uid Mechanics & Hydraulics Fourth Edition DIEGO INOCENCIO T. GILLESANIA Civil Engineer ; BSCE, (EVSU) - Magna Cum Laude Sth Place, PICE National Students’ Quiz, 1989 Awardee, Most Outstanding Student, 1989 3rd Place, CE Board November 1989 Review Director & Reviewer in all Subjects Gillesania Engineering Review Center Author of Various Engineering BooksFluid Mechanics and Hydraulics Fourth Edition Copyright © 1997, 1999, 2005, 2015 {by Diego Inocencio Tapang Gillesania Al rights reserved. No part ofthis book may be reproduced sored in a retrieval system, or Cransferred. in any form or by any means, without tie prior permission of the author. ISBN 971-8614-53-2 Printed by: Cebu DGPrint, ine Cebu City, Philippines Cover design by the author. ‘The cardinal objective of this book is to provide reference to Engineering students taking-up Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics. This may also serve as a guide to engineering students who will be taking the licensure examination given by the PRC. The book has 10 chapters. Each chapter presents the principles and formulas involved, followed by solved problems and supplementary problems. The latest inclusion of the book is Chapter 10 which contain hundreds of multiple-choice questions with detailed solution. Each step in the solution is carefully explained to ensure that it will be readily understood. Some problems are even solved in several methods to give the reader a choice on the type of solution he may adopt. To provide the reader easy access to the different topics, the book includes index. Most of the materials in this book have been used in my review classes. The choice of these materials was guided by their effectiveness as tested in my classes. I wish to thank all my friends and relatives who inspired me in writing my books and especially to my children and beloved wife Imelda who is very supportive to me. I will appreciate any errors pointed out and will welcome any suggestion for further improvement. DIEGO INOCENCIO T. GILLESANIA Cebu City, PhilippinesTo my mother Iluminada, my Father Dionisio Sr, my father-in-law Roman Reyes, my wife Imelda, and our Children Kim Deunice, Ken Dainiel, and Karla Denise Preface Dedication CHAPTER 1 Properties of Fluid Types of Fluid. Mass Density Specific Volume Unit Weight or Specific Weight. Specific Gravity. Viscosity..... Kinematic Viscosity Surface Tensior Capillarity Compressibility. Pressure Disturbance: Property Changes in Ideal Gas. Vapor Pressure.. SOLVED PROBLEMS SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS wine CHAPTER 2 Principles of Hydrostatics .. Unit Pressur Pascal's Law. Absolute and Gage Pressures Variations in Pressure. Pressure below Layers of Different Liquids.. Pressure Head. Manometers. ‘SOLVED PROBLEM!CHAPTER 3 Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces. CHAPTER 5 Fundamentals of Fluid Flow... ‘Total Hydrostatic Force on Plane Surface. Properties of Common Geometric Shape: ‘Total Hydrostatic Force on Curved Surface . Baga Discharge . Definition of Terms: Energy and Head. Power and Efficiency aes = 1 \ et noulli’s Energy Theorem Anais Se a BAe and Hydraulic Grade Line: ol a SOLVED PROBLEMS aed a SUPPLEMENTARY P| .OBLEMS ——— ee Statical Stability of Floating Bodies = 4 ‘Suress on Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels 3 Seams 6 CHAPTER 6 : food Stare Pipex e Fluid Flow Measurement WED OLS Device Coefficients. 77 SUPPLE Head lost in Measuring Devices 79 SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS Head los 79 . CHAPTER 4 Values of H for Various Conditions Contraction of the Jet. Orifice under Low Head: Venturi Meter. Relative Equilibrium of Liquids Nozzle... Rectilinear Translation ... Pitot Tube. 88 Horizontal Motior Gates... 90 Inclined Motion .... Tubes 91 Vertical Motion Unsteady Flow (Orific 94 Rotation... Weir. 97 Volume of Paraboloid Liquid Surface Conditions.. SOLVED PROBLEMS. n206 210 to 240 Classification of Weirs Rectangular Weir. Contracted Rectangular ‘Triangular Weirs. ‘Trapezoidal Weir: 304 Cipolletti Wei Submerged Unsteady Flow eir..407 to 471 210.974 SOLVED PROBLEM: SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS CHAPTER 7 Fluid Flow in Pipes: Definition, Reynolds Number Velocity Distribution In Pipes Shearing Stress in Pipe Head Losses in Pipe Flow. Major Head Los Darcy-Weisbach Formula.. Value of f. Moody Diagram Manning Formul Hazen Williams Formula. Minor Head Loss Sudden Enlargement. Gradual Enlargement. Sudden Contraction Bends and Standard Fitting Pipe Discharging from Reservoii Pipe Connecting Two Reservoii Pipes in Series and Parallel Equivalent Pip Reservoir Problem: Pipe Networks. SOLVED PROBLEMS SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS. 400 to 476 477 to 480 CHAPTER 8 Manning, Pormnsla Bain Foren Powell Equation. Uniform Flow — Proportions for Most Efficient Sections. AaT Rectangular S85 A Trapezoidal Section $< Triangular Section Circular Sections —- AO Velocity Distribution in Open Channel ASL Alternate Stages of Flow.. 491 Froude Number. Non-Uniform or Varied Flow... Hydraulic Jump.. Flow around Channel Bends. SOLVED PROBLEMS SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS CHAPTER 9 Hydrodynamics Force against Fixed Flat Plates... Force against Fixed Curved Vanes Force against Moving Vane: Work Done on Moving Vane: Force Developed on Closed ConduitDrag and Lift. Terminal Velocity. Water Hammer. SOLVED PROBLEMS 1-563 to 597 SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS .. 597 to 598 CHAPTER 10 Multiple-Choice Questions Set 01 - Fluid Statics... Set 02 - Fluid Flow & Pipes.. Set 03 - Flow Measurements, Open Channel, Hydrodynamics APPENDIX Properties of Fluids and Conversion Factors. Table A ~ 1: Viscosity and Density of Water at 1 atti. Table A - 2: Viscosity and Density of Air at 1 atm.. ‘Table A - 3: Properties of Common Liquids at 1 atm & 20: Table A - 4: Properties of Common Gases at 1 atm & 20°C... ‘Table A ~ 5: Surface Tension, Vapor Pressure, and Sound Speed of Water... Table A ~ 6: Properties of Standard Atmosphere .. Table A ~ 7: Conversion Factors from BG to SI Units Table A - 8: Other Conversion Factors. INDEX I-IV Chapter 1 Properties of Fluids FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS Fluid Mechanics is a physical science dealing with the action of fluids at rest or in motion, and with applications and devices in engineering using fluids. Fluid mechanics can be subdivided into two major areas, fluid statics, which deals with fluids at rest, and fluid dynamics, concerned with fluids in motion. The term hydrodynamics is applied to the flow of liquids or to low-velocity gas flows where the gas can be considered as being essentially incompressible, Hydraulics deals with the application of fluid mechanics to engineering devices involving liquids, usually water or oil. Hydraulics deals with such problems as the flow of fluids through pipes or in open channels, the design of storage dams, pumps, and water turbines, and with other devices for the control or use of liquids, such as nozzles, valves, jets, and flowmeters. ‘TYPES OF FLUID Fluids are generally di led into two categories: ideal fluids and real fluids, Ideal fluids + Assumed to have no viscosity (and hence, no resistance to shear) ‘+ Incompressible + Have uniform velocity when flowing + No friction between moving layers of fluid * No eddy currents or turbulence inite viscosities + Non-uniform velocity distribution when flowing + Compressible + Experience friction and turbulence in flowReal fluids are further divided into Newtonian fluids and non-Newtonian fluids, Most fluid problems ascume real fluids with Newtonian characteristics for coowenience. This assumption is appropriate for water, air, gases, steam, and tether simple fluids like alcohol, gasoline, acid solutions, ete. However, Sturies pastes gels. suspensions may not behave according to simple fluid relationships where: p= absolute pressure of gas in Pa gas constant Joule / kg-"k For air: R= 287 J/kg -°K R= 1,716 Ib-ft/slug-"R T = absolute temperature in °Kelvin ok =°C +273 oR=°F +460 Table 1 - 1: Approximate Room- Temperature j Densities of Common Fluids - Menu 13,600 Water 7.000 MASS DENSITY, 1 Te deny sine speci vlune ie ‘mass per unit of volume. Specific volume, V., is the volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid. mass of uid, M i SS Eq1-1 Ves Fq.1-3 fame, > Units: English 2 shugs/ft Note: pag = priea/'$ Metric F en em UNIT WEIGHT OR SPECIFIC WEIGHT, y Specific weight or unit weight, y, is the weight of a unit volume of a fluid, For an ideal gas, its density can be found from eee ty found from the specific gas constant and weightof fluid, W volume, a v=p c -2 De eg Pe Eq.1-2 :Units: English: Ib/ft* Metric: dyne/em® st : N/m or kN/m? ‘SPECIFIC GRAVITY Specific gravity, s, is a dimensionless ratio of a fluid’s density to some standard reference density. For liquids and solids, the reference density is water at °C (39.2° F). gu Pili Pryater Eq, 1-6 In gases, the standard reference to calculate the specific gravity is the density of air. the upper plate will adhere to it and will move with the same velocity U while the fluid in contact with the fixed plate will have a zero velocity. For small values of U and y, the velocity gradient can be assumed to be a straight line and F varies as A, U and y as: ula but 4 = 5" (from the figure) vay ig F = Shearing stress, eM op a wy y where the constant of proportionality k is called the dynamic of absolute viscosity denoted as p call ay so See Eql-7 Eg.1-8 For water at 4°C: ; ‘y= 62.4 Ib/f® = 981 KN/m? p= 1.94 slugs/ft® = 1000 kg/m? s=10 VISCOSITY, 1: (MU) The property of a fluid which determines the amount of its resistance to shearing forces. A perfect fluid would have no viscosity. Consider two large, parallel plates at a small distance y apart, the space between them being filled with a fluid Consider the upper plate toy subject to a force F's0 as to ‘ve with a constant velocity Area =A F fluid in contact with ina wear stress in Ib/ or Pa solute viscosity in Ib sec/*(poises) or Pa-sec. y= distance between the plates in ft or m U- velocity in ft/s or m/s KINEMATIC VISCOSITY v (NU) Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of the dj it it ratio lynamie viscosity of the fluid, u, to its mass density, p. " 2 Fy where: F = absolute viscosity in Pa-sec p= density in kg/m!‘Table 1 - 2: Common Units of Viscosty Now poise = 1 dynes/am?=01Pasec (1 dyne=10°N) 1 stoke = 0.0001 m/s ‘SURFACE TEMSION o (SIGMA) The membrane of “skin” that seems to form on the free surface of a fluid is due to the intermolecular cohesive forces, and is known as surface tension. ‘Surface tension is the reason that insects are able to sit on water and a needle is able to float on it. Surface tension also causes bubbles and droplets to take on 2 spherical shape, since any other shape would have more surface area per nit volume. Pressure inside a Droplet of Liquid: Eq.1-10 where: @ = surface tension in N/m d= diameter of the droplet in m p= gage pressure in Pa Capillarity ha (@) Adhesion > cohesion (b) Cohesion > adhesion . Capillarity (Capillary action) is the name given to the behavior of the liquid in a thin-bore tube. The rise or fall or a fluid in a capillary tube is caused by surface tension and depends on the relative magnitudes of the cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of the liquid to the walls of the containing vessel. Liquids rise in tubes they wet (adhesion > cohesion) and fall in tubes they do not wet (cohesion > adhesion). Capillary is important when using tubes smaller than about 3/8 inch (9.5 mm) in diameter. Hocos8 h= : ae sed eT RE ae For complete wetting, as with water on clean glass, the angle 0 is 0°. Hence the formula becomes Eq.1-12 [Reka Asih eel US tn STE aa Ee SP where: = capillary rise or depression in m ‘y= unit weight in N/m d= diameter of the tube in m ¢ = surface tension in PaIBILITY, 6 lity (also known as the coefficient of compressibility) is the fractional the volume of a fluid per unit change in pressure in a constant- ‘process. )= change in pressure av v/ 'V = change in volume (usually in percent) ta (OF ELASTICITY, Es of elasticity of the fluid expresses the compressibility of the ‘of the change in unit pressure to the corresponding, PRESSURE DISTURBANCES Pressure disturbances imposed on a fluid move in waves. The velocity or celerity of pressure wave (also known as acoustical or sonic velocity) is Eq.1-17 aa EE P Bp PROPERTY CHANGES IN IDEAL GAS For any ideal gas experiencing any process, the equation of state is given by: i WL v: So Eq. 1-18 When temperature is held constant, Eq. 1 - 18 reduces to (Boyle's Law) PV=p Va Eq.1-19) ‘When temperature is held constant (isothermal condition), Eq. 1 - 18 reduces to (Charle's Law)where: Pi= initial absolute pressure of gas 2 final absolute pressure of gas V, = initial volume of gas V3= final volume of gas 7; = initial absolute temperature of gas in °K (*K = °C + 273) Tz final absolute temperature of gas in °K k = ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to the specific heat at constant volume. Also known as adiabatic exponent VAPOR PRESSURE Molecular activity in a liquid will allow some of the molecules to escape the liquid surface. Molecules of the vapor also condense back into the liquid. The vaporization and condensation at constant temperature are equilibrium Processes. The equilibrium pressure exerted by these free molecules is known as the unpor pressure or saturation pressure. Some liquids, such as propane, butane, ammonia, and Freon, have significant vapor pressure at normal temperatures. Liquids near their boiling point or that vaporizes easily are said to volatile liquids. Other liquids such as mercury, have insignificant vapor pressures at the same temperature. Liquids with low vapor pressure are used in accurate barometers. The tendency toward vaporization is dependent on the temperature of the liquid. Boiling occurs when the liquid temperature is increased to the point that the vapor pressure is equal to the local ambient (surrounding) pressure. ‘Thus, a liquid’ boiling temperature depends on the local ambient pressure, as well as the liquid’s tendency to vaporize. Turpentine — water ethyl alcohol ether butane Freon-I2 propane Solved Problems Problem 1-1 A reservoir of glycerin has a mass of 1,200 kg and a volume of 0.952 cu. m. Find its (a) weight, W, (b) unit weight, y, (0) mass density, p, and (d) specific gravity (3). Solution (Weight, (2,200)(9.81) Weight, W= 11,772 N or 11.772 KN w. (0). Unit weight, y= ©) Unit weight, y= M72 0.952 Unit weight, y= 12.366 kN/m* M (Density, p= -M 0 pat 1200 Density, p = 1200 may P= 952 Density, p = 1,260.5 kg/m?Solution (0) W=mg = 22.75) W=214.5N (6) Since the mass of an object is absolute, its mass will still be 22 kg. Problem 1-5 What is the weight of a 45-kg boulder if it is brought to a place where the acceleration due to gravity is 395 m/s per minute? Solution weight, Y= Yeas ¥ 5 w= Mg weight, y = 62.4 x 0.82 = 51.168 Ib/ft* g=395 m/s, Imin weight y= 951 x 0.82 = 8.044 kN/m?* ‘min * 60sec = 6583 m/s! W=45(6.583) W=296.25N Problem 1-6 It ih pe volume of a certain gas is 0.7848 m*/kg, what is its specif weight? Solution p= 1.2742 kg/m? Specific weight-y=pxg Soc .2742 x 9.81 specific weight, y = 12.5 N/m? ss of 22 kg at sea level, (2) what will be its weight at a eM 125 Nine = 9.75 m/s* (b) What will be itsProblem 1-7 What is the specific weight of ar at 480 kPa absolute and 21°C? pee where RE RTI/REK Ow Rees pT aOR yeSeWrasy 1=SaNS Rrebien 2-5 Find the mass Gensity of he! im at 2 temperature of 4 °C and a pressure of 184 Ea gage, # atmospheric presume is 10192 kPa (R= 2079]/kg * °K) At32°C and 205 kPa gage, the specific weight of a certain gas was 13.7 N/m’. Determine the gas constant of this gas. Solution Density, p= 1 & 1 9 = 1.397 kg/m? Density, p = + (205 + 101.325) x10” RG2+273) Gas constant, R = 718.87 J/kg - °K 1.397 = Note: Pex = 101.325 ke Problem i - 10 Air is kept at a pressure of 200 kPa absolute and a temperature of 30°C in a 500-liter container. What is the mass of air? Solution pe! RT = 200108 287(30+ 273) p= 23 kg/m e Mass = p x V =23 Mass = 1.15 kg Problem 4 - 11 A cylindrical tank 80 cm in diameter and 90 cm high is filled with a liquid. ‘The tank and the liquid weighed 420 kg. The weight of the empty tank is 40 kg, What is the unit weight of the liquid in kN/m?.‘of water, Ex = 2.2 GPa. ‘required to reduce the volume of water by 0.6 percent? Bulk p2=0.0132GPa 3.2 MPa Problem i - 15 Water in a hydraulic press, initially at 137 kPa absolute, is subjected to a pressure of 116,280 kPa absolute. Using Es = 25 GPa, determine the percentage decrease in the volume of water. Solution p w/v 2 25x 197 = (216.280 - 137) «10! av a =-00465 1 «4.65% decrease Problem 1-46 If 9m? of an ideal the resultin, been the py {82s at 24 °C and 150 kPaa is compressed to 2 m?, (a) what is 'g Pressure assuming isothermal conditions. (6) What would have essure and temperature if the process is isentropic. Use k = 1.3he viscosity of water at 70 °C is 0.00402 poise and its specific gravity is 0.978 its absolute viscosity in Pa - s and its kinematic viscosity in m?/s Lin stokes. stoke 0.0001m?/s Problem 4 - 18 ‘Two large plane surfaces are 25 mm apart and the space between them is filled with a liquid of viscosity y= 0.958 Pa-s. Assuming the velocity gradient to be a straight line, what force is required to pull a very thin plate of 0.37 m? area at a constant speed of 0.3 m/s if the plate is 8.4 mm from one of the surfaces? Solution Perth “Ty LFA us/y wUA y 02.955(03)0.37) _ A 0.0166 64N Fyn BEHOME gon F=64412.66 F=19.06N Problem 1-19 AA cylinder of 125 mm radius rotates concentrically inside a fixed cylinder of 130 mm radius. Both cylinders are 300 mm long. Determine the viscosity of the liquid which fills the space between the cylinders if a torque of 0.88 N-m is required to maintain an angular velocity of 2n radians/sec. Assume the velocity gradient to be a straight line,“Uy Uusre U=0125@x) U=0785m/s y= 0.005 m Torque = F(0.125) Torque = +A (0.125) 0.88 = x 25(0.125)(03)] (0.125) 2S8Pa u | 2988 L # "0785/0005 0.005 frre 0125 p= 019 Pas 013m Problem i - 20 An 18-kg slab slides down a 15° inclined plane on a 3-mm-thick film of oil with viscosity 4 = 0.0814 Pa-sec. If the contact area is 0.3 mé, find the terminal velocity of the slab. Neglect air resistance. Solution W = 18(9.81) = 176.58 N sy Terminal velocity is attained when the sur of all forces in the direction of motion is zero. Wsin @-F,=0 eesAaptay y u sin 15° = 403 176.58 sin 15° = 00814 5 (03) 614 m/s 614 ns Estimate the height to which water will rise in a capillary tube of diameter 3 mm. Use 6 = 0.0728 N/m and y = 9810 N/m? for water. Solution Note: 8= 90° for water in clean tube a de Capitlary rise k= 42 sso, = (0.0728) Capillary rise, = M00728)_ pany tse Tt 367 0(0.008) Capillary rise, h = 0.0099 m = 9.9 mm. ‘Problem 1-22 Estimate the capillary depression for mercury in a glass capillary tube 2 mm i diameter. Use 6 = 0.514 N/m and 0 = 140°, One a i Solution Capillary rise, h = 498088 _ _4(0.514)(cos140°) yd (9810%13.6)(0.002) Capillary rise, t= 0.0059 m (the negative sign indicates caplaydepressoa) Capillary depression, h = 5.9 mmProblem 1 - 23 What is the value of the surface tension of a small drop of water O° mm in diameter which is in contact with air if the pressure within the droplet is 561 Pa? ‘An atomizer forms water droplets 45 um in diameter. Determine the excess pressure within these droplets using 6 = 0.0712 N/m. (0.0712) 45x10 = 6,329 Pa Problem 1 - 25 = Distilled water stands in a glass tube of 9 mm diameter at a height of 24 mm. What is the true static height? Use o = 0.0742 N/m. Solution jw 490088 where 0 = 0° for water in glass tube 4(0.0742) ~~ 9810(0.009) = 0,00336 m = 3.36 mm True static height = 24 - 3.36 ‘True static height = 20.64 mm Problem 4 - 26 ‘A sonar transmitter operates at 2 impulses per second. If the device is held to the surface of fresh water (Ex = 2.04 x 10” Pa) and the echo is received midway between impulses, how deep is the water? Solution ‘The velocity of the pressure wave (sound wave) is: Since the echo is received midway between impulses, then the total time of travel of sound, f= (0.5) = % sec and the total distance covered is 2h, then; Dhect 2h = 1.42804) h=1785 m lem 1 - 27 At what pressure will 80 °C water boil? (Vapor pressure of water at 80°C = 47.4 kPa). Solution Water will bol ifthe atmospheric pressure equals the vapor pressure. ‘Therefore water at 80 °C will boil at 47.4 kPa,9 fe Ya) Jindrical tank with a diameter of 12 m and a depth of 4 m is filled the top with water at 20°C. If the water is heated to 50°C, how ll spill over? Unit weight of water at 20°C and 50°C is 9.79 Ans: 4.7 me hs ae ; : steel container is partially filled with a liquid at 15 atm, The volume of is 1.23200 L. At a pressure of 30 atm, the volume of the liquid is 00 L. Find the average bulk modulus of elasticity of the liquid over the range of pressure if the temperature after compression is allowed to to its initial value. What is the coefficient of compressibility? Ans: Ex = 1.872 GPa; 1-31 the density of water vapor at 350 kPa abs and 20°C if its gas constant Ans: 259 kg/m? pressure of 200 kPa and a temperature of 30°C in a 500-L 6 the mass of the air? FLUID MECHANICS CHAPTER ONE & HYDRAULICS Properties of Fluids 25. Problem 4 - 33, (@) If 12 mm? of nitrogen at 30°C and 125 kPa abs is permitted to expand isothermally to 30 m?, what is the resulting pressure? (b) What would the pressure and temperature have been if the process had been 2 ‘Ans: (a) 50 kPa abs (6) 34.7 kPa abs; 63°C Problem 1-34 A square block weighing 1.1 KN and 250 mm on an edge slides down an incline on a film of oil 6.0 pm thick. Assuming a linear velocity profile in the oil and neglecting air resistance, what is the terminal velocity of the block? ‘The viscosity of oil is 7 mPa-s. Angle of inclination is 20° Ans.5.16 m/s Problem 1-35 Benzene at 20°C has a viscosity of 0.000651 Pa-s. What shear stress is required to deform this fluid at a strain rate of 4900 5"? Ans: =3.19 Pa Problem 1 - 36 A shaft 70 mi in diameter is being pushed at a speed of 400 mm/s through a bearing sleeve 70.2 mm in diameter and 250 mm long. The clearance, assumed uniform, is filled with oil at 20°C with v = 0.005 m?/s and sp. gr. = 0.9. Find the force exerted by the oil in the shaft. Ans: 987 N Problem 1 - 37 ‘Two clean parallel glass plates, separated by a distance d = 1.5 mm, are dipped ina bath of water. How far does t rise due to ion, if = comely loes the water rise due to capillary action, if Ans: 9.94 mmChapter 2 Principles of Hydrostatics UNIT PRESSURE OR PRESSURE, p Pressure is the force per ufit area exerted surface, with the force acting, at right angles w directions In the English system, pressure is usually measured in pounds per square inch (psi); in international usage, in kilograms per square centimeters (kg/cm), or in atmospheres; and in the international metric system (SI), in Newtons per square meter (Pascal). The unit atmosphere (atm) is defined as a pressure of 1.03323 kg/cm? (14.696 Ib7in’), which, in terms of the conventional mercury barometer, corresponds to 760 mm (29.921 in) of mercury. The unit kilopascal (kPa) is defined as a pressure of 0.0102 kg/cm? (0.145 Ib/sq in) PASCAL'S LAW Pascal's law, developed by French mathematician Blaise Pascal, states that the Pressure on a fluid is equal in all directions and in all parts of the container. In Figure 2 - 1, as liquid flows into the large container at the bottom, pressure Pushes the liquid equally up into the tubes above the container. The liquid TESS to the same level in all of the tubes, regardless of the shape or angle of theFigure 2~ 2: Mustration of Pascal's Law The laws of Huid mechanics are observable in many everyday situations, For example, the pressure exerted by water at the bottom of a pond will be the ‘same as the pressure exerted by water at the bottom of a much narrower pipe, provided depth remains constant. If a longer pipe filled with water is tilted so that it reaches a maximum height of 15 m, its water will exert the same pressure as the other examples (left of Figure 2- 2). Fluids can flow up as well as down in devices such as siphons (right of Figure 2 - 2). Hydrostatic force ‘causes water in the siphon to flow up and over the edge until the bucket is empty or the suction is broken. A siphon is particularly useful for emptying containers that should not be tipped |S Figure 2 - 2: Ilustration of Pascal's Law ABSOLUTE AND GAGE PRESSURES Gage Pressure (Relative Pressure) Gaye premures are pressures above or below the atmosphere and can be ‘yauypsor manometers, For small presaire differences, a U- ith one ends concected to wrediby presnure {ube manometer fs used. Kt consints of a U-shaped tube the containdr and the other open to the atmnonphere, Filled with a liquid, sch a water, oll, or mercury, the difference: in the liquid surface levels in the two manometer legs indicates the pressure difference from local strnenpteric conditions, Por higher presoure differences, a Kaurdon gauge, raced ates the French inventor Bugene Bourdon, is used, This coneioks of a holler seta with an oval cross section, bent in the shape of a hock. Ome end oh the tube i closed, the other open and connected to the measurement region. ‘Atmospheric Pressure & Vacuum Atmospheric Pressure isthe pressure at any one point on the earth's srtface from the weight of the air above it. A vacuum isa space that has all matter removed from it It is impossible to create a perfect vacuum in the laboratory; no matter how advanced a vacuum system is, some molecules are always present in the vacuum area, Even remote rons of outer space have a small amount of gas. A vacuum can al lescribed as a region of space where the pressure is less than the normal atmospheric pressure of 760 mm (299 in) of mercury. Under Normal conditions at sea level: Pam = 2166 Ib/ fe = 147 psi = 29.9 inches of mercury (hy = 760 mm Hg ey = 101.325 kPa Absolute Pressure Absolute pressure ute pressure isthe pressure above absolute zero (vacuum). Pata = Peace * Porm Egd-2Senses = WLS bs a >. A pressure units in AP , (on -100 909 ‘Figure 2 ~ 3: Reatonstip beoween absolute and gage pressures [Notes Unies ctherwise specified in this book, the term pressure signifies gage pressure, (MERCURY BAROMETER A mercury barometer is an accurate and relatively simple way fo measure changes in atmospheric presure. Ar sea level, the weight ofthe abmasphere Forces mercury 760 mm (23.9 in) up 2 calibrated ‘ges tube. Higher elevations yield lower readings ‘because the atmosphere & less dense there, and the thinner air exerts les pressure on the mercy. ANEROID BAROMETER In an aneroid barometer, a partially evacuated metal drum ‘expands or contracts in response to changes in ar pressure. A series of levers and springs ‘translates the up and down ‘movement of the drum top into the circular motion of the pointers along the aneroid barometers face. 42 ‘eurent atmosphere» 100 obs ¥ Apsolute 200 101.325 gape VARIATIONS IN PRESSURE Consider any two points (1 & 2), whose difference in elevation is h, to lie in the ends of an elementary prism having a cross-sectional area a and a length of L. Since this prism is at rest all forces acting upon it must be in equilibrium. Free auld surface Ps 8 pz are gage pressures r No ‘ nT "| n=Lsino Figure 2 - 4: Forces acting on elementary prism Note: Free Lquid Sur liquid su espe Sac eers fo uid suface subject to zero gage pressure oF wth With reference to Figure 2-4 Wayv W=y (al) IEF, = 0] Fh-Fi=Wsino Pra~pia=y (al) sind Po-pi=yLsind but Lsin @=h P2=Pi= yh Eq.2-3 Therefore; te difference in pressure between an: fs in a hom s et 'y two points in a homogeneous fluid at rest is equal to the product il (7) to the vertical distance is he product of the un ; Product of the unit weight of the fluid (y) ce‘This means that any change in pressure at point 1 would cause an equal change at point 2. Therefore; a pressure applied at any point in a liquid at rest is transmitted equally anu undiminished to every other point in the liquid. Let us assume that point © in Figure 2 - 4 lie on the free liquid surface, then the gage pressure p1 is zero and Eq, 2- 4 becomes: pe wh Eq.2-5 Consider the tank shown to be filled with liquids of different densities and with air at the top under a gage pressure of pa, the pressure at the bottom of the tank is: Proven = SYK + p= ih +y2he+ ha pa Eq.2-7 PRESSURE HEAD Pressure head is the height “h” of a column of homogeneous liquid of unit ‘weighty that will produce an intensity of pressure p. This means that the pressure at any point “h” below a free liquid surface is equal to the product of the unit weight ofthe fluid (y) and h. Consider that points @ and @ in Figure 2 - 4 lie on the same elevation, such that i= 0; then Eq. 2-4 becomes: Pi=pr Eq.2-6 This means that the pressure along the same horizontal plane in a homogeneous fliid at rest are equal. Pressure below Layers of Different Liquids P nek 12-8 7 Eq, ¥ z a= a=4 or ha =hyP& or hs = hg 4 .2-9 * ae: Pa Ye #4 To convert pressure head (height) of any liquid to water, height by its specific gravity just multiply its Tre = Tiga Sigua Eq.2-10containing @ ligule of jor of a Us toe proportionally t0 chan MANONETER A prance 18 8 1UtS naovn esate gravity, the su So pressuie, TEES UAE HONE anally bent na jae at awh MHOC PHP pressure and by capable of Types of Manometer Open Type = Ne ase attogpherts RARE SATE PHOSUINS erde sualace Daerwatial Type = without a atiaesph “WRRUSRATDG DY LARNACA OE PFE a“ . ameter, thisa tube tappedt Into a ieaounatee ~ The simptest oemtof open MANO ee pnanee oy cnt othe purpose of measuring pressure, The Seid i ee coneaince oe coe rises tn tis tute to form a free surface antage ny one FoR © and capable of Limitations of Piexometer: ‘© Lange pressures in the lighter liquids require long tubes 2 Gas pressures can not be measured because gas can not form a ree surface. (2) Open manometer (0) Differential manometer (©) Piezometer Stops in Solving Manometer Problems: 1, Decide on the fluid in feet or meter, of which the heads are to be expressed, (Water ie mot advieable) Starting from an end point, number in order, the interlace of different suet Mdemlify points of equal pressure (taking, into accerart that for a homogeneous fluid at rest, the pressure along, the sarne horizontal plane are equal), Label these points with the sarrwe nusnber 4, Proceed from level to level, adding, OS ypoing, dereey oF yolng up) prewure heads ax the elevation decteases on arcane, ieupuctively with due regard for the specific gravity oA the § ck tractor, Of Solved Problems Ee Problem 2-1 If a depth of liquid of 1 m causes a pressure of 7 kPa, what is the specific gravity of the liquid? Solution Pressure, p= yh 7 = (981 x5) (1) S=0.714 > Specific Gravity Problem 2-2 What is the pressure 12.5 m below the ocean? Use’sp. gr. = 1.03 for salt water. Solution p= (9.81 *1.03)(125) p= 1263 kPaProblem 2-3 oe If the pressure 23 meter below a liquid is 338.445 kPa, determine its unit ‘weight y, mass density p , and specific gravity s. Problem 2-5 Ifthe pressure in the air space above an oi (s= 0.75) surface ina closed tank is 115 kPa absolute, what is the gage pressure 2 m below the surface: Solution Solution = Poustace + 1h a Unter re was - 101325 Note: Pam = 101.325 KPO 338.45 = y 23) 3.675 kPa gage y=14.715 kN/m? 3.675 + (9.81%0.75)(2) 28,39 kPa (0) Mass density, p pot a 8 Problem 2-6 1471510 Find the absolute pressure in kPa at a depth of 10 m below the free surface of Ts oil of sp. gr. 0.75 if the barometric reading is 752 mmHg, = 1,500 kg/m? Solution (0) Specific gravity, s Pas = Pa * Po go Pei Poon ™ YF Prater (981 x 13.6)(0.752) 1,500 Pam = 100.329 kPa su 1500 7,000 as = 100;329 + (9.81 « 0.75)(10) vse15 j Pav = 173.9 kPa Problem 2-4 Problem 2-7 If the pressure at a point in the ocean is 60 kPa; what is the pressure 27 meters | below this point? Solution The difference in pressure between any two points in a liquid is psp. = 7h P= pit yh = 60 + (9.81%1.03)(27) pr= 332.82 kPa | {Pressure gage 6 m above the bottom of the tank containing a liquid reads 90 Aka. Another gage height 4m reads 103 kPa, Determine the specific weight of the liquid, Solution Pe pemyh 103 - 90 = ¥(2) 165 kN/m?| 54m of water covered with 3.2 m of kerosene (y= § | i ind the presnuie at the Interface and at the bottom of the tank, N a (a) Pressure at the interface, e . pawl = (8)(.2) p= 35.6 kPa ir atthe bottom poedah het tlh = 9,81(6.8) + 83.2) pr 82.498 kPa fatmospheric pressure i 98,7 kPa and the gage attached 0 the ming vacuum, find the absolute pressure within the tank. 45-4 6 23H le mols mood Solution Pate ™ Pain * Pose Prove YrrcryHierury = (0.81 « 13.6)(0.188) beget = 25,08 kPa vacuum * Pyuge *-25,08 kPa BS Pate ™ 95.7 + (-25,08) Pos = 70.62 kPa abs 22-04 weight density of a mud is given by y= 10+ O.Sh, where y is in kN/m* and ymeters, Determine the pressure, in kPa, at a depth of 5 m. Solution Since the denuity of the mud varies with depth, the pressure nhould be wolved by integration dpeydh p= (10+ 08 dh fore foovosina 5 r= 1h 025i | = [10(6) + 0.25(5)4] - 0 p= 56.25 kPa atthe bottom of the t 231.3 KP, what i the speciic gravity of olive oil? : 8 Y it y vy Solution. S Gage pressure at the bottom of th ; 1e bottom of the tank, p = 231.3 - 101.03 Gage pressure at the bottom of the tank, p = 130.27 kPa [p= Zyh] P= Yuba Yo ho + Yeh * Yo Ia 130.27 = (0.81 + JOM O81 «13. 04) + 981 x 3)29) + 98125) + (281 x0.89)15)Problem 2-12 { If air had a constant specific weight of 12.2 N/m* and were incompressible, ' 5 what would be the height of the atmosphere if the atmospheric pressure (sea level) is 102 kPa? vie Solution i Height of atmosphere, ht = £ = 102x109 | 122 Height of atmosphere, i = = 8,360.66 m lem 2 13 (CE Board May 1994) _ | ZF Assuming specific weight of air to be constant at 12 N/m’, what is the approximate height of Mount Banahaw if a mercury barometer at the base of the mountain reads 654 mm and at the same instant, another barometer at thet top of the mountain reads 480 mm. Solution | Air Prox Prop = It (mn Its)totom = (to Hadop = (F aie (9,810 x 13.6)(0.654) ~ (9,810 x 13.6)(0.48) = 12h = 1,934.53 m | be Pandy = TUEANC a 127 19 / {problem 2-14 Compute the barometric pressure in kPa at an altitude of 1,200 m if the pressure at sea level is 101.3 kPa. Assume isothermal conditions a 21°C. Use R=287 Joule /kg-*K. "Solution For gases: ‘ = 000001185 p dy = -(0,00001185 p)(9:81) dh ‘ » ® 60001168 th 7 : é a 2 - occones fe ; i ap] <0.001168% J * + Inp~In (101.3 x 103) = - 0,0001163(1200 - 0) Inp= 11386 ae = 8,080 Pa .Problem 2-15 ‘Convert 760 mm of mercury to (@) oil of sp. gF 0:82 and () water ee Problem 2-16 (CE Board May 1994) |A barometer reads 760 mmHg and a pressure gage attached to a tank reads 850.cm of oil (p.gr- 0.80). What isthe absolute pressure inthe tank in KPa? Solution Pas = Pass * Prree é = (981 x 13.6)(0.76) + (9.81 x 0.8)(85) Pos = 168-1 kPa abs Problem 2-17 : ‘A hydraulic press is used to raise an 80-KN cargo truck. If oil of sp. gr. 082 acts on the piston under a pressure of 10 MPa, what diameter of piston required? Solution . Since the pressure under the piston is uniform: Force = pressure x Area 80,000 = (10 x 10%) 4D? D=01 m= 100mm Problem 2 - 18 (CE November 1998) Piston A has a cross-section of 1,200 sq. cm while that of piston B is 950 sq. cm. with the latter higher than piston A by 1.75 m. If the intervening passages are filled with oil whose specific gravity is 0.8, what is the difference in pressure between A and B. Solution Papa ol = (9810 « 0.8)(1.75) Pa~ po 13,734 Pa 1200 em? 950 om? In the figure shown, 300 mm @ determine the weight W that can be carried by the 15 KN force acting on the piston, + Solution Since points 1 and 2 lie on the same elevation, ps = ps 300mm a 15 lw #00 ~ Far Won LSKN {30 mm @(0 mm in diameter and filled with water has a vertical pipe, 20 mm ‘tached to the top. How many Newtons of water must be the pipe to exert a force of 6500 N on the top ofthe drum? : El a prvi) 0 © 16,904 = 9810 me A=17Bm Solution Force on the top: Fapx Area 6500 = p x 4 (700? - 20°) x p= 0.016904 MPa 20mm p= 16,904 Pa Weight = x Volume \ = 9810 § (0027(1.723) cca ontop Weight =531N — 700 mm © ¢ The figure shown shows a setup with a vessel containing a plunger and a cylinder, What force F is required to balance the weight of the cylinder ifthe weight of the plunger is negligible? (oi, s = 0.78, fol, s = 0.78 “1G cor —f 0051 FO >U6 Wl Ste Nv) unger, >= 8.0323 mt ol, s= 0.78 (01, s = 0.78 be- p= tell Seen m7” D008 1 =3096F (kPa) Ww 4 ec p2= 136.22 kPa 136.22 -309.6 F = (9.81 + 0.78)(4.6) F = 0326 KN = 326 N Problem 2-22, ihe hydraulic press shown is filled with oil with sp. gr. 0.82. Neglecting the weight of the two pistons, what force son eee hat force F on the handle is required to support > condi orSolution Since points 1 and 2 lie on the same elevation, then; Pi A, A as Az 10 A Fo.07s 50025)? Fy LILKN [EMo=0) F(0425) = F(0.025) (0.425) = 1.11(0.025) F=0.0654 KN F=654N FBO of the lever arm Problem 2-23 The fuel gage for a gasoline (sp. gr. = 0.68) tank in a car reads proportional to its bottom gage. If the tank is 30 em deep an accidentally contaminated with 2 ‘em of water, how many centimeters of gasoline does the tank actually contain when the gage erroneously reads “FULL”? Solution lar ene 4-4 Water “Fur Since the gage reads “FULL” then the reading is equivalent to 30 cm of gasoline Reading (pressure head) when the tank contain water = (y +2.phg) cm of gasoline Then; y+2y)y =30 y= 27.06 em Problem 2 - 24 (CE Board November 2000) For the tank shown in the Figure, hy = 3m and l= 4m. Determine the value offs. Solution Summing-up pressure head from 1103 in meters of water F +084) x= PS 7 Y 0+084h-(4-3)=0 n= 119mProblem 2 - 25 (CE Board May 1992) Inthe figure shown, what is the static pressure in kPa in the air chamber? Solution The pressure in the air space ‘equals the pressure on the surface of oil, ps P2—Ps= Yoho 19.62 - ps = (9.81 x 0.80)(4) po=-1L77 kPa Another solution: Sum-up pressure head from 1 to 3 in meters of water: FL +2~4(0.80) = 2 Y Y 0+2-32= Fa 981 11.77 kPa Ps Problem 2-26 . For the manometer shown, determine the pressure at the center of the pipe. Solution Sum-up pressure head from 1 t03 in meters of water: Y + 1(13.55) + 1.5(0.8) = 23 Y 041475 = Ps Y Pa Y ps™14.75(9.81) ps= 144.7 kPa 14.75 m of water TACO] 4 a s{(O-8) CF) 49-0 paw de MNProblem 2~ 27 (CE Board November 2001) Determine the value of y in the manometer shown in the Figure, Problem 2-28 (CE May 1993) In the figure shown, when the funnel is empty the water surface am | acsxre is at point A and the mercury of — ap. gf. 1335 shows a deflection of = 15 cm, Determine the new ‘ deflection of mercury when the 3m || seas y funnel is filled with water to B am v aSm : esc Solution Solution == Summing-up pressure head from am || Ai skP 4 A to B in meters of water: f z ; daly) WAG) Pa+3(08) +15-ya3.6)= FE ah Weeecte oso = Y220% 80cm Y S si Ps 2 +39-136y= 22 oa a7 where py 8 ots wor R 03s 05 my —— ef 1 y=0324m 4H mercury 400.5) b Val 2arR) — 8-& ei(isse) (O10) Figure (a): Level at A Figure (b): Level at B C4 W) (f) - O81 0) ~ Veg (001GG) Seo XP (0-08 n6¢ Solve for y in Figure (a): a Sum-up pressure head from A to2in meters of water: gay PA 4 y- 0150355) = 2 on Y 0+y-203=0 GLADE $00 y= 203 m Te” a fHFM -IS + (eK) syysator Tce e ‘When the anne se a writs yaesspantonngu =? sup pressure head from B to 2: 08+ y+ (015+ 301355) = FE 0.80 + 2.03 + x-27.1x-2.03= 0 1 x= 0.80 (031 m=3..em a “New reading R= 15 4+2r= 15 +2G.1) _” New reading, R= 21.2cm pressure at point m in the figure | was increased from 70 KPa to |. ‘This causes the top level of Mercury Figure (b) ‘Sum-up pressure head from 2 to m in meters of water: Pn 1 6y-1= Ea) In Figure (by Sum-up pressure head from 2’ to m’ in meters of water: 5 P2 + (13.6) - y P24 @2sino+y +0.2)(13.6) - (x +0.2) = P& 1 0+ 2:72 sin 0 + 13.6y +272-x-0. 13.6y - x= 8.183-2.72sin 6 Eq. 2) & sin 0 = 0.3852 = 22.66° Problem 2-30 A closed cylindrical tank contains 2 m of water, 3 m of oil (s = 0.82) and the air above oil has a pressure of 30 kPa. If an open mercury manometer at the bottom of the tank has 1 m of water, determine the deflection of mercury Solution ‘Sum-up pressure head from 1 7 1 to 4 in meters of water: Pee. 430082) +2+1-y(136)= 24 3m Y 7 he +246 +3-13.6y=0 an y=062m rz +t S y 4 WAG) ~14 FE (0 00-30 205 Yo orto(ins mercury, 1f 12 ml of water is, io the right-hand leg, what are Mercury L120 mm —! i g L Solving for hr, (se figure b): Volume of water = (I2)*h= 12cm? Note: 1 mi = 1 cm? ‘h= 15.28 cm = 152.8 mm 120@)=R+x+120+x R+2x=240 Eq. (1) 10mm 2 Figure (b) In Figure (b): Summing-up pressure head from 1 to 3in mm of water: 8 - R36) = FE 1 R=11.24mm In Eq, 2) 11.24 + 2x = 240 x= 114.38 mm Ultimate heights in each leg: Right-hand leg, e= ht + x 1528 + 114.38 Right-hand leg, he = 267.18 mm Left-hand leg, hu = R+x =11.24 + 11438 Left-hand leg, hy = 125.62 mm Problem 2-32 For a gage reading of -17.1 kPa, determine the (a) elevations of the liquids in the open piezometer columns E, F, and G and (b) the deflection of the mercury in the U-tube manometer neglecting the weight of air.Column G Sum-up pressure head from 1 to g in meters of water; PL 43(0.7) + 4(1) -fn(1.6) = 2 y 1 RL +21 +4-1.6=0 +hy +272=10.72m Surface elevatior Deflection of mercury Sum-up pressure head from 1 to 5 in meters of water; Ph 4300.7) +44 4-y(13.6) = 22 7 7 ZI +101 ~13.6h j= 0.614 m. Problem2-33. ‘An open manometer attached to a pipe shows a deflection of 150 mmbig with the lower level of mercury 450 mm below the centerline of the pipe carrying Peer tre head from 1 toe in métes of water; water, Calculate the pressure at the centerline of the pipe. Pts non= Pe Solution Y 7 ay +mon=0 fy = 25m Surface elevation = 15 - hy Surface elevation = 15 - 2.5 = ‘Sum-up pressure head from 1 to 3 in meters of water; __. Sum-up pressure head from 1 to fin meters of water; ; nh Saat 2 + 045-0:5036 = 2 B e307 -1) = Y ay i EE, +045-204-0 P= 15.6 kPaFor the configuration shown, calculate the weight of the piston if the pressure gage reading is 70 kPa. Solution ‘Sum-up pressure head from A toB in meters of water; po=70kP2 Weight rino> 24 10.86) = 25 7 7 Pa - 20 PA -086= 981 O81 a= 78.44 kPa Weight =F, Fa = ax Area = pax Area = 78.44% F(P Weight = 61.61 kN Problem 2-35 Two vessels are connected to a differential manometer using mercury, the connecting tubing being filled with water. The higher pressure vessel is 1.5™ | lower in elevation than the other. (a) If the mercury reading is 100 mm, what is the pressure head difference in meters of water? (b) If carbon tetrachloride (s = 1.59) were used instead of mercury, what would, be the manometer reading for the same pressure difference? Solution (@) Gage liquid = mercury, = 0.1 m Sum-up pressure head from 1 to 4 in meters of water; PA ge th-h(136)-x-15 = PA Y Y =15-0.+0.1(13.6) i] Pi Pa rot = 2.76 m of water (©) Gage liquid = carbon tetrachloride [Gage liquid reading, =? Sum-up pressure head from 1 to 4 in meters of water; PL y+ h-1(159)-x-15= PA Y 276=1.5 + 0.59! j= 2.136 m Problem 2- 36 In the figure shown, determine the height ht of water and the ‘gage reading at A when the absolute pressure at B is 290 kPa,_ Problem 2-37 ne figure shown, the atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa, the gage "reading at A is 40 kPa, and the vapor ‘of alcohol is 12 kPa absolute. Compute x + y. 1to 2in meters of water; es [© Samsp absolute pressure head from ie cho anor}, ‘Sum-up pressure (gage) head from 1 to 4 in meters of water; PL + (0.9) +1.3(0.9) -1.3(13.6) = 2 7 AO +09x-1651=0 381 x= 13.81 m Then, x + y= 2842 m Problem 2-38 For the manometer setup shown, determine the difference in pressure between A and B. Solution 4068 = y +17 Jo, s = x-y=102m Eq (l) / i nen 085 ‘Sum-up pressure head from A to B in meters of water; 2a 066/085) + y= 22 ’ Y Pa Pa Y ve x-y+0578 > Eq, (2) Substitute x - y = 1.02 in Eq, (1) to Eq, (2) Fa PA Ph or o9 4 A Ph 1.034 0578 - ) Pee Pe = 1508 Pre - 4-51 be TY) F04a\ Vom) ES / Pa- Pe 15.68 kPa $e e1) Oy) H= 0Problem 2-39 A differential manometer is attached to a pipe as shown. Calculate the _ pressure difference between points A and B. Problem 2- 40 In the figure shown, the deflection of mercury is initially 250 mm. If the pressure at A is increased by 40 kPa, while maintaining the pressure at B constant, what will be the new mercury deflection? Sum-up pressure head from A to B in meters of water; | a = (0.9) -0.1(13.6) + 0.1(0.9) + y(o.9) = PE Pa. Ph 0 0.1(13,6) -0.1(0.9) 1 Y PA=P8 9 1.27m 981 1p ~ py = 12.46 kPi PA~Pi 2 Figure (a) Figure (b) In Figure a, sum-up pressure head from A to B in meters of water; _ = 0.6 -0,25(13.6) + 0.25 + 2.1 = 2B 7 PA. PU 21.65 m of water yoyIn Figure b, pa’ = pa + 40 ‘Sum-up pressure head from A’ to B in meters of wal PA (046-2) -(0.25 + 2x)13.6 + (235+ 2) = 7 7 PatMO ogee 3a-2720+235+x= PE 7 7 Pa yO 165 -252x= PB 7 * 9BI 1 PA PB 29525-2423 But 2A . Ps roy VAY 1.65 = 252 x - 2.423 x=0162m= 162mm ’ New mercury deflection'= 250 + 2x = 250 + 2(162) New mercury deflection = 574 mm Problem 2-41 « In the figure shown, determine the difference in pressure between points 4 and B. tht green = as )- bm Fem Hea) — aoe) ~A91(o4r] (oH 4 EET Solution Sum-up pressure head from A to B in meters of water; he PA. + 0.20088) -0.09(13.6) -031(0.82) + 0.25 -0.1(0.0012) = TF 7 Pa a-pe=9.81(1.0523) = 10.32 kPa - 28 = 1.0523 m of water ¥ Problem 2- 42 (CE Board) Assuming normal barometric pressure, how deep in the ocean is the point where an air bubble, upon reaching the surface, has six times its volume than ithad at the bottom? Solution ‘Applying Boyle's Law {assuming isothermal condition) (pi Vi= pa Va} r= 101.3 + 9.81(1.03)h 4 x= 1013 + 10204 4 vs p2=1013+0=1013 Va=6V (101.3 + 10.104%)V = 101.3 (6 vy 10.104 h = 101.36) -101.3 f= 50:13 mProblem 2543 X weutiont tues it Hangs wlll ante evi ctomedd Ge nerfed VerHiCally, wth he | oye oat TOON NT ARAN yeAbON Ho ETE Atop HEE Thal ane Open MaMa | jommortont ta the OF nL OE tho tal vale FAO MME AE MeLLHEY. Neyer iy ‘agpoy passa aunt assuring oan conitions howe Gn fe he fowen en of he tate below the veator suetiaen the lank? Wow = A Solution Jorn [oorcny Applying Boyle's Law: piVi=poVe Before the tube was inserted; Absolute pressure of ai Volume of air inside, V; When the tube was inserted; Absolute pressure of air inside, p2 = 101.3 + 9.81(13.6)(0.15) Absolute pressure of air inside, p2 = 121.31 kPa Volume of air inside the tube, V2=(3- y)A iV pV) 101.3 (3 A)=121.31[(3-y) A] 3-y= 2505 y= 0495 m From the manometer shown; Pe= tei | = (981 13.6)(0.15) po 20.0128 kPa ince the presscre in at sie: the tbe omit Aan p= pu” LNT Mw Wl MNT = Y8NN; 20 He Nun, 2204 = UR + OND 41m Problem 2-44 ~~ A bodihe convbotingg h 2 cy caer V5 e1e is Coasts wit 5 118 ite, Bias 2 Sec which ie 5 cin diatruder nd ZS cen Seon, Vie tne 1 inanetieed succtealiy #0 water, vith the owen wid desmn, 2° oat thee su 5 esnsepeehy Mile of water, Vind the deqhh to Which the open wid is oubneweryeed. psoas suis barometric presmure and repeat vepen gress. Solution Applying Vasyl a Lan PY; * pV Before the bottle was inserted: Volurne of air: Vi» 4 (059 (25) + £67 25) Vs = 4,998.74 cm? Absolute pressure in air: ps = 101.325 When the bottle Volume of air: Va= 3 (15)? (25) Vs= 44179 crm Pressure in air P2= 101325 + 9.814 ae (4,908.74) = (101.325 + 9, 10132598) n=ti2s6 AZ) inserted:Problem 2- 45 sea level, where the atmospheric pressure is 1013 is 21°C, to 445 kPa. Assuming the tire does not pressure within the tire on the top of a mountain jheric pressure is 47.22 kPaa, and the A bicycle tire is inflated at KPa and the temperature ‘expand, what is the gage where the altitude is 6,000 m, atmosp! temperature is 5 °C. Atsea level: ‘Absolute pressure of air, py = 101.3 + 445 ‘Absolute pressure, p; = = 546.3 kPa Volume of air, Vi = V Absolute temperature of air. T; = 21 + 273 = 294 °K On the top of the mountain: Absolute pressure of air, pp = 47.22 + p Since the tire did not expand, volume of air, V2 = V Absolute temperature of air, T: = 5 + 273 = 278 °K eats = Baa qT T 46307) _ 4722+p)V 294 278 sep =51657 p= 469.35 kPa FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS CHAPTER TWO Principles of Hydrostatics 9 Supplementary Problems Problem 2 - 46 ‘A weather report indicates the barometric pressure is 28.54 inches of mercury. What is the atmospheric pressure in pounds per square inch? Ans: 14.02 psi Problem 2- 47 ‘The tube shown is filled with oil. Determine the pressure heads at B and Cin meters of water. Ans: 22 = 238m 7 Po = o51m Y Problem 2 For the tank shown in the figure, te th igure, compute the pressure at point an in kPa. Neglect the unit weight of ain . Be abe Ans: ps = 4.9; pe= po = 49; pe = 21.64FLUID MECHANi CHAPTER TWO. & HYDRAULICS 70 Principles of Hydrostatics Problem 2-49 glass U-tube open to the atmosphere at both ends is shown. Jf the U-tuby contains oil and water, determine the specific gravity of the oil ’ Ans: 0.86 | o0m—4 035m — Wate jou Problem 2-50 A glass 12-cm tall filled with water is inverted. The bottom is open. What is the pressure at the closed end? Barometric pressure is 101.325 kPa. ‘Ans: 100.15 KPa Problem 2-54 {In Figure 13, in which fluid will a pressure of 700 kPa first be achieved? Ans: glyeet thy aloha! p= 73 kgim 60m oil | = 899.5 kam? por water | p= 979 Kg Sm ‘lyin p= 1236 kg/m? 5m IAPTER TWO CHAPTER 71 FLUID MECHANICS Principles of Hydrostatics & HYDRAULICS Problem 2 - 52 ‘cylindrical tank contain: small open cylindrical tank containing, 8 water at a height of 55 mm, as shown. Inside is a cleaning fluid (5g. = 08) at a height h. ‘The pressure py = 13.4 kPa gage and pe = 13.42 kPa gage. Assume the cleaning fluid is prevented from moving to the top of the tank. Use unit weight of water = 979 kN/m, (a) Determine the pressure ps in kPa, (b) the value of h in mm, and (c) the value of y in millimeters. ‘Ans: (a) 12.88; (b) 10.2; (e) 101 5 mm (69.5136) Problem 2-53 6 aiierniel marci shown is measuring the difference in pressure two Rae Pies, The indicating liquid is mercury specific gravity = 136), his 675 co thereon gt ns 300 mun. What isthe pressure diferential Ans: 89.32 kPa PaChapter 3 Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces TOTAL HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON PLANE SURFACES If the pressure over a plane area is uniform, as in the case of a horizontal surface submerged in a liquid or a plane surface inside a gas chamber, the total hydrostatic force (or total pressure) is given by: F=pA Fg.3-1 ‘where p isthe uniform pressure and A is the area, In the case of an inclined or vertical plane submerged in a liquid, the total pressure can be found by the following formula guid surface a Figure 3 - 1: Forces on an inclined planeConsider the plane surface shown inclined at an angle 0 with the horizon To get the total fore F, consider a differential element of area dA. Since thy LOCATION OF F (ye): taking moment of force about 5, ‘eloment is horizontal the pressure is uniform over this area, then | tn Figue 3-1, prolongation ofthe plane area and the liquid surface), rae fo where dF =7ysin 0dA Faysind AF (the intersection of the oy pryysind ayy sind aA yin 0A yp = frevsinsae) sin Avy, 1sino fy aa Fromeakalos, fsa (moment of inertia about 5) Feysing av From calculus, fr aa Fey7sine)A AY Hp = Is From the figure, 7 sin @ Then, By transfer formula of moment of inertia: = h+aY? Since yh may also be expressed as: = pl Eq. 3 - 2 is convenient to use if the plane is submerged in a single liquid and without gage pressure at the surface of the liquid. However, if the plane § submerged under layers of different liquids or if the gage pressure at liquid surface is not zero, Fq.3~3 is easier to apply. See Problem 3-15.ab? he I Ye x Sector ofa cece sb oe yO ab? sha? @ Area = 47 (20) = 0 he 2 @- vesin20) lye (0+ vasin 20) Length of are = (28 we rsind une When 0 = 90° (semicircle)TOTAL HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON CURVED SURFACES 9 CASE T: FLUID 1S ABOVE THE CURVED SURFACE, Fa Pah orbynthh bea nical projection h awtorneryph carte (pace x03) Dia ™ presmute at the certrcid Af. Whe: The procmtixe vie hl Fe the sae ae crepe © ap Te CASE IIT: FLUID BELON MID KEOIE THE CURVED SURFACE CASE II: FLUID IS BELOW THE CURVED SURFACEDAMS Dams ary stretuires that bloek the flow of 0 Flyer, sbreany, ar other Some dams divert the flowe of river water Into a pipeline, canal, OF chang Others raise the Tove of inland waterways to make them navigable by oltipy ana targess Many atas harmoss the energy oF falling water 0 ygenenaly electri prvver, Dans also Holl water for drinking and crop rigation, an provide Root conten PURPOSE OF A DAM Dams are built for the following purposes: | 1. Irrigation and drinking water 2 Power supply (hydroelectric) ation Flood control Malti purposes Figure 3 - 2: Section of a dam used for hydroelectric FLUID MECHANICS HYDIAULICS HAYTER THREE gy Total Hydrostatic Force on sulaces Figure 3 - 3: Boat Passing through Canal Lock Canal locks are 2 series of gates desioned to allow a boat oF ship to pass from one level of water to another. Here, after 2 boat has entered the lock and all gates are secured, the downstream slices open and water flows through them. When the water level is equal on either side of the downstream gate, water stops flowing through the sluices; the downstream gate opens, and the bast continues on at the new water level ‘TYPES OF DAMS, 1. Gravity dams use only the force of gravity to resist water pressure — that is, they hold back the water by the sheer force of their weight Pushing downward. To do this, gravity dams must consist of a mass so heavy that the water in a reservoir cannot push the dam downstream or tip it over. They are much thicker at the base than the top—a shape that reflects the distribution of the forces of the water against the dam. As water becomes deeper, it exerts more horizontal Pressure on the dam. Gravity dams are relatively thin near the surface Of the reservoir, where the water pressure is light. A thick base enables the dam to 4vithsind the move intense water proseare the bottom of the reservoir. " pesFigure 3 - 4: Gravity dam 2. An embankment dam is a gravity dam formed out of loose rock, earth, or a combination of these materials. The upstream and downstream slopes of embankment dams are flatter than those of concrete gravity dams. In essence, they more closely match the natural slope of a pile of rocks or earth. 3. Arch dams are concrete or masonry structures that curve upstream into a reservoir, stretching from one wall of a river canyon to the other. This design, based on the same principles as the architectural arch and vault, transfers some water pressure onto the walls of the canyon. Arch dams require a relatively narrow river canyon with solid rock walls capable of withstanding a significant amount of horizontal thrust. These dams do not need to be as massive as gravity dams because the canyon walls carry part of the pressure exerted by the reservoir. Figure 3 - 5: Arch dam FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS A buttress dash consists of a wall, or face, supported by several buttresses on the downstream side. The vast majority of buttress dams are made of concrete that is reinforced with steel. Buttresses are typically spaced across the dam site every 6 to 30 m (20 to 100 ft), depending upon the size and design of the dam. Buttress dams are sometimes called hollow dams because the buttresses do not form a solid wall stretching across a river valley. Figure 3 - 7: Multiple arch damANALYSIS OF GRAVITY DAM ‘A dam is subjected to hydrostatic forces due to water which is raised on i verter ce forces cause the dam to slide horizontally on iy cin ee in tendencies are resisted by friction on the base of the dam and gra\riatien forces which causes a mornent opposite to the overturming moment, The dam may also be prevented from sliding by keying its base. Upstream side Dowmsrearn Se (Taiwater) Figure 3 - 8: Typicl secon of 2 gravty dam spowing the possible forces acing ‘Steps of Solution With reference to Figure 3 - 8, for purposes of illustration, an assumption" made in the shape of the uplift pressure diagram. 1. Consider 1 unit (i m) length of dam (perpendicular to the sketch) IL Determine all the forces acting: A. Vertical forces : 1. Weight of the dam WienVis Wien Vs Winter 2. Weight of water in the upstream side (if ary) Was 3. Weight or permanent structures on the dam 4. Hydrostatic Uplift U=1Va W=1Via B. Horizontal Force 1. Total Hydrostatic Force acting 2t the vertical projection of the submerged portion of the dam, 3. Wave Action 4. Floating Bodies 3. Earthquake Load IIL Solve for the Reaction A. Vertical Reaction, R, R,=EF, R= Wy +W4 Ws+ fe Uy- Up . B. Horizontal Reaction, R, R=5h, R=P IV. Moment about the Toe A. Righting Moment, RM (rotation towards the upstream side) ; is ) RM= Wx) + Way + Wary + Wey ca B. Overturning Moment, OM (rotation towards the downs t, OM (rotation towar. ream side OM=Py+Uy2;+ Uz, : V. Location of R, (¥)FLUID MECHANICS CHAPTER THE & HYDRAULICS Tota Hyaroxtac once oncataces BT where: : “y= unit weight of water © 9.81 kN/m (or 1000 kg/m?) ‘ye unit weight of concrete t 2247 (usually taken as 23.5 kN/m") ‘| Factors of Safety Factor of safety against sliding, FSs: Note: Use (+) to get the stress at point where shown above, use (+) to get gr and (-) to get & compressive stress and a positive stress indicates tensile stress | Since soil cannot carry any tensile stress, the r stress is positive. This will happen will be used. Factor of safety against overturning, Fso: where: 7 11 = coefficient of friction between the base of the dam and the foundation, when e > B/6 Foundation Pressure For e< B/6 From combined axial and bending stress formula: PMc a/3 *(@)@.0) "(3% Jae (Ry &(B/2) Be /12BUOYANCY i ‘ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE ‘A principle discovered by the Greek scientist Archimedes that states that “ body immersed in a fluid is acted upon by an upronrd force (ouoyant force) equal to weight of the displaced fluid’. . ‘This principle, also known as the law of hydrostatics, applies to both floating) and submerged bodies, and to all fluids. | j Consider the body shown in Figure 3 - 9 immersed in a fluid of unit weight,,| The horizontal components of the force acting on the body are all in equilibrium, since the vertical projection of the body in opposite sides is the same, The upper face of the body is subject to a vertical downward for which is equal to the weight of the fluid above it, and the lower face is subjed to an upward force equal to the weight of real or imaginary liquid above it The net upward force acting on the body is the buoyant force, i al, Peek Fa BF = Fu- Fu Figure 3 - 9: Forces acting on a submerged body Fa-Fn (Vok) - (Voh) (Vol: - Vol) 7.3.16 nit weight of the fluid volume displaced. Volume of the body below the liquid surface To solve problems in buoyancy, identify the forces acting and apply conditions of static equilibrium: Fw ZFy IM= For homogeneous solid body of volume V “floating” in a homogeneous fluid at rest: Vox SP:Bhotbody y_ eedyy, sp.gr of liquid If the body of height H has a constant horizontal cross-sectional area such as vertical cylinders, blocks, etc. A= SP-gtotbody 4 Yeni 4 7 Sp.gr.ofliquidSTATICAL STABILITY OF FLOATING BODIES A floating body is acted upon by two equal opposing forces. These are body's weight W (acting at its center of gravity) and its buoyant force g {acting at the center of buoyancy that is located at the center of gravity of displaced liquid). When these forces are collinear as shown in Figure 3 - 10 (a), it floats in upright position. However, when the body tilts due to wind or wave act the center of buoyancy shifts to its new position as shown in Figure 3 - 19( ‘and the two forces, which are no longer collinear, produces couple equal Wi). The body will not overtum if this couple makes the body rotate towa its original position as shown in Figure 3 - 10 (b), and will overturn if situation is as shown in Figure 3 - 10 (c). ‘The point of intersection between the axis of the body and the line of action the buoyant force is called the metacenter. The distance from the meta (Mj to the center of gravity (G) of the body is called the metacentric hei (MG). It can be seen that a body is stable if Mis above G as shown in Figure’) - 10 (b), and unstable if M is below G as shown in Figure 3 - 10 (©). FM coincides with G, the body is said to be just stable, Figure 3 - 10 (b): Stable position Figure 3 - 10 (a): Upright position CHAPTER THREE FLUID MECHANICS Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces & HYDRAULICS 91 Figure 3 - 10 (c): Unstable position Figure 3 - 10: Forces on 2 floating body RIGHTING MOMENT AND OVERTURNING MOMENT ‘RM or OM= WG) 2 ELEMENTS OF A FLOATING BODY: W = weight of the body BF = buoyant force (always equal to W for a floating body) center of gravity of the body center of buoyancy in the upright position Bo (centroid of the displaced liquid) Bo’ = center of buoyancy in the tilted position Vo volume displaced metacenter, the point of intersection between the line of action, of the buoyant force and the axis of the body = center of gravity of the wedges (immersion and emersion) 5 = horizontal distance between the cg’s of the wedges = volume of the wedge of immersion = angle of tilting ‘MBo = distance from M to Bo GBo = distance from G to Bo MG = metacentric height, distance from M to Gstability of the body depends on the amount of the righting mome shich in turn is dependent on the metacentric height MG. When the body til sition (Bo’). This shifting, also ca | the wedge oto shift to a new position v. The moment due to the shifting d | the buoyant force BF(2) is must equal to moment duc to wedge shift FG). Moment due to shifting of BF = moment due to shifting of wedge BE (2) = F (6) BE = Vo Fey z= MBo sind 1 Vp MBo sin 0 = 70s vs Mion one pe? | INITIAL VALUE OF MB, For small values of 8, (8 = 0 or 6 = 0 ‘Wedge, volume Figure 3 - 11: Rectangular body Consider a body in the shay eeceie neds a ipe of a rectangular parallelepiped length L as Volume of y a we of wedge, » = 14(B/2)[(B/2) tan O]L tame of wedge, v= LLB? tan 0 For small values of 0, s= 2BBut for small values of 0, sin 0 = tan 9 "floating body therefore depends on the moment of inertia of the wat section. It can also be seen that the body is more stable in pitching thani rolling because the moment of inertia in pitching is greater than that in rolling “At/3)08/2) anqy, NEC DIEM perpen the ure v= }1B ano MOMENT Centrotd of triangle, ‘The righting or overturning moment on a floating body is: : rom geometry, = = 214X245 3 22(0/2)s88 +(8/2)c000 3 B(Avcos? 9 6 coseare sa Z 10-2 9-1 ‘STRESS ON THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSELS ‘THIN-WALLED CYLINDRICAL TANK A tank or pipe carrying a fluid-or gas under a pressure is subjected to tensile forces, which resist bursting, developed across longitudinal and trans sections. Consider a pipe of diameter D and thickness t be subjected to a net pressure p. To determine the tangential stress in the pipe wall, let us cut a section of length along the diameter. ‘The forces acting on this section are the total pressure F due to the internal pressure and this is to be resisted by T which is the total stress of the pipe wall Applying equilibrium condition; PF =0] F227 F=pA=pDs T= Sr Aas T=Sr(6«8) pDs=2x [Sr(sx)] D ‘Tangential stress, S; = 22 Eq. 3 - TS Eq.3 -26 To determine the longitudinal stress, let us coke «ut the cylinder across it length as shown, rt 11 > [Fy =o} FeT Fe=pa Fepap T#S. Asan t Ava = RDE SnD! P EDS, Dt Longitudinal =e tudinal stress, 5, = PP dee, “pS internal pressure external pFa gpherical tan of diameter D and thickness # contains gos Under 9 Presi of p, the stress at the walll can be expressed as: 5, = allowable tensile stress of the hoop ‘Ay = cross-sectional area of the hoop p= internal pressure in the pipe D = diameter of the pipe Note: Solved Problems Problem 3 - 1 A vertical rectangular plane of height d and base b is submerged in a liquid with its top edge at the liquid surface. Determine the total force F acting on ‘one side and its location from the liquid surface. Solution ** wala72) ve=d/6 . Pressure diagram wah te (triangular prism) Yp=d/2+d/6 Yen 2p ; Using the pressure diagram: Volume of pressure diagram Fa U(ui) ayo) = Yay b ae ‘The location of F is at the centroid of the pressure diagram. For rectangular surface (rtined or flushed on the liquid ‘surface, ‘cont ertical) submerged in a fluid with top edge height. the center of pressure from the bottom is 1/3 of itsProblem 3 - 2 A vertical triangular surface of he wed ima liquid with its vertex at the Setng on 0 ts location from the srt a and horizontal base width 4 j liquid surface. Determine the jg liquid surface, submer force F acting on one side an it Solution Fayha a oe hha f ae A= Yabd | Feyxdde hd Fe fyb Feayed/3) end/i2 Pressure diagram (Pyramid) yrkte jatar sa Using the presse diagram: F = Volume of pressure diagram P= 4d Ave x height B= bend) = pro Fis located at the centroid of the diagram, which is ¥4 of the altitud? we Solution rays Feiner) pany? =1/4 © Grn ere yates p= Sift Using the pressure diagram for this case is quiet complicated. With the shape shown, its volume can be computed by integration. Hence, pressure diagram is easy to use only if the area is rectangular, with one side horizontal. ical rectangular gate 1.5 m wide and 3 m high is submerged in water with its top edge 2 m below the water surface. Find the total pressure acting, (on one side of the gate and its location from the bottom. Solution Feyha ht =15+2=35m F=9818.5)((1.5) Paimeee 3) ym the base, fror 4 e= e015) Problem 3-3 Usxaaq "024m ‘A vertical circular gate or radius ris submerged in a liquid with its top ed y=15-e flushed on the liquid surface. Determine the magnitude and location Liar 0.21 total force acting on one side of the gate.Usage pyrosstane alagrans P= Valine of pressure agro be @ wy Jas) Pa ART P= 1875081) Pe USSLRN Pressure diagram (trapezoidal prism) Location of F: Ar = 278) = 61 Az = ¥337)(3) = 4.57 4 Az A,tAr= 1057 [Ay = Say) 10.57 y = 6y(1.5) + 4.5y(1) y= 1.286 m (much complicated to get than using the formula) ‘Avvertical triangular gate with top base horizontal and 1.5 wide is mig) js submerged in oil having sp. gr. of 0.82 with its top base submerge © depth of 2m. Determine the magnitade and location of the total hyso=# pressuire acting on one side of the gate. : CHAPTER THREE ‘Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces 103 FLUID MECHANICS by HYDRAULICS Solution reyha hm aed@): hint 9 1 (9.81 0.82)10)1%0-5)0) | P= 543 KN ve iy, © 3.167 m from the oil surface Problem 3 - 6 (CE Board May 1994) {A vertical rectangular plate is submerged half in oil (sp. gr. = 0.8) and half in ‘water such that its top edge is flushed with the oil surface. What is the ratio of the force exerted by water acting on the lower half to that by oil acting on the upper half? Solution Force on upper half: Fo= oh A Fo (te 0.8)(4/4)10(4/2)] Fo= Oly bd? Force on lower half Fir oa x A Poa ™ Yolto+ tele Peaa = (te x 08)(d/ 2) + Yo(d/ 4) Fo ™ (0.65 yw d)[b(d/2)] Fiy= 0325 yu bd Ratio = Fw. Fo Oy bi? Ratio = eeRpt | 3-7 (CE Board May 1994) tical circular gate in a tunnel 8 m in diameter has oil (sp. 81. 0.8) on ogg e and air on the other side, If oil is 12 m above the invert and the g, is 40 kPa, where will a single support be located (above the invert = tunnel) to hold the gate in position? 3 = Solution : pret : Fea Yea A Fou = (981 x 0.80)(8) x $(8? Fa =3,156kN 1 aa i 4" =05m 767) z=4-e=35m Pais = Pri Ar = 40x 3 (8 Fu =2,011 KN d The support must be located at ra bo Beg so, Since Fa > Pu rot be eto ne moment due t0 [2Mo = 0) = Foa(z ~ y) = Faic(4 ~ y) i (3,156)(3.5 - y) = 2,011(4- y) e 1.56935 - y)=4-y 5.493 - 1.569y=4-y y=2.62m problem 3 - 8 (CE Board May 1992) {A closed cylindrical tank 2 m in diameter and 8 m deep with axis vertical contains 6 m deep of oil (sp. gr. = 08). The air above the liquid surface has a pressure of 08 kg/cm?, Determine the total normal force in kg acting on the wall a its location from the bottom of the tank. Solution F=pacA Pas = 0.8 kg/cm? = 8,000 kg/m? (000(2x 2) = 32,000 kg 6+1=7m 2A (2000 x 0.8)(3) + 8,000 Pog = 10,400 kg/m? ¢ 10,400(2n x 6) = 124,800x kg, . Solve for e Feyia 124,800x = (1000 x 0.8) i (2 x 6) 13m = 226? (2x 6)(13) 23077 m -e=277m hey y Feit hs 156,800x kg > Total normal force2 + (124,800n)(2.77) Seen Uri te bottom 7 W0(6) = 800 9000 weep Pressure Diagram Py 8000(8)(2n) = 128,000 ky, Pr» ¥4(4,800)(6)(2n) = 28,800r ky, © PP) +Py=156800r kg > Total normal force [Py= Pin + Pei) (156,800) y = (128,000n)(4) + (28,800%)(2) Y= 3,63 m_ > Location of P from the bottom Problem 3-9 In the figure shown, stop B will break if the force on it reaches 40. KN. Find the critical water depth. The length of the gate | perpendicular to the sketch is _ 15m : if ke Problem 3-10 Solution [2 Many =O] Fz 40(1) Pe yh A= 98th (1)(1.5) Fea7ish where 7 «Fi eo ROP 4 (sxir” Wh ne 12h 05h +0.08933 = 2.718 ii #527 m« hi +05*5.77 m > critical water depth ‘A vertical circular gate is submerged in a liquid so that its top edge is flushed with the liguid surface, Find the ratio of the total force acting on the lower half to that acting on the upper half. Solution Ratios £2. A Ratio = Viz An vi Ay Avs Az Ratio 22 1 azar Ratio = 1A24r °° gsra6 ” 2475Problem 3-11 AND om tong dam retains 9m of water as shown in the figures Find ‘the total resultant fore ating on the dam and the location of the center of Le 30m 3542/9 pressure from the Boeton, Paes é A= N(I261) Aw 1a05 me! P= (9810 x O83)(4.167)(1.905) ‘son M277 N © 44.277 KN Feyka FOSSA] FRIRTESKN Problem 3~ 13 An inclined, — circular gate with water on one side is shown inthe figure. Determine the total ¢ resultant force acting on the gate. e= 17m y= 3510392) -1.732 v=346im or y= 4 (10392) = 3.464 m , ‘4 Problem 3- 12 Solution . 7 ‘The isosceles triangle gate shown Fava ‘ in the figure is hinged at A and Th =2+05 sin 60° weighs 1500 N. What is the total i = 2433 rydrostatic force acting on one side - Fe of the gate in kiloNewton? $812.489) 4 . F= 18.746 kNagainst a smooth seawater, (b) the ‘The gate in the figure shown is 15 m wide, hinged at point A, and tay ‘wall at B. Compute (a) the total force on the gate dye reaction at B, and (c) the reaction at hinge A. Neglect weight of the gate. tan 0=2/3 0 = 33.69" (@) F=yhA F=(981 « 1.03)(4)[0.)8.9)) (P= 218.25 kN FLUID MECHANICS HYDRAULICS, and location of the total hydrostatic force acting on the 2 mx 4 m gate shown in the figure. CHAPTER THREE Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces 111 i 0.5186)" 0) ag > G53, = 015m * x=18-015 a? ee ae [eM,=0] F(x) - Ro(2)=0 218,.25(1.65) = 2 Re Ry = 180 kn/ (9 Fn=01 Ru +Fsin 0 -Ra=0 Ray = 180 - 218.25 sin 33.69° Ry = 58.94 KN [EF,=0) Ry- Pos 0=0 Ry = 218.25 cos 33.69" Ry = 181.6 KN R= VRav? + Ran? = 86)? + 6894)" & B= I9KN a) a0 y intl ~ ermine the magnitude no FP (De) Foy. 84 BZ, wnler SE Poxyh “A cs puss 4 oh) OF hae Je es payite Lg ay eaPepa Pam Bh +p es ™ (.811.26)(3) + (.81)(1.5) + (9.81%0.80)(1) +32 Pog = 9.645 kPa 5 F=91.685(2 4) = 733.16 KN Solving for e: Solve for ft and 7 Fay 733.16 = (9.81%1.26) hi (2 4) 414m /sin 60° = 7.414 / sin 60° 561m Je __ (214° Ay (2xA)(8.561) e=0.156m ¢. sisi = z=2-e=1844m : os Therefore, Fis located 1.844 from the bottom of the gate. ‘Gen Problem 3 - 16 (CE November 1997) Determine the magnitude of the force on the inclined gate 1.5 m by 0.5 m shown in the Figure 001. The tank of water is completely closed and the pressure gage at the bottom of the tank reads 90,000 N/m? Use 9,800 N/cu. m. for water. P= 40Hy Solution Fe pga P2~ Peg = th 90000 ~ psx = 9,800(2.65) Pex = 64030 Pa F = 64030 (0.5 « 1.5) F=48,022.5Nhie + Wit» +9,81(0.82)(2.56) P= 248.34 kN Payha 248.34 = (9.810.82) it B x3) i =343m {__ Bana = 212m 2G" (3«3)(4.85) x= 1,655 m u (2M, = 0] P(x) + (1.06) - F(2.12) =0 2.12F = 248.34(1.655) + 5(1.06) F = 19637 KN Problem 3 - 18 (CE Board) Iron pins 20 mm in diameter are used for supporting flashboards at the crest of masonry dams, Tests show that the yield point of iron to be 310 MPa (extreme fiber stress). Neglecting the dynamic effect of water on flashboards and assuming static conditions, what is the proper spacing, S, of the iron pins, so that the flashboards 600 mm high will yield when water flows 150 mm deep over the top of the flashboards. Solution Moment capacity of one iron pin : a ar m pin (20 mm 2) wig= MGB) &(20)* M= 243,473.43 N-mm M= 0.24347 kN-in Moment caused Min Brg. 0) F (onsidering S m width of fashboard): FeviA — wherea =06s F=981(0.45)106 5]Fy 0H?” Ay (065/045), e=0.067m .: y= 0.3 - 0.067-= 0.233 m Mm Pxy=M ~ 2.649 S x 0.233 = 0.24347 / $= 0.394 m = 394 mm re 28 is hinged at B. the force F required P= 62.4(8.302)[¥2n(4)?] ws P= 13,019.89 Ibs - 1, =0.1098(4)¢ p= 28.11 ft f © Fa? 6302) 01347 ft Problem 3 - 20 ‘At 20°C, gage A in the figure reads 290 kPa absolute. The tank is 2 m wide perpendicular to the figure. Assume atmospheric pressure to be 1 bar. Sp. gr of mercury = 13.6. Determine the total pressure acting on side CD. ‘Solution Solving for fr Pa=Eyh+ Pop 290 = (9.81 x 13.6)(0.70) + (981)h + 175, h=22m Total force on side CD: (Note: 1 bar = 100 kPa) i= 175-100 sam P= 75 kPa ‘irs 175 kPa al p2=981(2.9) am Hause P2= 28.449 kPa t PIPGI2) 22 1= 756.9) Fi= 585. mn F=%pQ9a) 07™ F.=¥4(28.499)(2.9)(2) 825kN FeR+h = 667.5 KNarea in contact with water is horizontal, the pressure all oj “The shape of the container does not affect the pressure on} Feyha F=981(2.6)(1.6 x 1.2) 1206? ? rz * 6x2.2)(2.6) = 0.082 m 08-e 0718 m Fez 4897 «0.718 T= 35.16 kN-m rn 7 Problem 3-23 (CE Board) ‘A cubical box, 1.5 m on each edge, has its base horizontal and js half-filled with water. The remainder of the box is filled with air under a gage pressure of 82 kPa. One of he vertical sides is hinged at the top and is free to swing inward. To what depth can the top of this box be submerged in an open body of fresh water without allowing any water to enter? Solution 9810075) sara 2736a Pe (A 079)-F(.25)-0 > Eq. (1) See R= pA F,~ 82{0.5)(1.5)] = 1845 KN Fa = ¥4(7.36)(0.75)(1.5) Fp=4.14kN Fy=yhA Fy=9.81h {(1.5)(1.5)] B=207h 15015) ae (a5a5h 7 x0 075+ 285 i In Equation (1) 0.1875 rami a7s+ 428). 18459075) -4140.25)=0 1655H + 4138-138375-5.175=0 16.55 h = 139.412 Problem 3 - 24 Find the magnitude and location of the force exerted by water on one side of the vertical annular disk shown. Solution a Feyia 81(4)[n(1.5) - x1") . 405) - 30)" Af(1.5)? - QP 14) = 0.208 m Y= 440.203 = 4205 m below the ws. Problem3-25. ‘The gate in the figure shown weighs 5 KN for each meter normal to the paper. Its center of Bravity is 0.5 m from the left face and 0.6 m above the lower face. Find h for the gate just to come up to the vertical position.- Solution Considering 1m length 1% (981N)(1)(1) Py 4,908 I? KN | = 9,81h(1,5)(1) 14,715) kN h Mp = 0} ms Py(h/3) + W (0.6) « F,(1.5/2) = 0 4.90818 (h/3) + 5(0.6) = 14,715h (0,75) = 0 1.09510 = 11,04 +3 0 Solve I by trial and error him 0.2748 mp ah ‘auth Problem 3 - 26 7 In Problem 3 - 25, find lt when the force Solution [2Mo = 0} F(li/3) + W (0.6) + P(1.5)- 4.9051? (11/3) + 5(0.6) + P(1.5) = M4715h (0.75) = 0 098° = 7.358 + 3 AP 3.27 1+ 7.358 = 0 dh We 225 h=15m Problem 3 - 27 Determine the force due to water acting on one side and its location on the parabolic gale shown using integration. Solution dim pA per dA 2x dy bby nquared property of parabola: He 24 3mm an AP = yy [2 (2/3) dy dk = 231"? dy ' 3 fe =231y fore é o e202 *] -angengi9%.071 5 Feuiskn Location: a Fue Jove é 3 1413 yom fobonyr2a) 4 3 Y= 0.1608 f 5/2 gy 3 Y= 0.1604 [evry rE : lo Yr 01608 2/7) [3772 70 "2.14 m below the w.s,Problem 3 - 28 In the figure shown, find the width b of the concrete dam necessary to prevent the dam from sliding. The specific gravity of concrete is 24 and the coefficient of friction between the base of the dam and the foundation is 0.4. Use 1.5 as the factor of safety against sliding. Is the dam also. safe from overturning ? ‘Solution Consider 1 m length of dam Wz eVe We= 7241060) W.= 144 by Feyha F=y(2.25)[(4.5)(1)] F= 10125) 15= 24(4abn) 101257 b=2637m F5,= SM OM psx We0/2) F(L5) FS.= 10.125y(1.5) A Rea7y2687 /2) —b—4 ws We = bie, 6m 45m oF 15 Toe. =33>1 (Safe) Problem 3 - 29 (CE Board) ‘A dam is triangular in cross-section with the upstream face vertical. Water is flushed with the top. The dam is 8 m high and 6 m wide at the base and weighs 24 tons per cubic meter. The coefficient of friction between the base gad the foundation is 0.8. Determine (a) the maximum and minimum unit pressure on the foundation, and the (b) factors of safety against overturning and against sliding. Solution Sp. gr. of CONC, Scone = SORE 5 Sp. gr of cone, Sone = 24% 1000 Consider 1 m length of dam Weev = (724) 290] W=57.67 where y = unit wt. of water Feria im ws. = y(4)(8 « 1) J or am OM = P(8/3) ona? MoM Ry = 2519 m soil pressure at the toe Using (): qu =-4888kPa > soil pressure at the heel 2 BRy _ 0.8(57.64) Ee Ry 32y F5g2 1d RM _ 23047 Faj- SM. Boar 58° OM * 9533, Fyn 27 Problem 3 - 30 (CE Board May 1992) ‘A gravity dam of trapezoidal cross-section with one face vertical s horizontal base is 22 m high and has a thickness of 4 m at the top. Wa upstream stands 2 m below the est of the dam. The specific gravy masonry is 2.4 A. Neglecting hydrostatic uplift: 1. Find the base width B of the dam so that the resultant force wile the extreme edge of the middle third near the toe. | 2. Compute the factors of safety against sliding and overturning. | Use p = 0.5. B. Considering uplift pressure to vary uniformly from full hydros! pressure at the heel to zero at the toe: ad |. Find the base width B of the dam so that the resultant force il! the extremity of the middle third near the toe. 2. Compute the maximum and minimum compressive stresse® against the base of the dam. Solution A. Neglecting hydrostatic uplift: 1. Consider 1 m length of dam Ml Forces Wim ie Va= (1% 24)(4)22)0)1 Wy = 211.27 Wa (72491 % (B-4)(20)¢1)] W, = 248) - 967 FayhAny Foy =1(0(@0y0)) 1, Reaction \ Ree ER =P Ry = 200 Ry= EFy= Wit We 11.2y + 24By - 96y Ry= 24By + 115.2 .IV. Moment about the toe RM =Wi(B-2) + Wil (8 -4)] = 211.24(B - 2) + (24By - 96y) [4 (B-4)] = 211.2By -422.4y + 168% - 128By + 2567 RM = 168% + 83.2By - 166.4 OM = F(20/3) = 200y(20/3) OM = 1333.33 "V.Location of R: Ry x= RM-OM Since the resultant force will pass through the extreme edge of the middle thirds near the toe, ¥ = B/3. Then, (2B y +115.2))(8/3) = 16B% + 83.2By -166.4y - 1333.33 es os “+ 38,4By = 16B%y + 83.2BY - 1499.73y “BBY 44.88 1499.73 = 0 453 fain ao ORD, 20) We = N75 Vactors of Safety: Factor of oa y agai lid why 18," FS, = 0.9585 Factor of safety against overturning: RM. 5,0 i 1S OM 16(11.175)?y + 83,2(11.1757 166.47 ‘ 337 FS, = 2.07 A. Considering hydrostatic uplift: Uplift force, U = % 20))(8)(1) = 108 Ry=Wi+We-Us = 24By + 115.2) -10By Ry= By + 115.27 RM = Wi(B-2) + Wil (B-4)] RM = 168% + 83.28) -166.4y OM = F(20/3) + U(2B/3) = 2007(20/3) + 10By (28/3) OM = 6.678% + 1333.33 Ry =RM-OM (188+ 115.21)(B/3) = 1682) + 83:2By - Sh d4ah-tsezsng. TA 657PY + 1008.35) pe 2448+ y(44.8)? — 4(4.66)(—1499.73) 21466) B= 13.766 mRy = 14(13.766)(9.81) + 115.2981) Ry= 3020.73 KN H * uel + 922949) | ’ 13.766 13.766 qr =~ 438.87 kPa qu=O0kPa _ Problem 3-31 (CE Board May 2002) | |The section ofa concrete gravity |) dam shown in the figure. The "depth of water at the upstream side . Neglect hydrostatic uplift ‘use unit weight of concrete ual to 235 kKN/m’. Coefficient of riction between the base of the mine the following; (a) factor against sliding, (b) the 3 | factor of safety against overturning, and (c) the overturning moment acting against the dam in kN-m, Fe yuh A =9.81(3)(6%1) F= 176.58 kN y= 4 (6) =2m Wares += 23.5(2(8)(1)] W, ='376 kN. Wr= V2 = 23.5[12(2)(8)(1)) Wi 188 KN x1 24-122) =3 22> (2/3)(2) = 1.333. m 176.58 KN Fs, = 2.9(564) 17658 RM = Wiss + Wax: = 376(3) + 188(1.333) RM = 1378.604 kN-m OM=F xy = 176.58(2) OM = 353.16 kN-m. = RM ‘OM 1378.04 353.16 ~ 3904 =1.916 > overturning moment|The section of a gravity dam is | as shown in the figure. Assume "hydrostatic uplift to vary tuniformly from full hydrostatic "uplift from the heel to zero at the toe. Determine the total reaction per unit length at the 6 20° ‘base of the dam. Use sp. gr. of . concrete = 24. ‘Solution R= JR? +R, ‘Consider 1-foot length of dam: R= FayhA = 62.40/60 <1) R, = 112,320 Ibs Rye Wit Wt WU Wie%Vs y= 24.2922) & W, = 224,640 Ibs faa Wray Vo We= (62424) ae on) Wy = 44,928 Ibs. 60) Wy = y. Vi = (62.4 x 2.4) ¥4(24)(40)(1) Ws = 71,884.8 Ibs ny Wo yo Va = (62.4) 12(30)(60) Wy = 56,160 Ibs U* Ye Vi = (62.4) ¥9(60)(70)(1) = 131,040 Ibs . Ry = 224,640 + 44,928 + 71,884.8 + 56160 - 131,040 Ry = 2665728 Ibs 2 | Re ¥ (112,320)? + (266,572.8)? = 289,269 Ibs per foot problem 3-33 (CE Board May 1986) “The section of the masonry dam is as shown. The specific weight of water is 9.81 N/mm and that of concrete is 23.54 KN/m?, Assuming uplift pressure varies linearly from 7m 652m maximum hydrostatic pressure at the heel to zero at the location of the drain, determine the (a) location of the resultant force, (b) factor of safety against sliding if coefficient of friction is 0.75, (6 factor of safety against ‘overturning, (d) the stress at the heel and at the toe, and (e) the unit horizontal shearing Bo stress at the base, Solution [ra 3047 38.2 m“1, Consider 1 m length of dam “Forces CV Wy = 28554 [14(6.2)(62)(1)] = 3,189 kN Wy = 23.54 [(7)(52)(1) 8,569 KN Wy = 23.54 (14(26)(52)(1)] = 15,913 KN Wy = 981[94(6)(60)(1)] * 1,226.9 KN © UL = ¥4(490.5)(23.2)(1) = 5,690 KN Fe yh A= 981(25)[50(1)] = 12,263 KN UL, Reaction Ry= B= 12263 kN R= Wi + Wat Ws Wee = 3,188 + 8,569 + 15,913 + 1,226.3 - 5,690 201.3 kN IV. Moment RM = W4(34.73) + W(29.5) + W9(17.33) + W(36.53) = 3,183(34.73) + 8,569(29.5) + 15,913(17.33) + 1,226.3(36.53) RM = 683,900.12 kN-m OM = F(50/3) + U(30.47) = 12,263(50/3) + 5,690(30.47) OM = 377,758 kN-m V. Location of R, R, ¥ =RM-OM 23,2013 ¥ = 683,900.12 - 377,758 ¥=132m (@) The resultant force is 13.2 m from the toe. i URy © B= 0.75(23,201.3) { 142 cs 12,263 RM, 683,900.12 (9 FS" OM” “377,758 75,2181 (a) Foundation pressure: en b/2-7 = 382/2-132=59 m

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