constants
Cf/C = 4.2 *10-4
CD,OFL =3.674*10-3
9.6.4 CDON – Nacelle
The engine is often located inside aerodynamic cover called nacelle, to reduce the engine
drags. It is calculated in similar fashion of fuselage, while its length to diameter ratio is lower.
CDON=0.134*10-4
9.6.5 CDOLG – Landing gear
The increase in CDO due to landing gear is given by,
CDOLG=∑ni=1 CDLG (SLG/S)
Where,
CDLG – Drag coefficient of each wheel
SLG – Frontal area of wing
S- Reference area
CLOLG = 0.02*10-5

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9.6.6 CDOS Strut
The landing gear is often attached to aircraft structure via strut. The increase in CDO due to
application of strut is given by
CDOS= ∑ni=1 CDOSl (Ss/S)
Where,
CDOSl – Drag coefficient of strut
Ss – Frontal area of strut
S – Reference area of wing
9.7 Miscellaneous drag
The drag caused due to other components side effect of aircraft components constitutes the
miscellaneous drag. The most common is,
Interference drag – additional pressure drag caused by mutual interaction of flow fields around
each components of airplane.
Combination of profile and interference drag is the drag of complete aircraft, named as
parasite drag.
 Cooling
 Trim
 Drag of antenna
 Pitot tube
 Surface roughness
 Leakage gaps between wing and control surfaces
 Rivets and Screw
 Pylon
 Compressibility
Thus the total zero – lift coefficient drag can be made accurate by introducing correction
factor, K
CD,O=
K(CDO,W+CDO,F+CDO,HT+CDo,VT+CDO,VT+CDO,N+CDO,S+CDO,LG+CDO,FL+CDO,miscellaneous )
Where, K- correction factor, which depends on several factors such as type, year of
fabrication, degree of stream line etc.
CD,O= 4.467*10-3
Drag coefficient, CD=CDO+CDI

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 = 4.567*10-3 +3.873*10-3
=8.440*10-3
For cruising velocity of 880 km/hr
Drag force produces D=0.5*ρ ∗ v2*CD*S
D= 19.9 KN

Conclusion:
Thus the overall drag of the stealth aircraft is estimated successfully.

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EX.NO:10

DETAILED PERFORMANCE CALCULATION AND

STABILITY ESTIMATES
Aim:
To detail about the performance calculation and stability estimates.
10.1 Aircraft performance:
Aircraft performance is the study of the motion of the aircraft. The motion of any aircraft
depends upon all the forces and moments that acted upon it.
10.2 Rate of climb:
The rate of climb is an aircraft’s vertical speed, the rate of positive altitude change with
respect to time.
Rate of climb R/C = V sin𝜃
= 166.66 * sin (22)
= 62.43 m/s
10.3 Time of climb
It is time required for the aircraft to reach a specified altitude is given by (say to climb 7km
altitude)
h
Time to climb, t = R/C
7∗10^3
= 62.43

t=112.12 s
10.4 Absolute ceiling:
The highest achievable altitude is the altitude where (R/c)max=0 .It is defined as absolute
ceiling that altitude where the maximum rate of climb is zero in steady level flight.
10.5 Service ceiling:
The service ceiling, conventionally defined as that altitude where R/C=2.43 m/s. The service
ceiling represents the practical upper limit for steady level flight.

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 B C
3
Positive limit load factor

Load factor n
2
Stall area
1

A
0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700

-1
Stall area Negative limit load factor

E D

Fig 10.1 V-n diagram

10.6 Stability:
The stability of an aircraft is defined as the aircraft ability to sustain a specific prescribed
flight condition.
10.7 Longitudinal stability:
The longitudinal stability of an aircraft refers to the aircraft’s stability in the pitching
plane which describes the position of the aircraft’s nose in relation to its tail horizon. The necessary
criteria for longitudinal stability are as follows
i. CM,O must be positive
∂Cmcg
ii. Must be negative
∂∝

CM.O=Cmac.wb +VHat (it+εo)

CM.O=1.525
𝜕𝜀
𝜕CM.cg= a [h – hac.wb-VH (a1/a)(1 - 𝜕𝛼 )

𝜕CM.cg= - 0.191

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 Cm,cg
(+)

Cm,o
slope

Trimmed

ae

(-)

Fig.10.2 longitudinal stability curve

10.8 Lateral Stability
Stability about the airplane’s longitudinal axis which extends from nose to tail is called
lateral stability. This helps to stabilize the lateral or rolling effect when one wing gets lower than the
wing on the opposite side of the airplane.
The necessary criteria for lateral stability is C’L 𝛽 should be negative

C’L 𝛽 = (C’L 𝛽W+ C’L 𝛽FA+ C’L 𝛽 t+ C’L 𝛽PF )

The lateral stability is due to combined contribution form,
1. Wing, both dihedral and sweep angles
2. Fuselage
3. Vertical tail
4. Propellers and flaps

C’L 𝛽 = -2.25*10-2-0.135*10-2-1.05*10-2-1.25*10-2
= - 4.69*10-2

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 Left slip procedures
right roll
unstable
Right
roll moment
Left Right B,Side slip angle

Right slip procedures

stable left roll
slope

Fig.10.3 lateral stability curve

10.9 Directional stability
Directional stability of moving an aircraft about an axis which is perpendicular to its direction
of rotation. Stability of an aircraft concerns to return to its original direction in relation to the air
medium, when disturbed away from that original direction.
The necessary criteria for directional stability is Cn𝛽 > 0
Cn= (Cn)w+(Cn)fnp+(Cn)vt
= 2.06*1

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 Fig.10.4 Directional stability curve

Conclusion:
Thus the stability and performance of the stealth aircraft are estimated.

37