Smart sensors

and actuators

massimo.manghisoni@unibg.it

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 dasapere
esam
Sensors
Definition: a sensor is a device which transforms
• a non-electrical physical quantity (i.e. temperature, sound, light, … ) Pq
GF sensors
T Eq
GE
into
• an electrical quantity (voltage [V], current [A], charge [C]) or
• a variation of an electrical parameter (resistance [Ω], capacitance [F], inductance [H])
The sensor is followed by a network for signal conditioning: it converts the Eq into a voltage, possibly with A-to-D
conversion (ADC)
Important parameters of a Sensors
Eq
GE Non-ideal
Reale

• Static response: how does it respond to slowly variable signals #$% theoutput Ideal
• Transfer function: relationship between Pq and Eq != at Idealeproportion
#&%
• Sensitivity (gain): derivative of Eq wrt Pq
• Dynamic response: how does it respond to quickly variable signals
gainsensitivity
• Frequency domain: bandwidth $% = '(&%)
• Time domain: response time (tr), time constant (ts)
• Environmental factors: how these factors are affecting transducer
performance (temperature, humidity…) equationsdependson the
natureof the senso Pq
GF
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 general block diagram

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Time domain

Pa S Eq
idealsituationwe havethe
same be
PaA Ega

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realsituation

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Frequency domain
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 MicroElectroMechanical
are not
Systems (MEMS)
it is
a complete part
because there onlythesensobutalso the partof conditioningnetwork
MEMS is the technology of micro-devices integrating
• Micro-machines (dimensions in the order of 20 *m to 1 mm) MEMS
element
and exploiting both ASIC
• Electrical (based on electrical charge movements) and
• Mechanical (based on mechanical movements) behaviors
into a complete
• System
PCB
Microsensors advantages: Bonding
wires
• High sensibility (gain) thanks to the greater area to volume
ratio with respect to bulky sensors https://www.bosch-mobility-solutions.com

• Reduced dimensions that allow for more portable and simple

measurements (e.g. for biomedical applications)
• Integration of the processing units (electronics) in the same
substrate of the sensor that provide a greater signal to noise
ratio (SNR)

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 MEMS sensor module
ASIC – An electronic circuit, that amplifies the
measuring signals of the MEMS chip, evaluates
them and issues a corresponding output signal
Printed circuit board (PCB) – Conducts the output
signals of the ASIC via internal conductive tracks
outwards or the supply voltage from outside to
inside.
MEMS element – Senses acceleration, pressure,
yaw rate or chemical parameters such as gases or
humidity, depending on the type of sensor. A
piezoresistive pressure sensor is shown in the
example
Bonding wires – Create the electrical connection
between the MEMS element and the evaluation
circuit (ASIC).
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 Types of MEMS devices
MEMS technology is based on silicon and took off when the integrated circuits (IC) industry was born in the ’70s,
with the aim of integrating in the same silicon substrate three types of devices:

Actuators
• aiming to perform a movement
• e.g. thermal actuators, capacitive actuators ...

Sensors
• providing an output which is a function of the environment
• e.g. accelerometers, barometers, acoustic sensors ...

Structures
• which respond to the external world without providing a signal
• e.g. gears, cantilevers, pivots, mirrors ...

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 Why silicon for MEMS?
Most of MEMS are manufactured with silicon, because:

• It is the material used to create most integrated circuits (ICs) used

in consumer electronics in the modern world
• The economies of scale, ready availability of cheap high-quality
materials and ability to incorporate electronic functionality make
silicon attractive for a wide variety of MEMS applications
• Good mechanical properties. In single crystal form, silicon is an
almost perfect Hookean material (there is virtually no hysteresis
when stressed). It can have service lifetimes in the range of
billions to trillions of cycles without breaking

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 Passive MEMS Manufacturing Process
Passive MEMS are manufactured by means of a lithography process
starting from a layered structure of
• photoresist layer 2 μm thick
• poly-silicon layer 0.5 μm thick
• silicon oxide (SiO2) lay 10 μm thick
• silicon substrate layer thicker (100 μm)
Lithography process consists of
• scanning a beam of electrons in a patterned fashion across the
surface covered with a film (called the photo-resist)
• selectively removing either exposed or non-exposed regions of
the resist
• Create very small structures in the resist that can subsequently
be transferred to the substrate material, often by etching
(commonly used also for manufacturing integrated circuits)
The thin polycrystalline silicon layers patterned act as movable
mechanical structures and are released by sacrificial etching of the
underlying oxide layer 7
Example of Lithographic Process steps
Deposition of layered structure (a)
(a)
• photoresist layer 2 μm thick
• poly-silicon layer 0.5 μm thick
• silicon oxide (SiO2) layer 10 μm thick
• silicon substrate layer thicker (100 μm)
(b)
Patterning (b)
• The photoresist layer is impressed (mask and UV ray exposition)
• The photoresist is removed
(c)
Etching
• The poly-silicon is removed where the etch must act (c)
• The silicon oxide layer is etched (d). The two main etching processes are:
• wet etching: material is dissolved when immersed in a chemical solution (d)
• dry etching: material is sputtered or dissolved using reactive ions or a
vapor phase etchant

The photoresist layer is removed with exposition to UV rays and a cantilever is (e)
obtained (e)
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MEMS
MEMS Sensors
Sensors applications
applications
Automotive
Growing Market for MEMS Motion Sensors
• Airbag systems
• Vehicle dynamics systems
• Active suspension systems
• Driver information systems
• Engine management systems

Electronics
• Inkjet printing methods
• Diagnostic (e.g. seismic sensors)
• Smartphones

Medical
• blood pressure monitoring
• devices for drug delivery
• Pacemaker

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 MEMS in Automotive
https://www.bosch-mobility-solutions.com/en/products-and-
services/industry-elements-and-components/mems-sensors/
Airbag systems
MEMS sensors detect abrupt vehicle deceleration. This
critical information is essential for the decision to
trigger the release of the vehicle’s airbags
Vehicle dynamics systems
MEMS sensors measure the vehicle rotation around the
vertical axis and the lateral acceleration to determine
the dynamic state of the vehicle
Active suspension systems
They are based on low-g MEMS acceleration sensors
that precisely record the dynamics of the chassis and
body even in harsh conditions
Driver information systems
Vehicle comfort features such as navigation, tilt or
inclination measurement, telematics systems, car key
modules, car alarm or eCall systems are a field of
application for MEMS sensors
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 MEMS in smartphones

MEMS Sensors
• STMicroelectronics LSM6DSM 6-Axis
MEMS Accelerometer & Gyroscope
• STMicroelectronics LPS22HC
MEMS Nano Pressure Sensor.

https://www.techinsights.com/blog/unexpected-design-wins-
huawei-mate-20-x-5g-teardown 11
 MEMS in smart watch

https://it.ifixit.com/Smontaggio/Fitbit+Sense+Teardown/137130
 MEMS in voice user interfaces (VUIs)

https://it.ifixit.com/Smontaggio/Amazon+Echo+Teardown/33953
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 Electro-thermal actuator
Geometry: It is a 'U' shaped structure that uses differential thermal
Foil thickness is ta=1 um expansion to achieve motion along the wafer surface
Lca=470 um • Thin arm is referred to as the hot arm
• Wide arm is often referred to as the cold arm
Wca=30 um

Motion
V Principle of operation
Wha=2 um • When a voltage (V) is applied to the terminals, current (I)
Lha=495 um flows through the device
• Because of the different widths, the current density is
/-. /3. unequal in the two arms
,-. = + ≪ ,3. = + • This leads to a different rate of Joule heating in the two
0-. 1 2. 03. 1 2.
arms, and thus to different amounts of thermal expansion
0-. = ,-. 1 4 5 ≪ 03. = ,3. 1 4 5

Voltage applied: V+ = 5 V
Electrical resistivity: +=2.3·10-5 Ω·m
Thermal conductivity: 150 W/(m·K) 80 um
Thermal expansion coefficient: 2.9·10-6 1/K
Young's modulus: 169 GPa, Poisson's ratio: 0.22. 14
 Accelerometer
An accelerometer is an electromechanical device that measures both
• static acceleration (gravity)
• dynamic acceleration (motion or vibration)
There are several different ways to make an accelerometer (all based on F=m·a)
• Piezo-electric effect: accelerometer contains microscopic crystal structures that get
stressed by accelerative forces, which causes a voltage to be generated
• Mass-spring damped system: accelerometer senses changes in capacitance.
Measurement choices
• Open loop: Measure change due to acceleration
• Closed loop: A disturbance in a position control system
Accelerometer types
• Quasi-static sensing
Measure displacement due to acceleration (used for Frequency of acceleration <<
Mechanical resonant frequency) Optical, Capacitive, Piezoresistive, Tunneling
• Resonant sensing
Measure change in resonant frequency due to position-dependent nonlinear spring
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Mass-spring damped system
Displacement and acceleration are coupled The equation that describes the motion of the mass in the
together by a fundamental scaling law simplified case of a uni-dimensional motion is the following:

In Laplace domain leads to the transfer function:

where is the resonance frequency of the system

• m is the mass
• b is the damping coefficient of the system
• k is the elastic stiffness of the spring is the quality factor of the system
• F is the external force: F=m*a
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Mass-spring damped system analysis

1 =
For lower frequencies (ω → 0) 7 2 → 51< = > 1< that is, the steady state of x
:; depends only on k and m

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MEMS mass-spring accelerometer
• A proof mass is free to move along the horizontal axis
Acceleration • Springs are represented by 4 arms
• Dumping is implemented electronically
• Capacitive comb (for displacement measurement)
• N fingers attached to the mobile mass
• Each one is interdigitated between 2 fingers external to the mass
• Each triad represents a single capacitive linear position transducer

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Parallel-plate capacitor
Voltage applied to a parallel-plate structure
A =B1C
C =$1#
E
B = ?D ?@
#

1 5
F= BC
2

?@

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 Capacitive accelerometer
The inertial mass displacement is measured by means of the two
capacitances between the movable plate of the mass and the two
external fixed plates
E E E
BH = ?D B5 = ?D BD = ?D
7H 75 #
If no acceleration is applied (at rest) x1=x2=d and C1=C2=Co
When an acceleration is applied, the inertial mass movement is
measured by means of a capacitive divider
E E
BH = ?D = ?D = BD − ∆B
7H #+7 • the displacement is proportional to the
E E capacitance variation
B5 = ?D = ?D = BD + ∆B • It is measured by applying an external
75 #−7
voltage
Where ∆C is defined as (with x small with respect to d)
#5 ∆B
B5 − BH 7 7 7≈ 1 ∆B = # 1
∆B = = ?D E 5 5
≈ ?D E 5 ?D E BD
2 # −7 #
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Capacitive accelerometer

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 MEMS in Automotive

https://www.bosch-mobility-solutions.com/en/products-and-services/industry-elements-and-components/mems-sensors/
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Gyroscope
• Gyroscope measures angular velocity
: in degrees/sec (dps)
• Critical for inertial measurements in
• ballistic missiles
• Aircrafts
• drones
• the mars rover
• pretty much anything that moves!
• Application fields
• Vibration monitoring
• Automotive (ESP)
• Image stabilizer
• Videogames

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 MEMS Gyroscope
yaw
MEMS gyroscope measures angular movement (pitch, roll, and yaw)
• In plane axis (pitch/roll, x/y): the axis along the sensor package surface
roll
• Out of plane axis (yaw, z): is the axis perpendicular to the sensor package surface
We can distinguish between 1D and 3D MEMS gyroscope
Principle of operation: based on the mechanical movement of the MEMS structure due to
the Coriolis force
pitch
Coriolis force is an inertial or fictitious force that acts on an object that is in motion within
a frame of reference that rotates with respect to an inertial frame
Explanation: consider a mass moving with velocity v (blue arrow) when an angular
movement : (red arrow) is applied the mass experiences a force F (orange arrow) in
the direction of the plane orthogonal to v and : as a result of the Coriolis effect
MN = = ON = −2= P×R
In a MEMS gyroscope
• the mass movement is obtained with micro-actuators
• the force results in a physical displacement that is read using a sensing interface
(same principle of accelerometer) 24
Sensing and actuation with MEMS
How to actuate movable structures (apply F) and sense the movement (detect x)?

Actuation
• Thermal: deformation generated by a
Temperature expansion in a bi-layer structures)
• Piezo-electric: deformation generated by a
Voltage applied to a piezo-electric material
• Capacitive: deformation generated by
Electrostatic force (Coulomb force)
Sensing
• Piezoresistive: Stress generates a Resistance
variation
• Piezoelectric: applied Force generates a Charge
in a piezo-electric material
• Capacitive: movement generates a Capacitance
variation

Capacitive sensing/actuation
• Parallel-plate structures
• Comb-finger structures

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Electrostatic actuation in MEMS
Coulomb’s Law: the force between two point Force of parallel-plate capacitor
charges placed at a distance d is given by If a parallel-plate capacitor is biased with a voltage V, the energy
1 %H 1 %5 stored in the plates is given by
SH = S5 = 1
4U?D #5
1 5 1 E 5 E
F= BC = ?D C where B = ?D
2 2 # #
The force of attraction between the plates is
d
#F 1 # 1 1 E 1 C5
S=− = − ?D EC 5 = ?D 5 C 5 = B
## 2 ## # 2 # 2 #
L Types of MEMS electrostatic actuators

H +
V
Force normal to plates
d
Force parallel to plates

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 Tunable capacitor with retrieval spring
Parallel-plate capacitor with The mechanical and the electrical forces are given by
• Fixed plate SVW- = 7 1 >
• Suspended plate connected to a spring
(with constant k)
1 E 5
SWX = ?D 5C
2 Y−7
The steady state condition is given by SWX = SVW-

SVW-
SWX

Two steady states are defined, a stable one and an unstable one!
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Voltage vs position
The bias voltage V* such that Fel=Fmec for a defined value of of the position x is given by

1 E
?D 5 C∗ 5 =71>
2 Y−7

2>
C∗ = 7 Y−7
?D E stable
unstable

2> 7 7
= 1 1−
?D E Y Y

C∗ 7 7 2>
= 1− CD =
CD Y Y ?D E
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Two couples of parallel plates

By establishing V1=V0 and V2=-V0

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MEMS Gyroscope with Comb fingers

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Gyroscope

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 Magnetometer
Device used to measure direction, strength or relative change of
the magnetic field in the vicinity of the instrument

The term magnetic field is used for two distinct but related vector fields:

• magnetic field strength (H) in [A/m]

• magnetic flux density (B) in [T] [ = *D \
In a vacuum, the two fields are related through the vacuum permeability (*O)
Magnetometers measure the Magnetic Flux Density (B) also named Megnetic Induction
Fields of application
• Compass to measure the Earth's magnetic field (20-60 *T or 200-600 mG (where 1 Gauss = 10-4 Tesla)
• Geophysical surveys, to detect magnetic anomalies of various types
• Aircraft attitude and heading reference system
• Military to detect submarines
• Metal detectors: they can detect only magnetic (ferrous) metals

MEMS magnetic field sensor: magnetometers have been miniaturized to the extent that they can be incorporated
in integrated circuits at very low cost and are finding increasing use as miniaturized compasses 32
 Lorentz-force based MEMS Magnetometer
Exploits the Lorentz force acting on one (or more) conductor carrying current

When a wire carrying an electric current is placed in a magnetic field, each of

the moving charges, which comprise the current, experiences the Lorentz
force, and together they can create a macroscopic force on the wire
(sometimes called the Laplace force):

S = 4/× [
where / is a vector whose magnitude is the length of wire, and whose
direction is along the wire, aligned with the direction of current charge flow I

In MEMS Magnetometer:
• the force generates the movement of a suspended mass
• The movement can be sensed in different ways
• Capacitive
• Piezoresistive
• Optical
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MEMS Magnetometer

F2 and F4 generates a momentum

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MEMS Magnetometer: capacitive sensing
E
BH = ?D
#D − ∆#
E
B5 = ?D
#D + ∆#
E
BD = ?D
#D
BH − B5
∆B = =
2

∆# ∆#
= ?D E 5 ≈ ?D E
#D − ∆#5 #D 5

Where ∆# ≪ #D

∆#
∆B = BD
#D
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MEMS Magnetometer

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Microphone
A microphone converts variations in sound pressure into corresponding variations in electric signal

• Amplitude of the ac signal generated by a mic is proportional to the intensity of the sound
• Frequency of the ac signal corresponds to the frequency of the sound
• Overtones present within the sound signal, also will be present in the electrical signal

Electronic Symbols

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MEMS Microphone
In MEMS microphones
the Sound pressure (PS) is converted into a Variation of
the Gap x (Δx) between
• a fixed electrode and
• a movable electrode suspended with springs
with respect to its steady-state value (x0)

The gap variation is sensed by measuring the change in

the capacitance between the two plates

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MEMS Microphone analog readout

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 MEMS Microphone digital readout

https://www.infineon.com/cms/en/product/sensor/mems-microphones/im69d120/
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 Typical applications
High quality audio capturing:
• Cameras
• Camcorders
• conference systems

Voice User Interface (VUI): See Slide 12

• smart speaker
• home automation
• IoT devices

Active noise cancellation:

• headphones
• Earphones

Industrial or home monitoring with audio

pattern detection: MEMS MIC
• predictive maintenance
• security or safety applications
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 MEMS Pressure sensor
Piezoresistive principle
Resistance variation due to stress

Applications:
• Wearable devices
• Altimeters and barometers for
portable devices
• Weather station equipment
• e-cigarettes
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 MEMS Pressure sensor example

https://www.st.com/resource/en/datasheet/lps33w.pdf
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Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU)
Inertial measurement unit (IMU) sensors are based on multiaxis combinations of
• precision gyroscopes
• Accelerometers
• Magnetometers
• and pressure sensors.

Example: neMEMSi
• Multi-sensor wireless AHRS platform:
• Ultra-low power 32bit ARM Cortex-M3
• Geomagnetic module, Gyro, Hygrometer, Barometer,
Temperature sensor, Microphone
• Wireless connectivity: Bluetooth V3.0
• Applications: navigation indoor systems, augmented reality, weather
forecast, environmental parameters monitoring
• 25 x14 mm² PCB form factor

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hQidXh_ohIU

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Slides download
You may find course material at the website

elearning2.unibg.it/ilias4
Password: bis2021

For further contacts

massimo.manghisoni@unibg.it

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