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Chem 111a
Chemistry for Engineers

University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines

Cagayan de Oro City
1st Semester SY 2019 - 2020

TOPIC 1: ENERGY AND CHEMISTRY

Energy Use and the World Economy

Visual representation of the pattern of energy production and use in the United States in 2007.

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Energy production and consumption (in quadrillion Btu) in the United States during the year 2007.

Visual summary of the generation and consumption of electricity in the United States during the year 2007.

U.S. consumption of energy from various sources (actual consumption for 1980–2007 and projected use for 2008–2030.

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Forms of Energy:
1) Potential Energy
2) Kinetic Energy
3) Internal Energy
4) Chemical Energy
5) Radiant Energy
Potential Energy
Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is energy an object possesses by
virtue of its motion:
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6) Mechanical Energy
7) Thermal Energy
8) Electrical Energy
9) Nuclear Energy
• Potential energy is energy
an object possesses by
virtue of its position or
chemical composition.
• The most important form
of potential energy in
molecules is electrostatic
potential energy, Eel:
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Internal Energy
The combined kinetic and potential energies of
the atoms and molecules that make up an object
constitute its Internal energy:

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Chemical Energy
Chemical energy is stored within the structural units
of chemical substances; its quantity is determined
by the type and arrangement of constituent atoms.
When substances participate in chemical reactions,
chemical energy is released, stored, or converted
to other forms of energy.

e.g. combustion, batteries,

photosynthesis, respiration

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Radiant Energy
Radiant energy is associated with light or
electromagnetic radiation. The radiant energy of the
Sun is ultimately responsible for the majority of
energy resources on this planet.

•Radiant includes:
- visible light
- x-rays
- gamma rays
- radio waves

•e.g. solar energy

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Mechanical Energy
Mechanical energy is
associated with the movement
of macroscopic objects.

• An object possessing
mechanical energy has
both kinetic and potential
energy, although the energy of
one of the forms may be equal
to zero.

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Thermal Energy
Thermal energy is the energy associated
with the random motion of atoms and
molecules.

•Thermal energy can be calculated from

temperature measurements. If the water in both beakers are at
100oC, which beaker has more thermal
energy?

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Electrical Energy
Electrical energy results from moving
charge—usually electrons in a metal.

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Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy
which can be
released in nuclear
fusion and fission
processes, is a form
of potential energy
associated with the
arrangement of
protons and neutrons
in atomic nuclei.

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• Energy is the capacity to do work or

transfer heat.
- Energy used to cause an object that has mass to
move is called work (w).

- Energy used to cause the temperature of an

object to rise is called heat (q).

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Work

• Energy used to move an

object over some
distance is work:
• w=Fxd
where w is work, F
is the force, and d is the
distance over
which the force is
exerted.
• w=mxaxd

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Heat

• Energy can also be

transferred as heat.
• Heat flows from
warmer objects to
cooler objects.

• is a process and not a

quantity.

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• Most common type of work in chemical processes:

- pressure-volume work (PV-work).

- e.g. combustion
Hydrocarbon + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(g)

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Units of Energy
• The SI unit of energy is the joule (J):

• An older, non-SI unit is still in widespread use, the calorie (cal):

1 cal = 4.184 J
(Note: this is not the same as the calorie of foods; the food
calorie is 1 kcal!)

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System and Surroundings

• The system includes the

molecules we want to study
(here, the hydrogen and
oxygen molecules).

• The surroundings are

everything else (here, the
cylinder and piston).

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Conversion of Energy
• Energy can be converted from one type to another.
• The cyclist has potential energy as she sits on top of the
hill.
• As she coasts down the hill, her potential energy is
converted to kinetic energy until the bottom, where the
energy is converted to kinetic energy.

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First Law of Thermodynamics

• Energy is neither created nor
destroyed.
• In other words, the total energy of the
universe is a constant; if the system
loses energy, it must be gained by the
surroundings, and vice versa.

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Changes in Internal Energy

• When energy is
exchanged between
the system and the
surroundings, it is
exchanged as either
heat (q) or work (w).
• That is, E = q + w.

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Example Problem 1:
PROBLEM: If 515 J of heat is added to a gas that does 218 J of work as a result,
what is the change in the energy of the system?

GIVEN: Heat added TO the system means that q > 0, so q = +515 J.

Work done BY the system means that w < 0, so w = –218 J.

SOLUTION: E = q + w
= 515 J + (–218 J)
= +297 J

ANSWER: E = 297 J

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The Law of Conservation of Energy

• change in the internal energy of the system is precisely
offset by a change in the surroundings:
ΔEsystem = - ΔEsurroundings
• Thus the energy of the universe remains constant.
ΔEuniverse = ΔEsurroundings + ΔEsystem = 0
• Energy can be transformed from one form to another
but cannot be created or destroyed (The First Law of
Thermodynamics)

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Typical efficiencies of some common energy conversion devices.

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The predicted efficiency gains by the year 2030 for various technologies.

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Heat Capacity and Specific Heat

• Specific heat capacity (or simply specific
heat)
• a physical property of a material that
measures how much heat is required
to raise the temperature of one gram
of that material by 1 K (1oC).
q = mcΔT

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Heat Capacity and Specific Heat

• Molar heat capacity
• physical property that describes how much heat is
required to raise the temperature of one mole of a
substance by 1 K (1oC).

q = nCp ΔT
(The subscript p on Cp indicates that this is the heat capacity at
constant pressure. Under other conditions, such as constant volume,
the value of the heat capacity may differ slightly.)

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Specific heat and molar heat capacities for some common substances

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Example Problem 2:
PROBLEM: Heating a 24.0-g aluminum can raise its temperature by 15.0°C.
Find the value of q for the can.

GIVEN: m = 24.0 g
ΔT = 15.0°C
c = 0.900 J/g °C (Based on the Specific Heat Table)

SOLUTION: q = mcΔT
=

= 324 J

ANSWER: q = 324 J

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Example Problem 3:
PROBLEM: The molar heat capacity of liquid water is 75.3 J/mol K. If 37.5 g of
water is cooled from 42.0 to 7.0°C, what is q for the water?

GIVEN: m = 37.5 g
T1 = 42°C; T2 = 7.0°C (Therefore: ΔT = -35.0°C)
Cp = 75.3 J/mol

SOLUTION: Convert the amount from grams to moles (MW of H2O = 18 g/mole)
q = nCp ΔT
=

= –5.49 × 103 = -5.49 KJ

ANSWER: q = -5.49 KJ

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Example Problem 4:
PROBLEM: A glass contains 250.0 g of warm water at 78.0°C. A piece of gold at
2.30°C is placed in the water. The final temperature reached by this
system is 76.9°C. What was the mass of gold? The specific heat of
water is 4.184 J/g °C, and that of gold is 0.129 J/g °C.

GIVEN: mwater = 250.0 g

ΔTwater = 76.9°C – 78.0°C = -1.1°C
cwater = 4.184 J/g °C
ΔTgold = 76.9°C – 2.30°C = -74.6°C
cgold = 0.129 J/g °C

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Example Problem 4:
SOLUTION: Assume that heat flows only between the gold and the water, with no heat lost
to or gained from the glass or the surroundings. Then the heats must balance;
the heat gained by the gold was lost by the water.

Rearrange:

ANSWER: mgold = 120 g

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Calorimetry
• used to measure the amount of heat
involved in a chemical or physical
process.
• used to measure amounts of heat
transferred to or from a substance.

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• The instrument used to

measure heat flow is called a
calorimeter.
•The walls of the calorimeter
are insulated to block heat
flow between the reaction
and the surroundings
•The heat flow for the system
is equal in magnitude and
opposite in sign from the heat
flow of the calorimeter

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Two-step process to make a calorimetric measurement:

1. Calibration in which a known amount of heat is generated

in the apparatus.
• The calibration can be done either by burning a known
amount of a well-characterized material or by resistive
heating, in which a known amount of current is passed
through a wire that heats due to its electrical resistance.

2. The actual measurement, in which the amount of heat

absorbed or released in the reaction of a known amount
of material is determined.

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The heat capacity of the entire calorimeter may be

obtained by measuring the change in temperature of the
surroundings resulting from a known heat input.

Known amount of heat = calorimeter constant × ΔT

or

q = Ccalorimeter × ΔT

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Example Problem 5:
PROBLEM: A calorimeter is to be used to compare the energy content of some
fuels. In the calibration of the calorimeter, an electrical resistance
heater supplies 100.0 J of heat and a temperature increase of
0.850°C is observed. Then 0.245 g of a particular fuel is burned in
this same calorimeter, and the temperature increases by 5.23°C.
Calculate the energy density of this fuel, which is the amount of
energy liberated per gram of fuel burned.

GIVEN: Calibration:
q = 100 J; ΔT = 0.850°C
Determination of heat evolved by fuel (actual measurement):
ΔT = 5.23°C
mass of fuel burned = 0.245 g

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Example Problem 5:
SOLUTION:

ANSWER: Energy density = 2.51 kJ/g

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Enthalpy
• If a process takes place at constant pressure (as the
majority of processes we study do) and the only work
done is this pressure–volume work, we can account for
heat flow during the process by measuring the
enthalpy of the system.
• Enthalpy is the internal energy plus the product of
pressure and volume:

H = E + PV

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Enthalpy

• When the system changes at constant pressure,

the change in enthalpy, H, is
H = (E + PV)

• This can be written

H = E + PV

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Enthalpy
• Since E = q + w and w = −PV, we can substitute
these into the enthalpy expression:
H = E + PV
H = (q + w) − w
H = q
• So, at constant pressure, the change in enthalpy is
the heat gained or lost.

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Endothermic and Exothermic

• A process is
endothermic when
H is positive.

• A process is
exothermic when
H is negative.

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H of Phase Changes

H = n x Hphase change
• n is the number of moles
• phase changes occur at a
constant temperature so
there is no  T in the
transition

Microscopic level views of solid, liquid, and gas

phases are shown, along with the terms commonly
used for the possible transitions among these phases.

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H of Phase Changes

Standard molar enthalpies and temperatures for phase changes of water

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Example Problem 6:
PROBLEM: Calculate the enthalpy change when 240 g of ice melts.

GIVEN: Hfusion= 6009.5 J/mol (Based on the Table of Standard molar enthalpies
and temperatures for phase changes of water)
m = 240 g

SOLUTION:

ANSWER: H = 8.01 x 104 J

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Vaporization and Electricity Production

The figure shows how the temperature of a 500-g sample of H2O varies as it absorbs heat. Here we begin with
ice at –50°C. In the segment of the graph marked (1), the temperature of the ice rises until it reaches the melting
point at 0°C. In region (2), ice melts at a constant temperature of 0°C until it is converted into liquid. In region
(3), only liquid water is present, and its temperature rises until it reaches the boiling point at 100°C. In region (4),
the water boils at a constant temperature of 100°C until it is converted into steam. Finally, in region (5), the
resulting steam continues to absorb heat, and its temperature rises.

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Vaporization and Electricity Production

The important elements of a

standard electric power plant
are shown in this schematic
diagram. The process exploits
the large heat of vaporization
of water.

Thermochemical Equations
• A thermochemical equation is a balanced equation that includes the enthalpy
change of the reaction (∆H).
• The enthalpy change of any process has two aspects:

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Thermochemical Equations

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Thermochemical Equations

The relationship between amount (mol) of substance and the

energy (kJ) transferred as heat during a reaction.

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Thermochemical Equations
• A thermochemical equation is a chemical equation with the
ΔH for the reaction included

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Conventions for Thermochemical Equations

1. The sign of ΔH indicates whether the reaction is

endothermic or exothermic
2. The coefficients of the thermochemical equation represent
the number of moles of reactant and product
3. The phases of all reactant and product species must be
stated
4. The value of ΔH applies when products and reactants
are at the same temperature, usually 25 °C

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Rules of Thermochemistry

1. The magnitude of ΔH is directly proportional to the

amount of reactant or product
2. ΔH for the reaction is equal in magnitude but opposite in
sign for ΔH for the reverse of the reaction
3. The value of ΔH is the same whether the reaction occurs in
one step or as a series of steps
This rule is a direct consequence of the fact that
ΔH is a state variable
This rule is a statement of Hess’s Law

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Hess’s Law

“the enthalpy change of an overall process is the sum of the

enthalpy changes of its individual steps”

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Hess’s Law

Conceptual diagram representing Hess’s law.

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Hess’s Law

Enthalpy diagram for the combustion of methane.

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Example Problem 7:
PROBLEM: Sulfur trioxide reacts with water to form sulfuric acid, a major contributor to
acid rain. One origin of SO3 is the combustion of sulfur, which is present in
small quantities in coal, according to the following equation.

Given the thermochemical information below, determine the heat

of reaction for this reaction.
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2 (g) H° = –296.8 kJ
2 SO2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2 SO3(g) H° = –197.0 kJ
GIVEN: Reactants:
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2 (g) H° = –296.8 kJ
2 SO2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2 SO3(g) H° = –197.0 kJ
Product:

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Example Problem 7:
SOLUTION:

ANSWER:

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Formation Reactions and Hess’s Law

Step 1: Decomposition of reactants into
elements in their standard states. But this
is just the opposite of the formation
reaction of the reactants, so the enthalpy
change of the process is –Hf°(reactants).
Step 2: Formation of the products from
elements in their standard states, has an
enthalpy change of Hf°(products).
Conceptual diagram on how to use
tabulated enthalpies of formation to
calculate the enthalpy change for a
chemical reaction.

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Example Problem 8:
PROBLEM: Use tabulated data to find the heat of combustion of one mole of
propane, C3H8, to form gaseous carbon dioxide and liquid water.

GIVEN: Based on Appendix E (SELECTED THERMODYNAMIC DATA AT 298.15 K)

Products:
Hf° (CO2) = –393.5 kJ/mol
Hf° (H2O) = –197.0 kJ/mol
Reactants:
Hf° (C3H8) = –285.8 kJ/mol
Hf° (O2) = –103.8 kJ/mol

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Example Problem 8:
SOLUTION:

ANSWER: H° = -2219.9 kJ

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Example Problem 9:
PROBLEM: Ethanol, C2H5OH, is used to introduce oxygen into some blends of
gasoline. It has a heat of combustion of 1366.8 kJ/mol. What is the
heat of formation of ethanol?

GIVEN:

Based on Appendix E (SELECTED THERMODYNAMIC DATA AT 298.15 K)

Products:
Hf° (CO2) = –393.5 kJ/mol
Hf° (H2O) = –197.0 kJ/mol
Reactants:
Hf° (O2) = –103.8 kJ/mol

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Example Problem 9:
SOLUTION:

ANSWER: Hf° [C2H5OH(ℓ)] = -277.6 kJ

Energy and Stoichiometry

Sequence of steps needed to calculate the amount of energy released or absorbed

when a chemical reaction is carried out using a given amount of material.

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Example Problem 10:

PROBLEM: An engine generates 15.7 g of nitric oxide gas during a laboratory test.
How much heat was absorbed in producing this NO?

GIVEN: Based on Appendix E (SELECTED THERMODYNAMIC DATA AT 298.15 K)

H (NO) = 90.25 kJ/mol
m (NO) = 15.7 g
SOLUTION:

ANSWER: 47.2 kJ
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Energy Density and Fuels

• Energy density, the amount of energy that can be released per gram of
fuel burned.

• Positive factors for petroleum use:

(1) It is a liquid, which makes it easy to transport and deliver to the
customer.
(2) It is relatively safe. Explosions can occur, but they are preventable
using designs that have a modest cost.
(3) The products of its combustion are gases. Where a liquid fuel is
easy to transport, gaseous combustion products are easy to
dispose of.
(4) It has a high energy density.

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Energy densities for a few possible fuels

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Batteries
• A battery is really a cleverly
engineered application of a redox
reaction (involve the transfer of
electrons from one species to
another).

• Successful battery design requires

that electrons flow through an
external circuit as they are transferred
from one reacting species to another.

• In a standard alkaline battery, the

important chemical reaction is:

Construction of a typical alkaline battery.

Batteries
• Batteries are sometimes classified as either “primary” or “secondary.”
• A primary battery such as the typical alkaline cell becomes useless once the
underlying chemical reaction has run its course. The lifetime of the battery is
determined by the amounts of reactants present, so a relatively large D-cell
would last longer than a small AA-cell in the same application. The battery
dies when the reactants have been converted into products, bringing the
reaction to a halt.
• A secondary battery is one that can be recharged, allowing for a much longer
life cycle. To make a rechargeable battery, we must be able to reverse the
redox reaction, converting the products back into reactants. Because we
know that the cell reaction must be exothermic to supply energy, we can also
see that the reverse reaction must be endothermic.

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Comparison of some characteristics of common primary and rechargeable battery types

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Example Problem 11:

PROBLEM: During the nuclear reactor accident at Three Mile Island in 1979, an
unknown mass of fuel pellets melted, allowing some of the fuel
material to fall into water at the bottom of the reactor. Assume that
the melting fuel pellets were pure UO2 and had resolidified and cooled
to 900°C before reaching the water. Further assume that the water
was initially at 8°C and that sensors indicated the final temperature of
the water was 85°C.

(a) What information would you have to look up to determine the

mass of fuel pellets that fell into the water?
(b) What would you have to know to use this information to
determine the percentage of the fuel that melted in the
accident? How would you calculate the percentage?

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Example Problem 11:

STRATEGY:
(a) The first question that must be addressed is, “What sources of heat raised the
temperature of the water?” Were the fuel pellets the only thing that melted?
Because we have no other information, we will assume that the only important heat
flow was between the pellets and the water. If that were not true, then we would
need to account for other materials in our handling of this problem. If the assumption
turns out to be incorrect, we will overestimate the amount of fuel that melted in the
accident. Once we have made the assumption that the melted fuel is the only source
of heat for the water, we would set up a heat balance between the water and the fuel
pellets. Thus
qpellets = –qwater
and
(mcT )pellets = –(mcT )water
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Example Problem 11:

STRATEGY:
(a) We can see there are six possible variables in this equation. Which do we know and
which can be looked up? Both T values are known. The initial temperatures of both the
water and the fuel pellets were given in the problem and both share the final temperature
of 85°C. The specific heat (c) is not given for either the water or the fuel pellets. This is
information that must be looked up, but it should be available from standard reference
sources. That leaves the two masses, and clearly the goal of the exercise is to find the
mass of the melted fuel pellets. But we don’t know the mass of the water involved,
either. So either we must find some way to look up this value or we must make a
reasonable estimate.
(b) This part of the question assumes that we can find the mass from part (a). If that’s true,
then we would need to know the total mass of fuel pellets initially present. This number
must be looked up or estimated based on some reliable information.

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Example Problem 11:

ANSWER :
(a) We would have to look up the heat capacity of water and fuel pellets and the mass
of water in the reactor (initially at 8°C) to be able to answer this question.
(b) The percentage melted can be calculated using the equation,

Here we are assuming that we have obtained values for both the mass melted and
the total mass of fuel pellets. We should also keep in mind that our result will only
be as good as the assumption that the melted fuel was the sole source of heat for
the water.

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PRIMARY REFERENCE
L. S. Brown & T. A. Holme. Chemistry for Engineering Students.

OTHER REFERENCES
W.L. Masterton & C. N. Hurley. Chemistry :Principles and Reactions.

M.S. Silberberg. Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change.

T.L. Brown, et. al. Chemistry: T h e C e n t r a l S c i e n c e.

M. S. Silberberg. Principles of General Chemistry.

R. Chang. Chemistry.

Edward J. Neth. Chapter 8: Thermochemistry [Powerpoint slides].

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