Engineering Formula Series — Civil Engineering — DIEGO INOCENCIO T. GILLESANIA Civil Engineer BSCE, EVSU (LIT) — Magna Cum Laude 5th Place, PICE National Students’ Quiz, 1989 Awardee, Most Outstanding Student, 1989 3rd Place, CE Board November 1989 Review Director & Reviewer in all Subjects Gillesania Engineering Review Center Author of Various Engineering BookseS coos Engineering Formula Series a 1 ‘ F Civil Engineering Coryright © 2006 | Dedicated to my dearly beloved family: { Iuminada, my motber by Diego Inocencio Tapang Gillesania Imelda, my wife My cbildren Kim Deunice, Ken Dainiel, and Karla Denise “All rights reserved, No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or x so paanie har transferred, in any form or by any means, Roman and Anacorita Reyes, my parents-in-lau without the prior permission of the author My late fatber Dionisio Sr. and late brother Donato | ISBN 971-8614- * Cover design by the authorTable of Contentsm =| Table of Contents Theory of Structures Deflection of Beams. Double Integration Area-Moment Method . Strain Energy Method . Castigliano’s Theorem Three-Moment Equation Conjugate Beam Method Virtual Work Method Indeterminate Beams... Stability and Determinacy of St Types of Indeterminate Beams Three-Moment Equation ... Moment Distribution Method . Slope-Deflection Method... Simple and Cantilever Beam Formulas . Propped Beam Formulas....... es Fully Restrained Beams Formulas Influence Lines... ons Approximate Analysis of Structures Dynamic (Impact Loading Trusses ..... perce Determinacy of Trusses Deflection of Trusses Indeterminate Truss...Table of Contents ‘Axially Loaded Columns Tied Column... Spiral Column’... Composite Columns. - i Structural Steel Encased Concrete Core. Tied Reinforcement Around Steel Core Slendemess Fffects on Columns Approximate Evaluation of Slendemess.. Alignment Chart o.oo. Moment Magnifier Method Footings Permissible Soil Pressure ... Loads and Reactions Critical Sections ... Distribution of Flexural Reint SHEA vere recreee se Minimum Footing Depth DOWEIS os cersseneen Combined Footings... " seone Strap of Cantilevered Footing Prestressed Concrete -accceenin- Updates from NSCP 2003 Beta p, as Minimum Fiexural Reinforcement Design for TOrSion cece. Development and Siices Alternate Design Method forcement. Structural Steel Design & Timber Basic Code Requirements Loads and Forces... Gross and Net Area. q Bolted and Tension Members... i Eccentric Shear... -. 238Axially Loaded Compression Members. Beams and Other Flexural Members .. Shearing Stress on Beams Combined Stresses Bearing Plates. Plastic Analysis and Design Timber Design Basic Code Requirements Size Adjustment Factor _ Sléndemess Factor Flexural Stress Design of Horizor Compression Perpendicular to umn Design. “Combined Figwurs and Axial Coad Timber Connectors and Fasteners Working Stress of Timbe Loads on Bolts Table of Contents Theory of Errors .... Most Probable Vaiue: Probable Error... : Interrelationship of Errors. Standard Deviation... Measurement of Distance PACING cc rnenrne en Stadia Measurement. Subtense Bar... ~ Corrections in Taping. ‘Temperature Change Pull Correction Sag Correction... Slope Correction... o Corrected or True Distance of Reduction to Sea Level... Earth's Curvature and Refra Leveling. ccc Weighted Average Sensitivity of Bubble TrAVEESE res cceenn Closed Travers Error of Closure. Balancing Closed Tr. Compass Rule Transit Rule..... Area (DMD & DPD) Missing Data .. ‘ Area of Cross-Sections & Voiur Trapezoidal Rule............ Simpson's On-Third Rule Area by Coordinates ..... Volume by End Area Method Prismoidal Formula ..... Prismoidal Correction Formula Cut and Fill. me of Earthworksnts: / Pavements. Pavement Design Formulas. Table of Contents = VII Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics Properties of Fluid iscosit Capitan. compression of Gases Boyle's Law Charle's Law Pressure Disturbance: Unit Pressure Total Hydrostatic Pressure Plane Surfaces Curved Surfaces Dams. Foundation Pressure.. Stattcal Qablty of Floating Relative Equilibrium of Liquids Rotation: Reynola'g Number Energy Equation Bernoulli's Energy Theorem Head Lost in Pipe Flow... Darcy-Weisbach Formula Manning Formula. Hazen-William’s Formuia Minor Losses. Head Lost Through Nozzies - Pipe in Series and Parallel Equivalent Pipe .. Orifice and Tube: Unsteady FlowTable of Contents m™ IX Consistency .. Soil Lae * iquidity Description of i Description of Soil Based on Plasticity Index Fall Cone Method to Determine Liquid and Plastic Limits .. Cup Method to Determine Liquid Limi One-Point Method to Determine Liquid Limit Shrinkage Limit 3 Shrinkage Ratio . Specific Gravity of Solids Liquidity Index arid Consistency Index Classification of Soil Textural Classification 5 Unified Classification System (USCS) Particle-Size Distribution Curve (Sieve Analysis) Effective Size, D10.......... Uniformity Coefficient, Cu Coefficient of Gradation or Curv Sorting Coefficient, So. AASHTO Classification S\ Flow of Water Through S Darcy's Law i Determination of Co Constant-Head Test Falling-Head Test..... si Effect of Water Temperature on K Flow though Permeable Layers . Empirical Relations for Hydraulic Conductivi “ Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in Stratified Soil... Flow through Layers of Aquifers Hydraulics of Wells... Gravity Well., Artesian Well Two-Dimensional Flow of Water t Flow Nets “ ae tneouihy eo ature, CiTable of Contents = $$$ ___ Stresses in soil. E eect 483 Intergranular 483 ~ Pore Water Pressure. 483 Total Stress : __ Stress in Soil without Seepage . ‘Stress in Saturated Soil with Seepage. 485 Upward Seepage ae 485 _ ~ Downward Seepage... 486 Effect of Capillary Rise to Soi 487 _ Compressibility of Soi! pati r 490° Settlement from One-Dimensional _, Primary Consolidation ee -490 - Primary Consolidation Settiement of Normaliy Consolidated Fine-Grained Soils .....:.... esse 494 ‘ Primary Consolidation Settlement of Overconsolidated Fine-Grained Soils ..... 492 Qverconsolidation Ratio (OCR)......... 492 Compression Index * 12+ 493, i ‘Skempton 493 Rendon-Herre: 493 Nishida : 493 ‘Swell Index. 493 Nagaraj and Murty ... : 1.493 Settlement from Secondary Consolidation 1494 . Calculation of Consolidation Settlement under a Foundation if 494 Time Rate of Consolidation 495, Coefficient-of Consolidation ..... 498 Coefficient of Volume Compressibility 498 Immediate Settlement f 499 : _. Total Settlement of Fo 501 = Shear Strength of Soil 502 =~ Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criteria 502 Tiiaxial Shear Test (Single Test. 506 Cohesionless So ; 506 Cohesive Soil. 507 Drained and Udrained Triaxial Test 508 ‘Triaxial Test (Series) 509 Unconfined Compression Test (Uniaxial). 1510 Table of Contents ™ XI Direct Shear Test Lateral Earth Pressure Earth Pressure at Res kine’s Theory... Ratigrizontal Back. b's Theory... Conte Pressure Coefficient. Passive Pressure Coefficient .. Retaining Walls... He Types of Retaining Walls . Active Pressure on Wall Passive Pressure on Wall. Factors of Safety .-.-..-.: Pressure Distribution at Base of Wall . Lateral Pressure on Walls due to - Point-Load Surcharge ... rs ss 8 Lateral Pressure on Walls due to Line-Load Surcharge . ete saree cae 690. Lateral Pressure on Walls due to Strip-Load Surcharge Braced Cuts ..... cin Bearing Capacity of Soils Various Types of Footing on Soil Bearing Capacity Analysis Ultimate Soil Bearing Capacity Terzaghi's Bearing Capacity Eq General Shear Failure. Local Shear Failure. Allowable Bearing Capacity and Factor of Safety Gross Allowable Bearing Capacity... Net Allowable Bearing Capacity. Gross Allowable Bearing Capacity with Respect to Shear. Effect of Water Table on Bearing Capacity. Meyerhor's Equation (General Bearing ‘apacity Equation)........... Hansen's Bearing Capacity EquationTheory of Structures 1 Theory of Structures DEFLECTION OF BEAMS _ The deformation of a beam is usually expressed in terms of its deflection from its original unloaded position. The deflection is measured from the original neutral surface of the beam to the net tral surface of the deformed beam. The configuration assuried by the deformed neutral surface is known as the elasti: curve of the beam. Figure: Elastic curve Methods of Determining Beam Deflections Numerous methods are available for the determination of beam deflections. These methods includes: 1. Double-integration method 2. Area-moment method 3. Strain-energy method (Castigliano's Theorem) 4. Three-moment equation 6. 7. Conjugate-beam method . Method of superposition Virtual work methodmethod is a powerful tool in solving im at any point because we will b ion of the elastic curve. ° dius of curvature of a curve y = f(x) is given pe ~ Deflection of beams are so small the elastic curve is very small (dy/dx = lS expression the value becomes Theory of Structuresm™ 3 Ds See ny eee IfEl is constant, the equation may be written as: Ely"=M where x and y are the coordinates shown in the figure above, y is the defiection of the beam at any distance x. Eis the modulus of elasticity of the beam, | represent the moment of inertia about the neutral axis, and M represents the bending moment at a distance x from the end of the beam. The product E! is called the flexural rigidity of the beam. The first integration y’ yields the slope of the elastic curve and the second integration y gives the deflection of the beam at any distance x. The resulting solution must contain two constants of integration since Ely” = Mis of second order. These two constants must be evaluated from» known conditions Concerning the slope deflection at certain points of the beam. For instance, in the case of a simply supported beam with rigid supports, at x = 0 and x = L, the deflection y = 0, and in locating the point of maximum deflection, we simply set the slope of the elastic curve y' to zero. AREA-MOMENT METHOD Another'method of determining the slopes and deflections in beams is the area-moment method, which involves the area of the moment diagram.in slope between the tangents- draws e nt at any two points A and B is equal to the ultplied by the area of the moment diagram Theory of Structuresm™ 5 Theorem Il + The deviation of any point B relative to the tangent drawn to the elastic curve at any other point A, in a direction perpendicular to the original position of the beam, is equal to {he product of 1/El multiplied by the moment of an area about B of that part of the moment diagram between points Aand B. . 1 a tans 2 (Areass) Xe fl and twe= (Areas) x Rules of Sign: A 8 wok : Saat) TTT fan sa ie) =“ fae A B , A B Area and Centroid of C Mi enone ‘of Common Moment Diagram Shape ete sicihia, y=k a : ele eee ye xtechniques (aside from the previous section) for finding deformations and te reaction. These techniques are N's. is based upon relations between the forces and the internal strain energy Paty during the deformation process. ‘This general and more powerful than the various extemal force acts “upon an elastic body and he work:done by the forces is store within’ mua tagtam energy. The strain energy Theory of Structuresm@ 7 If the axial force P varies along the length of the bar “PPdx ue i 2AE For a circular shaft of length LT subjected to a torque T, the internal strain energy U is 7 U=%TO 5 U=%T.x TWIG i fends TL 2G, If the torque T acts along the length of the bar. the total strain energy is “Td ue j 2G °t moment varies along ths length of thes bar, the iat imarnal arom ovegy 6 ee eran a ere nt of an elastic body under the point of any force, in the direction of that force, is given derivative of the total internal strain energy with Theory of Structures 9 indi ‘subject to combined axial, torsional, and bending For ae Cdsligano’s ‘theorem is conveniently expressed as ‘ace P(aP/aP,)dx , [ T(aT/T,)dx " AE JG M(OM/aP, fx + roew El For a body composed of a finite number of elastic subbodies, these integrals may be replaced by finite summations, If rotation is required, P, may be replaced by ma, which is the applied couple at a point in question. ‘IHREE-MOMENT EQUATION Tho three-moment equation gives us the relation between the moments between any three points in a beam and their relative vertical distances or deviations. This method is widely used in finding the reactions in a continuous beam.ws. ae Pintle), aon Load on span Loads on simply au fy Cnet v v diagrams of ab, 404d5 on simply ae Moment diagrarns. 1 Theory of Structui From proportions between similar triangles: hi-tee = teo—he tuo y foe yh 941) t (regi 1 ‘ = (Area)aa %, z, rea)ne Xp 1 1, 3,44 2 oe [Asolo gh + dw <3t)] two = a [6A,8,+M,L+2MyL ] la . tem = pei (eave Re 1 2, ,4 1 tow = [A.B + 3Muta> Bt, + Auta dh | aha 1 ees, Substitute ta & tow to Eq. (1): 1 [6A8 — je | L, m2] tow = [6A,5, + 2MQL,? +McL;"] 1_[6a,s, h + | SAabe anh, + Mecha | = M+ Be wz | + 2MeL, + | oiory of Structures MaL, + 2Mp (Li + La) + Mc Lo + Theory of Structures @ 13 Values of oe and oe of Common Loadings:Theory of Structures m@ 15 Properties of Conjugate Beam 1. The length of a conjugate beam is always equal to the length of the actual beam. - : 2. The loadon the conjugate beam is the M/EI diagram of the loads on the actual beam. i> 3. A simple support for the real beam remains simple support for the conjugate beam. 4. A fixed end for the real beam becomes free end for 5. 6 the conjugate beam. . The point of zero shear for the conjugate beam corresponds to a point of zero slope for the real beam. The point of maximum moment for the conjugate beam corresponds to a point of maximum deflection for the real beam. Real Beam Conjugate Beam ] Hinged or Roller End Hinged or Roller End | Rotation 4 Shear 4 | Deflection 8 Moment 8 | Real Beam, y 1 + | Conjugate Beam 7 . Fixed Er A : ‘ixed End Free End m method determines. the { ae Pe { . jon 8 Shear 8 ecggl beam by calelaing the shears and ee een the MEI diagram. “71° ‘he conjugate beam, Real Beam 5 5 . Conjugate Beam = Shear on conju i ; gate beam im = Moment on coi beam Interior Support Interior Hinge Rotation 4 ‘Shear 4 Deflection & ‘lament16 mThoory of Structures Real Beam Conjugate =" « Interior Hinge Interi Deflection 4 Moment 4 — | — co Hinge] [Hinge] Theory of Structures #17 Equilibrium of Conjugate Beams Conjugate beams are always statically determinate; hence cotedctions, moments and shears of the conjugate beam te ‘easily computed by statics. In some instances, the conjugate may appear to be unstable due to missing cottion (as for a fixed ended beam), but it can be observed that the positive and negative areas of the M/EI diagrams due to the actual loads balances the conjugate beam. Example pI Deflection of cantilever beam x a. with concentrated load at t free end. the free e a 0p = Vb= R= VA(L)(-PLIEN) p \ feat oon PLIEL i M/EIDiagram | Ba = Me = YA(L)(-PLIEIN(2U3) ' b= 2 Pe 3 7 b -PUEL M, b Conjugate Beam VIRTUAL WORK METHOD Deflection and rotation at an joint on a frame can be obtained using NiGal work metea wee‘| Theory of Structures aE tion for Boams and Fram “The deflection in any direction at a point on a beam or frame ‘ean be obtained by applying a unit load at that point and Bapbtvna tne tormwie = spelen . where M is the bending moment at the element under ‘consideration due to applied loadings, and m, is the bending moment due to unit load applied at the point where the “deflection is required. f the rotation at a point is required, apply a unit couple at 2 point and use the equation where M jis the bending moment at the element under consideration due to applied loadings, and m, is the bending “moment due by the unit couple applied at the point where the rotation is required. Virtual Work Equation Due to Temperature Change ‘The virtual work equation due to temperature change is: Sua (ae _ where wis the stress in the member due to unit load, a is the of thermal expansion of the member, and AT is the temperature change Theory of Structures 19 Virtual Work for Trusses The virtua! work for trusses is: where S the stress in a member due to actual loads, L is the length of the member, A is the cross-sectional of the member, E is the modulus of elasticity, and U is the stress in the member due to the virtual unit load. INDETERMINATE BEAMS [As discussed in the previous section, indeterminate beams are those beams in which the number of reactions exceeds the number of equations in static equilibrium. The degree of indeterminacy is the difference between the number of reactions (forces and moments) to the number of equations in static equilibrium. Degree = Number of reactions — Number of equilibrium equations In such a case, it is necessary to supplement the equilibrium equations with additional equations arising from the deformation of the beam. Stability and Determinacy of Structures In general, structures may be stable or unstable. if a structure is stable, it may be determinate or indeterminateStructure there aro at least throe equati can bo mado (ZF, = 0, ZFy," 0. tA m Oy ion Is made’ for ‘every iniornal hinge fact that tho moment al this point is zore - A hinge support has two (2) reactions, . A roller un ort has one reaction, xed (fully restrained) thi ce (3 reactions, ly }) suppor as three (3) Pe There zara_-at east ‘three (3) equations in every * An intemal hinge provides one additional equation ‘Stability of Structures Azsiructure Is geometrically unstable if there are fewer act s than equations of equilibrium; or if there are ‘enough reactions, instability occurs if the lines of action of ese forces intersect at a common point. me rminacy of Structures yucture is statically determinate if the number of ons equals the number of external reactions. If the fof extemal reactions exceeds the number of the structure becomes statically indeterminate. gree of determinacy is the difference between the ‘of.reactions and the number of equations that can Number Theory of Structures B Example 1 Consider the following suucues subjeded to abirary enernal loading that are assumed to be known and can 2c anywhere on the structures. (a) Giver Number of reactions, R=3+2=5 Number of equation, E=3+2=5 Since R = E, the structure is statically determinate (b) Given Collar FeD Reactions, R=1+1+ Equations, E=3+2=5 (2 internal hinges) Since R'<£. the structure is unstable t+ +1 (1 internal hinge) Equations, € Since R>E, the structure is 3 indeterminate to the (5-4) first degree. ‘Types of Indeterminate Beams are several types of indeterminate structures exist in eg following diagrams will illustrate the nature of beams. “H\4 R; Ry A) Figure (d) 23 ted. cantilever = called a propped beam or Suppo! er hang (ee unknowns Rx, Re, H and This is indeterminate to the first degree. Figure (b) is fixed at one end and has a flexible springlike ie linear \ the other end. In the case of a simp! see parthe fisxible support exerts a force proportional to the beam deflection at that point. sure (c) is fixed or clamped at both ends and is a perfectly Figure (oor oThis team is indeterminate to the third degree Theory of Structures Figure (d) has six unknown reaction. This type of beam that rents a inne than two supports is called a continuous beam. This beam can: be solved using the three-moment equation or moment distribution method. THE THREE-MOMENT EQUATION The three-moment equation (See also page 9) is an effective equation in solving continuous beams. In that equaticn, the three supports of a continuous beam may be selected as the three points A, B, and C. If these supports are rigid, the values of hy and'h2 is zero. With E and | constant, the equation may be written in the form Malis + 2Ma(Ly + La) + Mela + OA:% 4 SAL <9 Goa The values of 6A a/L and GAD/L are ai given in page 13. For the beam shown in Figure (d), the moments M, are zero thus there is only one Unknown, Ma Using threes jation with A,B, and C i moment Ma can found easily. een ee24 _mTheory of Structures For the beam shown below, there are three unknown ~ moments (Mx Me, & Mc) since Mo is zero. Three equations will therefore be needed to solve the beam. One equation Gan be obtained by taking points A-B-C, a second equation is by taking points B-C-D.. The third equation can be obtained by extending an imaginary beam beyond the restrained end A, and taking points O-A-B, with all terms that _fefer to the imaginary span have zero values. Thus for beams with restrained ends, extend an imaginary beam to _ complete the necessary equations. ) : [Imaginary beam A B i D Note: The need to use this imaginary span will only arise if there are fixed end. MOMENT DISTRIBUTION METHOD “Moment®distribution is based on a method of successive approximations popularized by Hardy Cross. This method is applicable to all types of rigid frame analysis. Carry-Over Moment ‘ moment is defined as the moment induced at the . fixed end of a beam by the action of a moment applied at the other end. Consider the beam shown. When a moment is pried at B and flexes the beam it induces a wall momen! ae Ss 4 Theory of Structures @™ 25 E Carry-over moment and beam stiffness Since the deviation of B from the tangent through A is zero then Elton = (Area)as X Ale LY2US) + (% Me L(U3) Ye Me Ma Therefore, the moment applied at B carries over to the fixed end A, a moment that is half the amount and opposite sign. Beam Stiffness Beam ‘stiffmess is the moment required by the simply supported end of a beam-to produce a unit rotation of that end, the other end being rigidly fixed. From the beam shown in page 25, the rotation of B relative to the tangent through A isuals 1 Tadian, Ms is called as the beam stiffness S wih the ratio and E Beam stiffness is structures, the value of E remains constant and only = Measure of resistance is required. The relative ecified, it is convenient to take | as the common ‘span lengths - nt distribution method, we first assume the Ins to be fully restrained at both ends, then we fixed end moments. As a rule of sign moment acting on the beam ‘Teaction) are considered positive, and moments acting on the ‘beam ‘kwise reaction) are considered negative th vertical downward Joads only, negative the left end and positive moment at the Theory of Structures ™ 27 i fixed end moments for common types The following are ihe tan 0 end Tt distr ‘ of loading to be uses im Pab? FEMss = Poa? rE = PL FEMse = — ee 8 — we w (N/m) wl? FEMa= + WE, Me 12 Sa L BS w (N/m) Swi? FEM) = -2t x S ae (e— t4wl? FEMp, =~ SA 8. - 192 kK— _ y2 aa aaa y2—28 _mTheory of Structures 2 FEMgs = _ | Distribution Factor, DF in a continuous beam. the moments between any two adjacent spans are generally not equal The unbalanced Theory of Structures @ 29 ‘ent must be distributed to the other end of each span. The ratio of distribution to any beam is called the distribution factor, DF and is defined by K ors 3K At fixed-end, DF = 0 At hinged or roller end, DF = 1 whére K is the stiffness factor and EK is the sum of the stiffness factors for adjacent beams. Ff the beams are of the same material, only relative K need be used. Steps of using moment distribution method: 1. Assume that all supports are fixed or locked and compute the fixed end moments. 2. Unlock each support and distribute the unbalanced moment at each one to each adjacent span. using the distribution factor OF. 3. After distribution, carry-over one-half of the moment in step 2 with the same sign, to the other end of each span. 4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 until the carry-over moment becomes zero or negligibly small. Hint: For faster distribution, first distribute the joints with large unbalanced moment (specially those hinge or roller end), and carry-over the moment to the interior support, then begin distributing the rest of the moments. Modified K For continuous beams with hinge or roller ends, the final moment at that end is zero. The distribution of moment will become easier if we multiply the beam stiffness K of the‘Support by % which would elimi ‘Moment on that ‘Support oe me ‘Support ‘continuous beam shown: Take E = 200 GP, ‘Vfp be the same for both spans SFa am 4m moments. - = 201816) _ 20163) ¥ = -40 KN-m . 4(200,000)(120 « 10°) " — ee = 1067 - 10 10. 1 200 ~10°, (200,000)(90~10°) _ 4 . 49° Modified stiffness: Theory of Structures @ 31 ° Kas = 10.67 x 10° x 0.75 =8 x 19 Keo = 9. 10" x 0.75 = 6.75 x 10° Distribution Factors: OF s9 = OFca = 1 K 8x10" = Kes = 8X10" Lg sag DF ex Kya tKec 810° +6.75% 10" 6.75 x10" Ke. oe ms = 0.4576 Kas + Kec 8x10" +6.75x10" Ma, i. TBR Me 8 { S eB, - ca ———S tte i<—— 4m 4m (EM, = 0} I 9Re + 20.466(17) = Be 20.46 (17) = 20(3) + 20(6) + 60(13)_ Ra = 20 + 20 + 60 - 20.466 ~ 68 = 11.534 kNMas = FEMag + K(20x + Oo - 3a) © = Man = FEMan + K(Oq + 200 - 3a) : a@=A/L Absolute K = 2EI/L; Relative K )are-points of supports such that A = 0, the comes: Ina = FEM as + K(20, + Go) = Maa = FEMan + K(0 + 200) Theory of Structuresm™ 33 i that used ign of the fixed end moments is the same as he Sroment distribution method (See page 27). In general, the slope-deflection equation can be expressed as: : My = FEMn + K(2 On + Or — 3a) {ternal moment in the near end of the span fixed-end moment at the near end support near- and far-end slopes of the span at supports Application of Slope-Deflection Equations to. Continuous ey fet ji; | Each member of the beam is considered individually and fixed-end moments are computed. One equation for moment is computed at each end of the member. For the continuous beam shown, for span AB, equations for Mas and Mea are written; for span BC, equations for Mec and Mes are written, and so on. All these moment equation are expressed in terms of the unknown ‘values of @ at the Supports. The unknown 6 can be solved by the following Support conditions.rca = 15 -20 2 Kaa(204 + 09 — 50: ie M is zero at simple ends of the beam beam shown above. roto moment at an interior support must be Mex + Mac = 0 Mca + Mco = 0 ota g the points of supports A, B, and C: (4 = 0) a= sete = -(40)(4)/8 = -20 kN-m wl = -(5)(6)7/12 = ~ ~(5)(6712 = -15 kN-m a +3(0 + 05-0) Theory of Structuresm™ 35. me 0) TTGLa Ken ¥ 20e 0) = 20+ 310+ 20 Mons Mee Bie > Ea 2) = (20g + Oc - 0) = Mrec + Kec(20s + Oc — 0) = -15 + 2(208 Mec MEPS 4405 + 20c > Eq. (3) + 20¢ — 0) = 15 + 2(0p + 26 — 0) DE Mes = Mrce * Kec(0e O= 15 + 205 + 40c q. (4) From joint condition: Moa + Mac 2% gt (15+ 400+ 200)= 9 1005 + 200+ 5=0 > Eq. (5) Subtract ‘Ea. (4) x 5~ Eq. (5) oe + 200, + 75 erin + 200 + 5 1802+ 70=0 O¢ = -35/9; Og = 5/18 In Eq. (1 Mas oo -20 + 3(5/18) = -19.167 KN-m In Eq. (2) and (3) Maa = 20 + 6(5/18) = 21.667 kN-m Mac = -15 + 4(5/18) + 2(-35/9) = -21.667 KN-m-R BEAM FORMULAS Theory of Structures ™ 37 Y ww (N/m) . : i i Smid 384EI Location of max. 5 x= 0.4814 Naar ck Bw? _ Tw? bd +" 360EI ~ 360E! MOO ct -10L2x? + 3x") 360L wl? Me aE Swi? eas 0,2 Oe n= 80> Tepe = wt 720E1 LEly= Soar (25 ~ 40x? + 16x‘) for0 oe Function = Py hy + Pz ho + Ps hs +... istribute load ue of a function due to a uniformly distribut a (wine) equals the product of w and the area of the influence line under the uniform load. w (N/m) Example § For the beam shown in the figure, draw the influence lines for the (a) reaction at A, (b) the shear at D, and fe) the moment at D. (d) Determine the maximum values of these functions due to moving load of 5 kN and, (e) determine the value of these functions due to a uniform load of 10 kKN/m throughout the entire beam.a = 49 48 | Theory of Structures: Theory of Structures With unit load at D: runitloee (EM8 Rae 106); Ra= 0.75 en the unit load is just to the left of D: 0.25 ‘Shear whi Vp =Ra-1 ; ; ‘Shear when the unit load is just to the right of D: . (2) = 0.75(2) = 1.5 0 Mo With unit load at B: Ry = 0; Vo = 0; Mo = 0 With unit load at C: [=Mz = 0} 8 Ra + 1(2) = 0; Ra = -0.25 Va = Ra = -0.25 Ma = Ra(2) = (-0.25)(2) = -0.5 For the 5-kN moving load: ¢ The maximum reaction at A occurs when the load is at A: Ra = 5(1) = 5 KN - - i ¢ The maximum positive shear at D occurs when the load Boe, Influence Line for Vo | is at just to the right of D: i 1 ; ' i g Vo = 5(0.75) = 3.75 kN * The maximum negative shear at Do is just to the left of D: ee Vo = 5(-0.25) = -1.25 kN | * The maximum posi | load eaigu™ Positive moment at D occurs when’ the Mo = 5(1.5) = 7.5 kN-m50__™ Theory of Structuros * The maxiinum negative moment at D o load is at C. ae anit Mo = 5(-0.5) = -2.5 KN-m For the uniform load of (w) 10 kN/m: + Reaction atA Ra = w x area of influence diagram ° Ra = 10 [%4(8)(1) - 4(2)(0.25)|; Ry = 37.5 kN * Shear at D: Vo = W * area of influence diagram Wo = 10 (4(6\0.75) ~ 4(2)(0.25) ~ 14(2)(0.25) 7.5 KN = * “Moment at D: Mp = w x area of influence diagram Mo = 10[%4(8)(1.5) ~ %4(2)(0.5)], Mo = 85 kN-m 4 heory of Suuctures MS Oe | | | tntiuence tine for shear at C (Ve) | | ab/t ae = Influence line for moment at C (Mc) The other offset values can be obtained by proportion of triangles Figure: Influence Line for Simple Beams$2 @ Theory of Structures _ Example 6 * tv For the truss bridge shown, determing the maximum Theory of Structures 53 28 and compressive forces on member DH due to two mae | ae n Movin, : rae eens and 80 kN 3m apart, moving along tng | Unit load at B: Ra = 0.75 - (EFy= 0] Fou sin 45°+0.75=1 Fon = 0.3535 (compression) A 0.75 Unit load at C: Ra = 0.5 [EFu= 0} Fou sin 45° + 0.5 =1 Fox = 0.707 (compression) Influence Line for Ra. 54m Theory of Structures [EFV=0] Fon sin 45° = 0.25 Fox = 0.3535 (tension) -0.707 Influence Line for Fox Theory of Structures # 55 Maximum compressive stress ‘on DH due to two moving loads: 0.3535 80 KN -0.3535 -0.707 Foy max = 80(0.707) + 60(0.3535) = 77.77 KN Maximum tensile stress on DH due to two moving loads: 0.3535, -0.707 Fox max = 80(0.3535) + 60(0) = 28.28 KN56 __@ Theory of Structures . APPROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES Cantilever Method: Assumptions: rn x - aioe of inflection occurs at the midspan of each 2A i i Spent of inflection occurs at midheight of each 3. The axial force in each column is directly > axial ly proportional to. its distance from the center of gr columns on that level Satya Portal Method Assumptions: 1. The building frame is divided into independent Portals. : 2. A. point of inflection occurs at the midspan of each girder. 3. A point of inflection occurs at the midheight of each column. ae 4. The horizontal shear at a given story is distributed among the columns such that each interior column resists twice as much as each exterior column. Note: Portal and cantilever methods yield the sameresults for frames such as shown below. example 7 Analyze the f Theory of Structur g the portal method ame shown usin: x= 7.5 kN 0+60. 2=22.5kN esm 57_ 58 @ Theory of Structures esc. ‘ 75 . Pe +p fs Hs: sos i i 45 =~ yes 9.375 Analysis result on some members lal force on member DE =. Moment at D = 135 im $975 kN hear on member EH = 30 kN 22.5 wees 7 Theory of Structures ™ 59 Example 8 Analyze the frame shown using the cantilever method. 40 KN C F Solution 40:KN) eh 360 _™ Theory of Structures Considering the upper frame 4OKN c_ am F a (8) = 40(3) Fac = 15 KN = Fer Considering the lower frame WKN cn : Fou = 8 Foe le = 933 1067 00(4) + 40(10) 800 36.84 KN. Fu. = 42 10 KN 7 Foe(20) + 12 Foe Foe = 5.26 KN: Fag Theory of Structures m™ 61 ‘ai me a 3 3 , 6.84 JA 69.99 wt CF apa: Ce oa Atany joint, [M = 0, SFy = 0, DFx=0 At Joint C: =M = 20(3) - 15(4) = 0 5-15=0 }0-20-20=0 At Joint E: aM 69.99(4) + 20(3) — 42. 16) =. et -84(4)=0 72.1 — 15 ~ 21.84 — 13.16 + 20 — 69.99 — Say 0 Moment at A: M, = 27.36 kN-m Axial force on EH: Fen = 63.17 kN Axial force on DE: Foe = 5.26 KN62m Theory of Structures )Y NAMIC (IMPACT) LOADING es The deformation produced in elastic bodi i 5 _ caused them to it odes Dy impact loads IS t Ce as spring, although that is not thelr + The sping constant ey re of a beam can be calculated from the P ‘ k= 4 (N/mm or kN/mm) ! a where 81s the deformation due to static load P Consider the cantilever beam shown. ‘ Ses to [on Ree tafemation, t= Pt; k= 3! 3EI Pa load P is dropped from a height of h, the result deformation 5 can be computed from: the maximum stress developed due to impact loading can be determined from the equation ough a height h before For a mass m dropping freely thr ical rod of length L as striking a stop al shown. t the end of a verti where v is the velocity of the mass before impact.64 _™ Theory of Structures TRUSSES A truss is a structure composed of slender members joi together at their end points. These are used t eae and bridges. oe Roof Trusses Roof trusses are often used as part of a building frame. The roof load is transmitted to the truss at the joints by means of @ series of purlins. The roof truss along with its supporting Golumns is termed as a bent. The space between adjacent bents is called a bay. Types of Roof Trusses Howe Truss ae Pratt Truss Theory of Structures ™ 65 Fink Truss Scissors Truss, Fan Truss RANZ Warren Truss66 Theory of Structures Bowstring Truss Three-Hinged Arc Theory of Structures m 67 DETERMINACY OF TRUSSES In any truss analysis problem, the numbers of unknowns ~ includes the forces in b members and the number of external reaction r, making the number of unknown b +r. Since the truss members are all straight axial force members lying in the same plane, the force system acting at each joint are coplanar and concurrent, making the moment at each joint equal to zero. Thus, in each joint only two equation (ZF, = 0 & EF, = 0) are left to be satisfied. If there is j number of joints’ the number of equations that can be made is 2j Therefore; If (b + r) = 2), the truss is statically determinate If (b + r) > 2j, the truss is statically indeterminate to the (b + 1) - 2j degree If (b + r) < 2j, the truss is internally unstable Where: b = number of bars (or members) = number of external reactions (2 for each hinge or pin and 1 for each roller or vocker) eae j= number of joints Example 9 Classify each of the trusse: s in Figure AN-17 as stable, qrelable. ‘statically determinate, or statically indeterminate usses are subjected to arbitrary external loadings that are assi frusegsumed to be known and can act anywhere on the68 Theory of Structures Figure AN-173 = Figure AN-17b Fiqure AN-17¢ Solution: Figure AN-17a: — Extern: = Number of members, ae we FO g Narpat of exter | support Teactions, r= 4 b+r=19 ve, 2518 Since (b+ 1) first degree. > 2j, the truss is indeterminate to the Figure AN-17b: Aumnber of mee lumber of ‘ : Number of jong auPPort reactions, r= 3 ~b+r=12 _ 2=12 Since (b + r) = 2), the truss is statically determinate lally stable bs=9 Theory of Structures 69 Externally stable i |-17¢: Figure Ar of members, D = 1 2 : Nember ot external ‘support reactions, F 3 Number of joints. j = b+r=15 sha bro < 2j; the truss is internally unstable. DEFLECTION OF TRUSSES ae The deflection of truss at 2 joint is given as: 8 SUL Deflection, ae where S the stress in a member due to actual loads, L is the length of.the member, A_ is the cross-sectional of the member, E is the modulus of elasticity, and U is the stress in the member due to the virtual unit load. Example 10 Determine the vertical deflection at joint B for the truss loaded as shown. Use E = 150 GPa. 60 kN D70 m Theory of Structures Solution: Solving for stresses due to actual loads: VBa2 eA 105, 30 7 (EM,=0} 12 Rey = 100(6) + 60(4); Rev = 70 KN (EFv=0) — Rav=30KN At joint C: Sco (2/ V13 ) = 70; Sco = 129.19 KN (compression) Sec = Sco(3/ V73 ) = 105 kN (tension) At joint B: Sao = 00 KN (tension) jac = 105 KN (tension) Sas At joint A: Sao(2/ V13 ) = 30: Sao = 54.08 KN (compression) Theory of Structures a 71 B, we will i | deflection a the required is the vertical apo a vertical unit load at B: D 0.901 A tN2 ae, < in C3 0.901 0.901, AR 0.75 075 © 05 os Rav = Rev = 0.5 (The computation of the stresses is left to the student to evaluate) = 150,000 MPa Member Lomm SULTAE 105,000 105,000 ~126,190 54,080. 100,00072 mTheory of Structures NATE TRUSSES Example 11 Det Pelermine the axial force on member AC on the truss 400 kN Ray TEMs'= 0), 4003) = Ra(4);Re = 300 kN =0) Ray = Ro = 300'kN - (2F.4= 0} Ra = 400 kN Theory of Structures™ 73 ‘Stress on member AC: (Note: this is an indeterminate truss) First we remove AC (choosing it as the redundant member) and compute the relative displacement Acc: SUL bee ae bac = x [400(-0.8)(4) + 0 + 400(-0.8)(4) + 300(-0.6)(3) + (-500)(1)(5)] -5600 AE Bac D 300 kN 300 kN Stresses due to actual loads with member AC removed Next, we solve for the relative displacement of AC due to the virtual unit force acting on member AC.74 mTheory of Structures 08 S 0.6 A 08 B Stresses due to virtual unit - force acting on member AC VL (Aac)u = AE (Aschu = x [(-0.8)°(4)x2 + (-0.6)7(3)x2 + (1)7(5)x2) 17.28 (Anchy = 17-28 (Asc)u AE Finally. Fics Osc =. -5600/AE = 324.1 ki (seh) 17.28/AE. Fas = Sua + Use(x) = +400 + (-0.8)(324.1) = 140.72 kN Foc = Sec + Usc(x) = 0 + (-0.6)(324.1) = -194.46 KN Feo = Sao + Uso(x) = -500 + (1)(324.1) = -175.9 KN Feo = Sco + Uco(x) = 400 + (-0.8)(324.1) = 140.72 KN Fan = Su + Uso(x) = 300 + (-0.6)(324.1) = 105.54 KN Reinforced Concrete 75 ES Reinforced Concrete Design BASIC REQUIREMENTS BASIC REQUIREMENTS DEFINITIONS The following terms are defined for general use in this chapter. Specialized definitions appear in individual Chapters or Sections ‘Admixture - Material other than water, aggregate, or hydraulic cement, used as an ingredient of concrete and added to concrete before or during its mixing to modify its properties. Aggregate - Granular materials, such as sand, gravel, ‘crushed stone, and iron blast-furnace slag, used with a cementing medium to form a hydraulic cement concrete or mortar. Aggregate lightweight - Aggregate with a dry, loose weight OF M00 Kala or ss, Anchorage - in post-tensioning, a device used to anchor tendon to concrete member, in pretensioning, a device used to anchor tendon during hardening of concrete. Bonded tendon - Prestressing tendon that is bonded to concrete either directly or through grouting. Column - Member with a ratio of height-to-least-lateral dimension of 3 or greater used primarily to support axial compressive load. Composite concrete flexural members - Concrete flexural members of precast and/or cast-in-place concrete elements constructed in separate placements but so apreanneciad that all elements respond to loads as a76 Reinforced Concrete V/ Concrete - Mixture of Portlan an ae hydraulic cement, fine aggreg; water, with or without admixtures Concrete, specified compressive Compressive strength of coneré gapascals (MPa) id cement or quantity f. is und numerical value only is inte! megapascals (MPa). Concrete, structural lightwei, lightweight aggregate and h: exceeding 1900 kg/m*. Li natural sand is termed square root of ‘sult has units of ight - Concrete contains as an air-dry unit weight ney ightweight concrete without al-light weight concrete and consists of normal lightweight concrete. Curvature friction - + in the specified pr termed. sand- Friction resulting from bends or curves restressing tendon profile Deformed reinforcing bars, bar welded plain wire fabric, and Deformed reinforcement - mats, deformed wire, welded deformed wire fal Development length - Leni required set at a critical ‘section. pth of section (d) - compression fiber ni igth of embedded reinforcement P the design strength of reinforcement V/ Effective de Distance measured from to centroid of Embedment length Provided beyond a Jacking force - - ength of embedded reinforcement critical section, In prestressed concrete, temporary force Prestressing ten, Reinforced Concrete # 77 ember. TDL Dead weight supported by amemper V toad don 4. Load multiplied by appropriate | Py Load, | factete load factors, used to Propo ‘appro ethod. the strength design m _ Ratio of normal stress to i i ses Modulus. Of | eis te TY for tensile or compressive stres: EB oportnal i of mate oem t (concrete) - Also ong.term Modulus, apparetermined by using the stress an nee Battie load has been applied for a certain length of time. 3 Modulus, initial (concrete) - The slope of the stress: strain diagram at the origin of the curve. he line drawn cant (concrete) - The slope of tt ee aa to a point on the curve somewhere between 25% and 50% of its ultimate compressive strength, tn Modulus, tangent (concrete) - The slope of a tangent to the curve at some point along the curve a i tio 0 Pedestal - Upright compression member with a ratio Unsupported height to average least lateral dimensions of less than 3. \Plain concrete - Concrete that does not conform to definition of reinforced concrete. i Plain reinforcement - Reinforcement that does not conform to definition of deformed reinforcement. Post-tensioning - Method of prestressing in which tendons are tensioned after concrete has hardened. Precast concrete - Plain or reinforced concrete element cast elsewhere than its final position in the structure Prestressed concrete - Reinforced concrete in which internal stresses have been introduced to ceduce potential tensile stresses in concrete resulting. from loads . :78 Reinforced Concrete Pretensioning - Method of prestressing in are tensioned before concrete is placed. Reinforced concrete - Concrete reinforced with No less than the minimum amount required by this chapter, Prestressed or nonprestressed, and designed on the assumption that the two materials act’ together "© resisting forces. Spiral reinforcement - Continuously wound reinforcement in the form of a cylindrical helix. JStirrup - Reinforcement used to resist shear and torsion “stresses in a structural member: typically bars, wires welded wire fabric (smooth or deformed) either single log or bent into L, U, or rectangular shapes and located Perpendicular to’ or at. an angle to longitudinal reinforcement. (The term “stirrups” is usually applied to lateral reinforcement in flexural members and the term “ties” to those in compression members.) See also Tie. Strength design - Nominal strength multiplied by a strength reduction factor, 9. Strength, nominal - Strength of a member or cross-section before application of any strength reduction factors. Strength, required - Strength of a member or cross section fequired to resist factored loads or related internal Moments and forces in such combinations. Tendon - Steel element such as wire, cable, bar, rod, oF Strand, or a bundle of such elements, used to impart Prestress to concrete, Tie.- Loop of reinforcing bar or wire enclosing longitudinal reinforcement. See also stirrup. Transfer - A from jacks or pretensioning bed to concrete member. Wall - Member, usually vertical, used to enclose or separate ‘Spaces. Which tendons ct of transferring stress in prestressing tendons Reinforced Concretem 79 — d by iction - In prestressed concrete, friction causet pe tidied deviation of prestressing sheath or duct from its specified profile " Yield strength - Specified minimum yield strength or yield point of reinforcement in MPa Wol Modulus of Elasticity 7 ike steel and other materials, concrete has no definite modulus of elasticity. Its value is dependent on the characteristics of cement and aggregates used, age of concrete and strengths. : According to NSCP (Section 5.8.5), modulus of elasticity E, for concrete for values of w. between 1500 and 2500 kgim® may be taken as E.=w.'* 0.043 /f, (in MPa) Eq. 2-1 Where f- is the 28-day compressive strength of concrete in MPa, we is the unit weight on concrete. in kg/m’, For normal weight concrete, E. = 4700 Jf", . Modulus of elasticity E, for nonprestressed reinforcement may be taken as 200,000 MPa. Aggregates Aggregates used in concrete m. lay be fine aggregates (usually sand) and coarse a a grave - ggregates (usually gravel or tnened stone). Fine aggregates are those that passe through a No. 4 sieve (about 6 mm in size) Mocsese retained are coarse aggregates, The nominal maximum sizes of She gilied in Section 5.3.3 of NSCP. These ars ae tole, dey? dArrowest dimension between sides of forms, 1/3 the induct Slabs, or % the minimum clear spacing between ‘dual reinforcing bars or wires, bundles of bare, or coarse aggregate are80 WReinforced Concrete in the judgment of the Engineer. worm ay not be of consolidation are such that Concrete 2nd placed without honeycomb or voids. ba Water According to Section 5.3.4, water used in mixing con shall be clean and free from injurious amounts of vile neg alkalis, salts, organic materials, or other substances that - May be deleterious to concrete or reinforcement. Mixin water for prestressed concrete or for concrete’ th: » e at will contain aluminum embedments, including that portion ‘of mixing water contributed in the i form of free moisture on aggregates, shall not contain deleterious amounts of chloride ion. Non-potable (non-drinkable) water shall no! be used in concrete unless the following are satisfied: (2) Selection of concrete proportions shall be based on concrete mixes using water from the same source and (b) mortar test cubes made with non-potable mixing water shall have 7-day and 28-day strengths equal to at least 90 percent of strengths of similar specimens made with potable water. Metal Reinforcement Metal reinforcement in concrete shall be deformed, except that plain reinforcement be permitted for spirals or tendons, and reinforcement consisting of structural steel, steel pipe, or steeltubing. Reinforcing bars to be welded shall be indicated on the drawings and welding procedure to be used shall be specified. PNS reinforcing bar specifications shall be supplemented to require a report of material properties necessary to conform to welding procedures specified in “Structural Welding Code - Reinforcing Steel” (PNS/AWS: MH 1.4) of the American Welding society and/or “Welding 0 Reinforcing Bars (PNS/A5-1554) of the Philippines National Standard. Reinforced Concretem 81 ee a ee ee Deformed Reinforcement med reinforcing bars shall conform to the standards Seccifed in Section $.3.5.3 of NSCP.. Deformed reinforcing bars with a specified yield strength f, exceeding 415 MPa shall be permitted, provided f, shall be the stress corresponding to a strain of 0.35 percent and the bars otherwise conform to one of the ASTM and PNS specifications listed in Sec. 5.3.5.3.1 Plain Reinforcement Plain bars for spiral reinforcement shall conform to the specification listed in Section 5.3.5.3.1 of NSCP. For wire with specified yield strength f, exceeding 415 MPa, f, shall be the stress corresponding to a strain of 0.35 percent if the yield strength specified in the design exceeds 415 MPa Spacing Limits for Reinforcement According to Section 5.7.6 of NSCP, the minimum clear spacing between parallel bars in a layer should be dy but not less than 25 mm. Where parallel reinforcement is placed in two or more layers, bars in the upper layers should be Placed directly above bars in the bottom layer with clear distance bel tween layers not less than 25 mm. In spirally reinforced or tied reinforced compression memb ers, clear distance between longitudinal bars shall be not less than 1.5d, nor 40 mm In walls and slabs other than concrete joist construction, Primary flexural reinforcement shall be spaced not farther apart than three times the wall or slab thickness, nor 450 mm. . Bundled Bars Groups of parallel reinforcing bars bundled in contact to act as a unit shall be limited to four in any one bundle. Bundled bars shall be enclosed within stirrups or ties and bars larger than 32 mm shall not be bundled in beams The individual82 WReinforced Concrete bars wihin a bundle terminated within the span of foxwg perder Should terminate at diferent points wih at eset 40d. stagger. Since spacing limitations and wat: concret= cover of most members are based ona quinimum Gemeter d.. bundled bars shall be treated as a si @ Giemeter derived from the equivalent total are: o8& SB Figure 2-1: Bundled-bar arrangement Diameter of single bar equivalent to bundled bars accordi to NSCP to be used for spacing limitation and concrete =o. © 3-25mm Equivalent ~ diameter, D £(25f «3= 4D*D=43.3mm Figure 2-2: Equivalent single bar Concrete Protection for Reinforcement Steel reinforcement in concrete should be provided with adequate covering as provided in Section 5.7.7 of NSCP. These covering depend on the type of exposure of. the member and fire protection. Some of these values are; for concrete cast and permanently exposed to earth such as footings, the minimum concrete cover is 75_mm. For: concrete members exposed to weather, 40 to 50. mm. Fol concrete not exposed to weather or in contact with ground, the minimum cover is 20 mm for slabs, walls, and joists, and 40 mm for beams and columns. Reinforced Concretem 83 _OOOeeerere ovr Bundled Bars ied bars, the minimum concrete cover shall be Fo ones equivalent diameter of the bundle, but need not Pe greater than 50 mm, except for concrete cast against and permanently exposed to earth, the minimum cover shall be 75 mm. Standard Hooks The term standard hook refers to one of the following: {a) 180° bend plus 4d, extension but not less than 65 mm at free end, (b) 90° bend pius 12d, extension, at free end of bar, (c) For stirrups and tie hooks: (1) 16 mm bar and smaller, 90° bend plus 6d, extension at free end of bar, or (2) 20 mm and 25 mm bar, 90° bend plus 12d. extension at free end of bar, or (3) 25 mm bar and smaller, 135° bend plus 6d, extension at free end of bar. Cast-in-place Concrete (nonprestressed). The following minimum concrete cover shall be provided for reinforcement: Minimum ‘oncrete east against and permanently exposed 0) oncrete exposed to earth or weather. 20 mm through 36 mm bars 16 mm bar, W31 or 031 wire, and smaller ‘oncrete not exposed to weather or in contact with ground: Slabs, walls, joists 32 mm bar and smaller Beams, columns Timary reinforcement, ties, stirups, spirals Shells, folded place members : ‘20. mm bar and larger 46 mm bar, W31 of D31 wire, and smaller84 Reinforced Concrete Precast concrete (Manufactured U Conditions). The following mini nder Plan provided for reinforcement: o evmum “Concrete. shag te Wall panels : mim bar and Other es Te ‘mm through 32 mm bars 46 mm bar, Wat or D31 wit ae 131 wire, and ‘onerete not exposed to contact w/ ground Stabs, wa, joists = jar and Beams, columns: aoe 18 Primary reinforcement than 13 eres Ties, stirrups, spiral: make Shells, folded plate members : x 20 mm bar and larger 15 16 mm bar, W31 ji eae or D31 wire, and 10 Minimum Bend Diameter The diameter of bend other than for ‘stirrups mm shall not be less than the following: (a) 6d, for 10 mm to 25 mm b: oon par, (b) 8d, for 28 mm to 32 mm bar, and (c) 10d, for Measured on the inside of the bar, Ips _and ties in sizes 10 mm through 15 The inside di: : { he ipeide diameter of bend of stirrups and ties shall not be p for 16 mm bar and smaller. For bars larger Reinforced Concretem™ 85 than 16 mm, the diameter of bend shall be in accordance with the previous paragraph. Storage of Materials . Cement and aggregates shall be stored in such manner as to prevent deterioration or intrusion of foreign matter. Any Inaterial that has. deteriorated or has been contaminated shall not be used for concrete. Concrete Proportions Proportions of materials for concrete shall be established to provide: (a). workability and consistency to permit concrete to be worked readily into forms and around reinforcement under conditions of placement to be employed, without segregation or excessive bleeding, (b) Resistance to special exposures, and (c) conformance with strength test requirements. Where different materials are to be used for different portions of proposed work, each combination shall be evaluated. Concrete proportions, -including water-cement ratio, shall be established based on field experience and/or trial mixtures with materials to be employed. Loads The most important and most critical task of an engineer is the determination of the loads that can be applied to a structure during its life, and the worst possible combination of these loads that might occur simultaneously. Loads on a structure may be classified as dead loads or live loads. Dead Load Dead loads are loads of constant magnitude that remain in one position. This consists mainly of the weight of the structure and other permanent attachments to the frame.86 __® Reinforced Concrete Reinforced Concrete™ 87 Live Load ney Live loads are loads that may change in magnitude ang Se Position. Live loads that move under their own power we Called moving loads. Other live loads are those caused ~ wind, rain, earthquakes, soils, and temperature changer Wind and earthquake loads are called lateral loads. "Arrangement of Live Load Live loads may be applied only to the floor or roof under Consideration, and the far ends of columns built integrally with the structure may be considered fixed. It is permitted by the code to assume the following arrangement of live loade (2) Factored dead load on all spans with full factored live foad on two adjacent spans, and (b) Factored dead load on . all spans with full factored live load on altemate spans. Not less than the Table 2- 1: Uniform and Concentrated Loads (NSCP) toed forthe occupancy with Use of Occupancy Union |; Coneen! which they are Pa Load, N associated but need not exceed 2400 Pa Reviewing Assembly areas and auditorium, and balconies grandstands and ame as area served for the pe of occupancy tage areas and enclosed al storage and/or repair88 m™ Reinforced Concrete Table 2- 2: Minimum Roof Live Loads (NSP) Tributary Loaded Area for Structural Member 1000 Pa 800 Pa 800 Pa 700 Pa 600 Pa 600 Pa 250Pa: | 250Pa 500 Pa 500 Pa Roof Slope 1, Flat or rise less than 1 vertical to 3 horizontal; Arch or dome with rise less 1/8 of span 2, Rise 1 vertical per 3 horizontal to less than 1 horizontal; Arch or dome with rise.1/8 of span to less than 3/8 of span 3. Rise 1 vertical to 1 horizontal; Arch or dome with rise 3/8 of span or ater ‘4, Awnings, except doth covered 5. Green Houses, lathhouse’s and agricultural buildings 600 Pa 600 Pa 600 Pa 250 Pa 500 Pa Category ‘onstruction, public cass at the site (Live load) Reinforced Concrete = 89 jal Loads (NSCP Vertical Walkway, Canopy Grandstands, reviewing stands and bleachers Stage accessories Seats and footbo3ards Head block wells ‘and sheave beams Ceiling framing (Over stages: ‘All uses except over stages Partitions and interior wal elevators and dumbwaiters (Dead load and Live load) 2 by Total loads Mechanical and electrical equipment Total load Cranes (Dead and live loads) Balcony railings, guardrails and handrais Refer to Chapter 2 of NSCP Total load including | 1.25 by impact increase Exit facilities serving aan occupant load ater than 5090 Reinforced Concrete Load Factors Dead Load, DL. Live Load, LL. Wind Load, W. Earthquake, E Earth or Water pressure, H. neoos Gaogge Required Strength (Factored load), U Structufe and structural member: : ssh i have design strengths at all sections. at east ned quired strengths calculat ede er? < ted f forces in any combination ofloads, \" '2C1°red loads and * The it i Eid ay a strength U to resist dead load DL and live Reinforced Concrete ™ 91 ~ If resistance to earth pressure H is included in design U=14DL+1.7LL+17H Eq. 2-9) where DL or LL reduce the effect of H U=0.90 DL Eq. 2-10 but not be less than 1.4DL + 1-7LL U=1.4DL + 1.7LL Eq. 2-2| ¢ If resistance to structural ified wit i u effects of a specified wind load W are included in design where load combinations includes both full value § and zero value of LL to determinate the more severe condition, U=0.75(1.4DL + 1.7LL + 1.7W) Eq. 2-3} and U = 0.9DL + 1.3W Eq. 2-4) but not be less than 1.4DL + 1.7LL Eq. 2-6 * Ifresistance to speci nana coeenes earthquake loads or forces E are U=0.75(1.4DL + 1.7LL + 1.87E) £4.26) and U=0.9DL + 1.43E £q.2-7] b Eq.2-8) If resistance to loadings due.to weight and pressure of fluids with well-defined densities and _ controllable maximum heights F is included in design, such loading Shall have a load factor of 1.4 and be added to alll loading combinations that include live load ¢ If resistance to impact effects is taken into account in design, such effects shall be included with live load LL. + Where structural effects T of differential settlement, creep, shrinkage, or temperature change are significant in design Fanaa ee U=0.75 (1.4DL + 1.4T + 1.7LL) Eq. 2-11 but required strength U shall not be less than U=1.4 (OL+T) Eq. 2 12) Strength Reduction Factors, $ (phi) The design strength provided by a concrete member, its connections to other members, and its cross sections, in term of flexure, axial load, shear, and torsion shall be taken as the nominal strength multiplied by a ‘strength reduction factor » having the following values: {a) Flexure without axial load. a 9 Axial tension, and axial tensi 0.90 (c) Axial compression, and axial compression92 ™@ Reinforced Concrete flexure: re! (1) Spiral reinforcement g Tie reinforcement.. (a) Shear and torsion (e) Bearing on concret pess Sy e&sa ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BEAMS Notations and Symbols Used in the Book a = depth of equivalent stress block, mm area of tension reinforcement, mm? area of skin reinforcement per unit height in one side face, mm‘/m : width of.compression face of member, mm = distance from extreme compression fiber to neutral axis, mm d =distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of tension reinforcement, mm d. = thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme tension fiber to center of bar or wire, mm E. = modulus of elasticity of concrete, MPa E, = modulus of elasticity of steel = 200,000 MPa i fs os PP " = specified compressive stress of concrete, MPa = ee stress in reinforcement at service loads. a specified yield strength of steel, MPa overall thickness of member, mm 1, = moment of inertia of gross concrete section about centroidal axis, neglecting reinforcement ' le = moment of inertia of reinforcement about centroidal axis of member cross-section Reinforced Concrete 4, = nominal moment, N-mm M, 2 factored moment at section, N-mm gy. = factor defined in Section 5.10.2.7.3 to. = strain in concrete (maximum = 0.003) _, strain in steel below yield point = ./E. «, = strain in steel at yield point = FE, 9 = ratio of tension reinforcement = A./oo ps = balance steel ratio (See Section 5.10.3.2) = strength reduction factor (See Sec. 5.9.3) Balanced Design A design so proportioned that the maximum stresses _in concrete (with strain of 0.003) and steel (with strain of fyE.) are reached simultaneously once the ultimate load is reached, causing them to fail simultaneously Underreinforced Design A design in which the steel reinforcement is lesser than what 's required for balanced condition. If the ultimate load is approached, the steel will begin to yield although the compression concrete is still understressed. If the load is further increased, the steel will continue to elongate. resulting in appreciable deflections and large visible cracks in the tensile concrete. Failure under this condition is ductile and will give warning to the user of the structure to decrease the load Overreinforced Design A design in which the steel reinforcement is more than what is required for balanced condition. If the beam is overreinforced, the steel will not yield before failure. As the load is increased, deflections are not noticeable although the compression concrete is highly stressed, and failure occurs suddenly without warning to the user of the structure3 "94 ‘WReinforced Concrete Overreinforced as well as balanced design Should avoided in concrete because of its brittle Property, that why the Code limits the tensile steel Percentage (). ° 0.75p,) to ensure underreinforced beam with ductile on of failure to give occupants warning before failure occurs. Assumptions in Strength Design in Flexure (Code Section 5.10.2) 1. Strain in reinforcement and concrete shall be assumed directly proportional to the distance from the neutral axis, Except for deep flexural members with overall depth to Clear span ratio, h/L > 2/5 for continuous spans and hiL > 4/5 for simple spans, a nonlinear distribution of strain Shall be considered (See Sec. 5.10.7). 2. Maximum usable- strain at extreme — concrete compression fiber, ¢. shall be assumed equal to 0.003 3. For f, below f,, f, shall be taken as E, x €5. For es>&, i = fy. 4 4. Tensile strength of concrete shall be neglected in axial and flexural calculations. 5. Relationship- between compressive stress distribution and concrete strain may be assumed rectangular, trapezoidal, parabolic, or any other form that results in Prediction of strength in substantial agreement wit results of comprehensive tests. 6. For rectangular distribution of stress: (a) Conerete stress of 0.85f. shall be assumed uniformly distributed over an equivalent compression zen bounded by edges of the cross-section and a a oe line located parallel to the neutral axis at a dist ane of a = B, c from the fiber of maximum compress! strain. = f the (b) Distance c from fiber of maximum strain to neutral axis shall be measured in the direction perpendicular to N.A | For f. > 30 MPa, ; = 0.85 - 0.008(f« - 30) but shall Reinforced Concretem 95 Pa and | be taken as 0.85 for 0 MI . shall ta rate of 0.008 Factor (3; shal 3 continuously a! Pa. but (©) p; shall be reduces engin in excess of 30 MI tor ee nt be taken less than 0 65 ie (i) Forf. MPa, fi: = 0.85 Oe sober 30) but shall not be less than B, = 0.35 - 9.00 065 “tes THAR Stress Diagram Strain Diagram ] : c €q 2-13 [ For f. < 30 MPa, By = 0.85 (QF.=0) C=T O85f.ab=Act,96 BReinforced Concrete ‘Multiplying both sides by d/d: At @_A, fd x =. O8st.b d bd0.85r, A. i The term ‘ba called the ratio of steel reinforcement and is denoted as p Eq. 2-15 Eq. 2-16 Eq. 2-17/ « Eq. 2-18| Nominal Moment Capacity: From the stress diagram in the figure above: M,=C x (d—a/2) = 0.85 fe ab (d- % a) =o0.e5f, 2% o(a 4 2s) 0.85 M, ~ 20.85 f.abd?( 5) Reinforced Concrete ® 97 nt Capacity: Mome uitimate here 4 = 0.90 for flexure) M2 6 Ma (w + ga 2a (sore 0580) _S8 22 Coefficient of Resistance < © (1 - 0.590) Eq 2-21) oRbd Eq. 2-22 . is coe FF A - Solving for @ and replacing it with . yields the following formula for the steel ratio p: _ 0.85f", a» = 2R, Eq. 2- 23 Pet y' a : Balanced Steel’Ratio pp: a ee ~ /E_ 0.003+ F,/Es. Strain Diagram38 Reinforced Concrete By ratio and proportion: co. 0.003 if. 03476," E, = 200,000 = Eq..2- 24 Po =F (600+f,) 4 Maximum and Minimum Steel Ratio Section §.10.3.3: For flexural members the ratio of reinforcement p provided shall not exceed 0.75 of the ratio p» that would produce balanced strain conditions. Pmaxr = 0-75Py Eq. 2-25 This limitation is to ensure that the steel reinforcement will yield first to ensure ductile failure. forced Concrete 99 ‘section At any section of a flexural member where positive reinforcement iS required by analysis, the ratio p provided shall not be less than that given by 1.4/, Re unt of reinforcement applies The provision for minimum amot ral and other reasons are to beams, which for architectu teen larger in cross-section than required by strength much eagon. With a very small amount of tensile contoreement, the computed moment -strength as 2 reforeed concrete section becomes less than hat of the (esponding plain concrete section computed from, its odulus of rapture. Failure in such a casg can be quite sudden. STEPS IN DESIGNING A SINGLY REINFORCED. RECTANGULAR BEAM FOR FLEXURE: Note: The assumptions made in steps II, V, and Vill_are the author's recommendation based on his experience. |. Identify the values of the dead load and live load to be carried by the beam. (DL & LL) ll. Approximate the weight of beam (DL) between 20% to 28% of (OL + LL). This weight is added to the dead Il. Computé the factored load and factored moment: ex., Factored Load = 1.4 DL + 1.7 LL \V. Compute the factored moment to be resisted by the beam, M,100 Vv. Vi. Vil. VII. ™ Reinforced Concrete Try a value of steel ratio p from 0.5pp to 0.6p., but must not be less than pm. This value of p will Provide enough allowance in the actual value of p due to rounding-off of the number of bars to be used, for it not to exceed the maximum p-of 0.75pp. pox 2.854%, 8,600 os er #(600+f) = 0.85 for f. < 30 MPa 0.85 — 0.008(f. — 30) for f. > 30 MPa Pmn = 1.4/f, Compute the value of @, o = Solve for bd: My= 6 f¢ @ bd? (1-0.59 @) “be Try a ratio d/b (from d = 1.5 b to d = 2b), and solve for d. (round-off this value to reasonable dimension) Check also the minimum thickness in beam required by the Code as given in Table 2- 4 of Page 103. After solving for d, substitute its value to Step VII, and solve for b. Compute the weight of the beam and compare it to the assumption made in Step Il. Solve for the required steel-area and number of bars. As=pbd Number of bars-(diaineter = D) x 7 D? x number of bars = A, Reinforced Concrete ™ 101 UTING THE REQUIRED TENSION COMP STEeL AREA As OF A BEAM WITH KNOWN MOMENT My AND OTHER BEAM PROPERTIES: . “a Solve for pmax aNd Mu max Pmax = 0.75 po 0.85f'.B,(600) _ = 0.75 = = Pmax = 0.75 £, (600+f,) o= ptr. Mumar = ¢fC@ b d*(1-0.59a) If My S Mymax design as Singly Reinforced (Step Il) If M, > Mymax Gesign as Doubly Reinforced (Step It!) Solve for p: My=@Rubd?; Ru= oat ,-2R. }: \ o8sr, As=pbd= Compression reinforcement is needed. See Page 106 STEPS IN COMPUTING My OF A BEAM WITH KNOWN TENSION STEEL AREA As AND OTHER BEAM PROPERTIES: Solve for p; p= 4 Check if steel yields by computing pv. _402 ™ Reinforced Concrete = 0.85f", 8,600 Po™ “(600 +4) If p < pp, Steel yields, proceed to step Ill If p > pp, steel does not yield, proceed to step Iv. Note: If p < pmn, the given A, is not adequate for the beam dimension. IL pSpo o=pfty/fe Mu= 6 f.@ bd? (1-0.59 o) = IV. p> Po 0.85 fc 0.003 C = 0.85 ft, ab / <— c = deat —--- f#- - d-c THA c= fe E, = 200000 Solve for f, from the strain diagram 4,/E, _ 0.003 , d-c es (OFu=0) T=C Af, =0.85f.ab; a=Bic A, 600 a = 0.85 F< (B.) D - 600A, (dc) = 0.858: febc Reinforced Concrete @ 103 Sove ¢ by quadratic formula and solve for f, and a Bic M, = 6T(d — a/2) = 6.As f (d — 2/2) OF ay, = 4 C(d — al2) = 6 0.85 f', ab (d ~ al2) Minimum Thickness of Flexural Members ‘According to Section 5.9.5 of NSCP, minimum thickness stipulated in Table 2- 4 shall apply for one-way construction not supporting or attached to partitions or other construction likely to be damaged by large deflections, unless computation of deflection indicates a lesser thickness can be used without adverse effects. Table 2- 4: Minimum Thickness of Non-Prestressed Beams or One-Way Slabs Uniess Deflections are Computed Minimum thickness, h ‘Simply | One end | Both ends ss supported | continuous | continuous | Cantilever Members not supporting or attached to partitions or other construction likely to be damaged by large deflections Solid one- way slabs Beams or ribbed one- way slabs *~Span length Lis in milimeters104 @ Reinforced Concrete Values given shall be used directly for members wi ith no density concrete (w. = 2300 kgim") and grade nal reinforcement. For other conditions, the values shall be modified as follows: (a) For structural lightweight concrete havin: in the range 1500-2000 kg/m’, the v: multiplied by (1.65-0.0005 w.) but not where w. is the unit mass in kg/m’. (b) For f other than 415 MPa, the values shall be multiplied by (0.4 + 700). 19 unit weights alues ‘shall be less than 1.09. DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAM Occasionally, beams are restricted in small sizes by space or aesthetic requirements to such extent that. the compression concrete should be reinforced with steel to carry compression. Compression reinforcement is needed to increase the moment capacity of a beam beyond that of a tensilely reinforced beam with a maximum steel percentage of 0.75p,. Aside from these reasons, compression feinforcement makes beams tough and ductile and reduces long-time deflection of beams. Compression steel also helps the beam withstand stress Teversals that might occur during earthquakes. Continuous Fompression bars are-also helpful for positioning stirrups and ceing them jin place during concrete placement and vibration. Various tests “show that compression ‘einforcement also prevents the beam to cc!lapse even if the on concrete crushes especially if it is enclosed by According to Section 5.7. beams must be enclose size for longitudinal ba 10 of NSCP, compression steel in d by lateral ties, at least 10 mm in rs 32 mm or smailer, and at least 12 Reinforced Concrete @ 105 nin size for 36 mm and bundied bars. Deformed wire or in size for 36 mm and bundled bars. Deforme raided. wire fabric of equivalent area is allowed. The weldsng of these fies shall not exceed 16 longitudinal bar Spacers, 48 tie bar or wire diameters, or least dimension of the compression member Analysis of Doubly Reinforced Beam inforced beam is analyzed by dividing the beam poo couples My and Mig a6 shown’ in the fgure. Mey is the couple due to compression concrete and the part of the tension steel As. and Mz is the couple due to the compression steel A’, and the other part of the tension steel Compression reinforcement is provided to ensure ductile failure (i.e. tension steel must yield). For this reason therefore, the stress in tension steel (A,) is aways equal to fy On the other hand, the stress of compression steel (A’.) may either be f, or below f, This stress must aways be checked 'f the compression steel yields, then A’, = Asz, otherwise A's = Ax fff, where f, is the stress of compression steel and is given by the following equation (See derivation in Page 107)