Complete-Head Merged

Complete Head-to-Toe Physical
Assessment Cheat Sheet

Nursing assessment is an important step of the whole nursing process. Assessment can be
called the “base or foundation” of the nursing process. With a weak or incorrect assessment,
nurses can create an incorrect nursing diagnosis and plans therefore creating wrong
interventions and evaluation. To prevent those kind of scenarios, we have created a cheat
sheet that you can print and use to guide you throughout the first step of the nursing process.
Integument
 Skin: The client’s skin is uniform in color, unblemished and no presence of any foul
odor. He has a good skin turgor and skin’s temperature is within normal limit.
 Hair: The hair of the client is thick, silky hair is evenly distributed and has a variable
amount of body hair. There are also no signs of infection and infestation observed.
 Nails: The client has a light brown nails and has the shape of convex curve. It is
smooth and is intact with the epidermis. When nails pressed between the fingers
(Blanch Test), the nails return to usual color in less than 4 seconds.
Head
 Head: The head of the client is rounded; normocephalic and symmetrical.

 Skull: There are no nodules or masses and depressions when palpated.
 Face: The face of the client appeared smooth and has uniform consistency and with
no presence of nodules or masses.
Eyes and Vision
 Eyebrows: Hair is evenly distributed. The client’s eyebrows are symmetrically aligned
and showed equal movement when asked to raise and lower eyebrows.
 Eyelashes: Eyelashes appeared to be equally distributed and curled slightly outward.
 Eyelids: There were no presence of discharges, no discoloration and lids close
symmetrically with involuntary blinks approximately 15-20 times per minute.
 Eyes
o The Bulbar conjunctiva appeared transparent with few capillaries evident.
o The sclera appeared white.
o The palpebral conjunctiva appeared shiny, smooth and pink.
o There is no edema or tearing of the lacrimal gland.
o Cornea is transparent, smooth and shiny and the details of the iris are
visible. The client blinks when the cornea was touched.
o The pupils of the eyes are black and equal in size. The iris is flat and round.
PERRLA (pupils equally round respond to light accommodation),
illuminated and non-illuminated pupils constricts. Pupils constrict when
looking at near object and dilate at far object. Pupils converge when
object is moved towards the nose.
o When assessing the peripheral visual field, the client can see objects in the
periphery when looking straight ahead.
o When testing for the Extraocular Muscle, both eyes of the client
coordinately moved in unison with parallel alignment.
o The client was able to read the newsprint held at a distance of 14 inches.
Ears and Hearing
 Ears: The Auricles are symmetrical and has the same color with his facial skin. The
auricles are aligned with the outer canthus of eye. When palpating for the texture,
the auricles are mobile, firm and not tender. The pinna recoils when folded. During
the assessment of Watch tick test, the client was able to hear ticking in both ears.
Nose and Sinus
 Nose: The nose appeared symmetric, straight and uniform in color. There was no
presence of discharge or flaring. When lightly palpated, there were no tenderness
and lesions
 Mouth:
o The lips of the client are uniformly pink; moist, symmetric and have a
smooth texture. The client was able to purse his lips when asked to
whistle.
o Teeth and Gums: There are no discoloration of the enamels, no retraction
of gums, pinkish in color of gums
o The buccal mucosa of the client appeared as uniformly pink; moist, soft,
glistening and with elastic texture.
o The tongue of the client is centrally positioned. It is pink in color, moist
and slightly rough. There is a presence of thin whitish coating.
o The smooth palates are light pink and smooth while the hard palate has a
more irregular texture.
o The uvula of the client is positioned in the midline of the soft palate.
 Neck:
o The neck muscles are equal in size. The client showed coordinated,
smooth head movement with no discomfort.
o The lymph nodes of the client are not palpable.
o The trachea is placed in the midline of the neck.
o The thyroid gland is not visible on inspection and the glands ascend during
swallowing but are not visible.
Thorax, Lungs, and Abdomen
 Lungs / Chest: The chest wall is intact with no tenderness and masses. There’s a full
and symmetric expansion and the thumbs separate 2-3 cm during
deep inspiration when assessing for the respiratory excursion. The client manifested
quiet, rhythmic and effortless respirations.
 The spine is vertically aligned. The right and left shoulders and hips are of the same
height.
 Heart: There were no visible pulsations on the aortic and pulmonic areas. There is no
presence of heaves or lifts.
 Abdomen: The abdomen of the client has an unblemished skin and is uniform in
color. The abdomen has a symmetric contour. There were symmetric movements
caused associated with client’s respiration.
o The jugular veins are not visible.
o When nails pressed between the fingers (Blanch Test), the nails return to
usual color in less than 4 seconds.
Extremities
 The extremities are symmetrical in size and length.

 Muscles: The muscles are not palpable with the absence of tremors. They are
normally firm and showed smooth, coordinated movements.
 Bones: There were no presence of bone deformities, tenderness and swelling.
 Joints: There were no swelling, tenderness and joints move smoothly.
Nursing Assessment in Tabular Form

Assessment Findings
Integumentary
When skin is pinched it goes to previous state

immediately (2 seconds).
 Skin
With fair complexion.
With dry skin
Evenly distributed hair.
 Hair With short, black and shiny hair.
With presence of pediculosis Capitis.
Smooth and has intact epidermis
With short and clean fingernails and toenails.
 Nails
Convex and with good capillary refill time of 2
seconds.
Rounded, normocephalic and symmetrical,
Skull smooth and has uniform consistency.Absence of
nodules or masses.
Symmetrical facial movement, palpebral fissures
Face
equal in size, symmetric nasolabial folds.
Eyes and Vision
Hair evenly distributed with skin intact.
 Eyebrows Eyebrows are symmetrically aligned and have
equal movement.
 Eyelashes Equally distributed and curled slightly outward.
Skin intact with no discharges and no
 Eyelids discoloration.
Lids close symmetrically and blinks involuntary.
Assessment Findings
 Bulbar conjunctiva Transparent with capillaries slightly visible

 Palpebral Conjunctiva Shiny, smooth, pink
 Sclera Appears white.
 Lacrimal gland, Lacrimal sac, No edema or tenderness over the lacrimal gland
Nasolacrimal duct and no tearing.
Cornea
Transparent, smooth and shiny upon inspection by
the use of a penlight which is held in an oblique
 Clarity and texture angle of the eye and moving the light slowly across
the eye.
Has [brown] eyes.
Blinks when the cornea is touched through a
 Corneal sensitivity
cotton wisp from the back of the client.
Black, equal in size with consensual and direct
reaction, pupils equally rounded and reactive to
light and accommodation, pupils constrict when
Pupils
looking at near objects, dilates at far objects,
converge when object is moved toward the nose
at four inches distance and by using penlight.
When looking straight ahead, the client can see
objects at the periphery which is done by having
the client sit directly facing the nurse at a distance
of 2-3 feet.
Visual Fields
The right eye is covered with a card and asked to
look directly at the student nurse’s nose. Hold
penlight in the periphery and ask the client when
the moving object is spotted.
Able to identify letter/read in the newsprints at a
distance of fourteen inches.
Visual Acuity
Patient was able to read the newsprint at a
distance of 8 inches.
Ear and Hearing
Color of the auricles is same as facial skin,
symmetrical, auricle is aligned with the outer
 Auricles
canthus of the eye, mobile, firm, non-tender, and
pinna recoils after it is being folded.
 External Ear Canal Without impacted cerumen.
Assessment Findings
 Hearing Acuity Test Voice sound audible.

Able to hear ticking on right ear at a distance of
 Watch Tick Test one inch and was able to hear the ticking on the
left ear at the same distance
Nose and sinuses
Symmetric and straight, no flaring, uniform in
 External Nose color, air moves freely as the clients breathes
through the nares.
Mucosa is pink, no lesions and nasal septum intact
 Nasal Cavity
and in middle with no tenderness.
Symmetrical, pale lips, brown gums and able to
Mouth and Oropharynx
purse lips.
 Teeth With dental caries and decayed lower molars
Central position, pink but with whitish coating
 Tongue and floor of the mouth which is normal, with veins prominent in the floor
of the mouth.
Moves when asked to move without difficulty and
 Tongue movement
without tenderness upon palpation.
Uvula Positioned midline of soft palate.
Present which is elicited through the use of a
Gag Reflex
tongue depressor.
Positioned at the midline without tenderness and
Neck
flexes easily. No masses palpated.
Coordinated, smooth movement with no
Head movement discomfort, head laterally flexes, head laterally
rotates and hyperextends.
Muscle strength With equal strength
Lymph Nodes Non-palpable, non tender
Not visible on inspection, glands ascend but not
 Thyroid Gland visible in female during swallowing and visible in
males.
Thorax and lungs
Posterior thorax Chest symmetrical
Spine vertically aligned, spinal column is straight,
 Spinal alignment
left and right shoulders and hips are at the same
Assessment Findings
height.
Breath Sounds With normal breath sounds without dyspnea.
 Anterior Thorax Quiet, rhythmic and effortless respiration
Unblemished skin, uniform in color, symmetric
Abdomen
contour, not distended.
Abdominal movements Symmetrical movements cause by respirations.
 Auscultation of bowel sounds With audible sounds of 23 bowel sounds/minute.
Upper Extremities Without scars and lesions on both extremities.
Lower Extremities With minimal scars on lower extremities
Equal in size both sides of the body, smooth
Muscles coordinated movements, 100% of normal full
movement against gravity and full resistance.
Bones and Joints No deformities or swelling, joints move smoothly.
Mental Status
Language Can express oneself by speech or sign.
Orientation Oriented to a person, place, date or time.
Able to concentrate as evidence by answering the
Attention span
questions appropriately.
A total of 15 points indicative of complete
Level of Consciousness
orientation and alertness.
Motor Function
Gross Motor and Balance
Has upright posture and steady gait with opposing
 Walking gait
arm swing unaided and maintaining balance.
Standing on one foot with eyes closed Maintained stance for at least five (5) seconds.
Heel toe walking Maintains a heel toe walking along a straight line
Toe or heel walking Able to walk several steps in toes/heels.
Fine motor test for Upper Extremities
Finger to nose test Repeatedly and rhythmically touches the nose.
Alternating supination and pronation of hands on Can alternately supinate and pronate hands at
knees rapid pace.
Finger to nose and to the nurse’s finger Perform with coordinating and rapidity.
Fingers to fingers Perform with accuracy and rapidity.
Assessment Findings
Rapidly touches each finger to thumb with each

Fingers to thumb
hand.
Fine motor test for the Lower Extremities
Able to discriminate between sharp and dull
Pain sensation
sensation when touched with needle and cotton.
Note: These were taken on the internet. Credits to the rightful owner
https://nurseslabs.com/nursing-assessment-cheat-sheet/
PHYSICAL ASSESSMENT EXAMINATION STUDY GUIDE
Nursing Assessment
1. Part of Nursing Process
2. Nurses use physical assessment skills to:
a) Obtain baseline data and expand the data base from which subsequent phases of the
nursing process can evolve
b) To identify and manage a variety of patient problems (actual and potential)
c) Evaluate the effectiveness of nursing care
d) Enhance the nurse-patient relationship
e) Make clinical judgments
Gathering Data
Subjective data - Said by the client (S)
Objective data - Observed by the nurse (O)
Document: SOAPIER
Assessment Techniques:
The order of techniques is as follows (Inspect – Palpation – Percussion - Auscultation) except for the
abdomen which is Inspect – Auscultation – Percuss – Palpate.
A. Inspection – critical observation *always first*

1. Take time to “observe” with eyes, ears, nose (all senses)
2. Use good lighting
3. Look at color, shape, symmetry, position
4. Observe for odors from skin, breath, wound
5. Develop and use nursing instincts
6. Inspection is done alone and in combination with other assessment techniques
B. Palpation – light and deep touch

1. Back of hand (dorsal aspect) to assess skin temperature
2. Fingers to assess texture, moisture, areas of tenderness
3. Assess size, shape, and consistency of lesions and organs
4. Deep = 5-8 cm (2-3”) deep; Light = 1 cm deep
C. Percussion – sounds produced by striking body surface

1. Produces different notes depending on underlying mass (dull, resonant, flat, tympanic)
2. Used to determine size and shape of underlying structures by establishing their borders and
indicates if tissue is air-filled, fluid-filled, or solid
3. Action is performed in the wrist.
D. Auscultation – listening to sounds produced by the body

1. Direct auscultation – sounds are audible without stethoscope
2. Indirect auscultation – uses stethoscope
3. Know how to use stethoscope properly [practice skill]
4. Fine-tune your ears to pick up subtle changes [practice skill]
5. Describe sound characteristics (frequency, pitch intensity, duration, quality) [practice skill]
6. Flat diaphragm picks up high-pitched respiratory sounds best.
7. Bell picks up low pitched sounds such as heart murmurs.
8. Practice using BOTH diaphragms
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Adapted from the Kentucky Public Health Practice Reference, 2008 and
Jarvis, C, (2011). Physical examination & health assessment. (6th Ed). Elsevier: St. Louis.MO.
by Wright State University on May 28, 2012 for the NLN Assessment Exam for Credit by Exam Test Out – updated November 2012
General Assessment
A general survey is an overall review or first impression a nurse has of a person’s well being. This is
done head to toe, or cephalo-caudal, lateral to lateral, proximal to distal, and front to back. General
surveying is visual observation and encompasses the following.
Appearance appears to be reported age;

sexual development appropriate;
alert & oriented;
facial features symmetric;
no signs of acute distress
Body structure/mobility weight and height within normal range (refer to Center for Disease Control
and Prevention (CDC) Body Mass Index (BMI) [adult] or BMI-for-age and
gender forms [children]);
body parts equal bilaterally;
stands erect,
sits comfortably;
gait is coordinated;
walk is smooth and well balanced;
full mobility of joints
Behavior maintains eye contact with appropriate expressions;
comfortable and cooperative;
speech clear;
clothing appropriate to climate;
looks clean and fit;
appears clean and well-groomed
Deviations from what would generally be considered to be normal or expected should be documented
and may require further evaluation or action, including a report and/or referral.
Standardized and routine screening such as audiometric screening, scoliosis and vision screening
using the Snellen Test are usually discussed in General Survey areas.
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Health History
A patient history should be done as indicated by the age specific prevention guidelines, usually set forth
by Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), American Medical Association, American
Association of Pediatrics, and National Association of Pediatric Nurse Practitioners. The Healthy
People website (www.healthypeople.gov) provides an excellent source to determine benchmarks for
healthy living across the life span.
A comprehensive history, including chief complaint or reason for the visit, a complete review of
systems, and a complete past family and/or social history should be obtained on the first encounter with
a patient, regardless of setting and by a registered nurse. The history should be age and sex
appropriate and include all the necessary questions to enable an adequate delivery of services
according to prevention guidelines, scope of practice, patient need, visit requirement, and/or request.
Usually, completing a provider based Health History and Physical Examination Form will assist in the
assessment of the patient’s past and current health and behavior risk status. Certain health problems,
which may be identified on a health history, are more common in specific age groups and gender.
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An interval history (including an update of complaints, reason for visit, review of systems and past
family and/or social history) should be done. Usually family health histories are completed across three
generations looking specifically for patterns in genetic issues that negatively impact quality of life.
The health history gives picture of the patient’s current health and behavior risk status. Additional
information than what is on a form may be required depending on the specialized service(s) to be
provided or if the person presents with special needs or conditions. So a health history maybe may be
problem focused, expanded problem focused, detailed, or comprehensive. Regardless, documentation
must be completed for each visit and/or assessment.
Mental status evaluation may be done while doing health history (see neuro review).
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Physical Examination
A comprehensive physical examination should be performed according to age specific preventive
health guidelines. American Medical Association clinical practice guidelines recognize the following
body areas and organ systems for purpose of the examination:
◊ Body Areas: Head (including the face); Neck; Chest (including breasts and axillae); Abdomen;
genitalia, groin, buttocks; Back (including spine); and each extremity.
◊ Organ Systems: Constitutional (vital signs, general appearance), Eyes, Ear, Nose, Throat;
Cardiovascular; Gastrointestinal; Genitourinary; Musculoskeletal; Dermatological; Neurological;
Psychiatric; Hematological/lymphatic/immunological
◊ Integumentary: Both overall body and organ systems should have skin assessments integrated
into them. Integument includes skin, hair and nails.
Normal and abnormal findings should be recorded on a health history and physical examination form.
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Measurements
Body measurements include length or height, weight, and head circumference for children from birth to
36 months of age. Thereafter, body measurements include height and weight. The assessment of
hearing, speech and vision are also measurements of an individual’s function in these areas. The
Denver Development Screening Test measures an infant’s and young child’s gross motor, language,
fine motor-adaptive and personal-social development milestones. If developmental delay is suspected
based on an assessment of a parent’s development/behavior concern or if delays are suspected after a
screening of development benchmarks, a written referral is to a physician or pediatric nurse practitioner
is imperative.
A patient’s measurements can be compared with a standard, expected, or predictable measurement for
age and gender. Deviation from standards helps identify significant conditions requiring close
monitoring or referral to a physician or pediatric nurse practitioner.
The significance of measurements and actions to take when they deviate from normal expectations are
age-specific.
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How to measure Height:

1. Obtain height by measuring the recumbent length of children less than 2 years of age and
children between 2 and 3 who cannot stand unassisted. A measuring board with a stationary
headboard and a sliding vertical foot piece is ideal, but a tape measure can also be used.
a) Lay the child flat against the center of the board. The head should be held against the
headboard by the parent or an assistant and the knees held so that the hips and knees are
extended. The foot piece is moved until it is firmly against the child’s heels. Read and
record the measurement to the nearest 1/8 inch.
b) A modified technique in home settings is to lay the child flat and straight where the head
should be held by the parent and the knees held so that the hips and knees are extended,
mark the flat surface at the top of the head and tip of the heels. Move child and measure
the distance between the marks with a tape measure. Read and record the measurement
to the nearest 1/8 inch.
2. When a recumbent length is obtained for a two year old, it should be plotted on the birth to 36
months growth chart. When a standing height is obtained for a two year old, plot the finding on
the 2 year to 18 year chart. After plotting measurements for children on age and gender
specific growth charts, evaluate, educate and refer according to findings.
3. Obtain a standing height on children greater than 2 to 3 years of age, adolescents, and adults,
using a portable stadiometer. The patient is to be wearing only socks or be bare foot. Have
the patient stand with head, shoulder blades, buttocks, and heels touching the wall. The knees
are to be straight and feet flat on the floor, and the patient is asked to look straight ahead. The
flat surface of the stadiometer is lowered until it touches the crown of the head, compress the
hair. A measuring rod attached to a weight scale should not be used.
Measuring weight:
1. Balance beam or digital scales should be used to weigh patients of all ages. Spring type
scales are not acceptable. CDC recommends that all scales should be zero balanced and
calibrated. Scales must be checked for accuracy on an annual basis and calibrated in
accordance with manufacturer’s instructions.
2. Prior to obtaining weight measurements, make sure the scale is “zeroed”.
3. Weigh infants wearing only a dry diaper or light undergarments. Weigh children after removing
outer clothing and shoes. Weigh adolescents and adults with the patient wearing minimal
clothing.
4. Place the patient in the middle of the scale. Read the measurement and record results
immediately. Plot measurements on age and gender specific growth charts and evaluate
accordingly
Measuring Body Mass Index.
1. The Body Mass Index (BMI) is a measure that can help determine if a person is at risk for a
weight-related illness.
2. Instructions for obtaining the BMI are included within the chart in this section for adults. To
calculate BMI for children, see BMI Tables for Children and Adolescents for guidance.
Measuring Head and Chest Circumference.
1. Obtain head circumference measurement on children from birth to 36 months of age by
extending a non-stretchable measuring tape around the broadest part of the child’s head.
For greatest accuracy, the tape is placed three times, with a reading taken at the right side, at
the left side, and at the mid-forehead, and the greatest circumference is plotted. The tape
should be pulled to adequately compress the hair.
2. Head circumference should be measured each visit.
3. Chest: This is measured at the nipple line.
4. In a newborn, the head circumference will be about 2 cm larger than the chest circumference. As
the child ages, the chest circumference becomes larger than the head circumference.
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Vital Signs
Vital signs, generally described as the measurement of temperature, pulse, respirations and blood
pressure, give an immediate picture of a person’s current state of health and well being. Normal and
abnormal ranges with management guidelines follow for children and adults.
Equipment Needed
1. Stethoscope
2. Blood Pressure Cuff
3. Watch Displaying Seconds
4. Thermometer
General Considerations
1. The patient should not have had alcohol, tobacco, caffeine, or performed vigorous exercise
within 30 minutes of the exam.
2. Ideally the patient should be sitting with feet on the floor and their back supported. The
examination room should be quiet and the patient comfortable.
3. History of hypertension, slow or rapid pulse, and current medications should always be
obtained.
A. Temperature
1. Temperature can be measured is several different ways:
a) Oral with a glass, paper, or electronic thermometer (normal 98.6F/37C)
b) Axillary with a glass or electronic thermometer (normal 97.6F/36.3C)
c) Rectal or "core" with a glass or electronic thermometer (normal 99.6F/37.7C)
d) Aural (the ear) with an electronic thermometer (normal 99.6F/37.7C)
2. Of these, axillary is the least and rectal is the most accurate.
3. Use back of hand (dorsal aspect) to assess skin temperature
B. Respiration
1. Best done immediately after taking the patient's pulse. Do not announce that you are measuring
respirations
2. Without letting go of the patients wrist begin to observe the patient's breathing. Is it normal or
labored?
3. Count breaths for 15 seconds and multiply this number by 4 to yield the breaths per minute.
4. In adults, normal resting respiratory rate is between 14-20 breaths/minute.
5. Rapid respiration is called tachypnea.
C. Pulse – see also Cardiovascular Exam

1. Sit or stand facing your patient.
2. Grasp the patient's wrist with your free (non-watch bearing) hand (patient's right with your right
or patient's left with your left). There is no reason for the patient's arm to be in an awkward
position, just imagine you're shaking hands.
3. Compress the radial artery with your index and middle fingers.
4. Count the pulse for 15 seconds and multiply by 4.
5. Always count for a full minute if the pulse is irregular.
6. Record the rate and rhythm
Note whether the pulse is regular or irregular:
Regular - evenly spaced beats, may vary slightly with respiration
Regularly Irregular - regular pattern overall with "skipped" beats
Irregularly Irregular - chaotic, no real pattern, very difficult to measure rate accurately
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Interpretation
1. A normal adult heart rate is between 60 and 100 beats per minute (see below for children).
2. A pulse greater than 100 beats/minute is defined to be tachycardia. A pulse less than 60
beats/minute is defined to be bradycardia.
3. Tachycardia and bradycardia are not necessarily abnormal. Athletes tend to be bradycardic at
rest (superior conditioning). Tachycardia is a normal response to stress or exercise.
D. Blood Pressure – see also Cardiovascular Exam

Blood pressure (BP) is the pressure by circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels. Arterial refers
systemic circulation. During each heartbeat, blood pressure varies between a maximum systolic and a
minimum diastolic pressure. The blood pressure in the circulation is principally due to the pumping
action of the heart. Differences in mean blood pressure are responsible for blood flow from one location
to another during circulation. The rate of mean blood flow depends on the resistance to flow presented
by the blood vessels. Mean blood pressure decreases as the circulating blood moves away from the
heart through arteries, capillaries and veins due to viscous losses of energy. Mean blood pressure
drops over the whole circulation, although most of the fall occurs along the small arteries and arterioles.
Gravity affects blood pressure via hydrostatic forces (e.g., during standing) and valves in veins,
breathing, and pumping from contraction of skeletal muscles also influence blood pressure in veins.
The measurement blood pressure without further specification usually refers to the systemic arterial
pressure measured at a person's upper arm and is a measure of the pressure in the brachial artery,
major artery in the upper arm. A person’s blood pressure is usually expressed in terms of the systolic
pressure over diastolic pressure and is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg).
To measure Blood Pressure
The patient should not have eaten, smoked, taken caffeine, or engaged in vigorous exercise within
the last 30 minutes. The room should be quiet and the patient comfortable.
1. Position the patient's arm so the antecubital fold is level with the heart.
2. Center the bladder of the cuff over the brachial artery approximately 2 cm above the antecubital
fold. Proper cuff size is essential to obtain an accurate reading. Be sure the index line falls
between the size marks when you apply the cuff. Position the patient's arm so it is slightly flexed
at the elbow.
3. Palpate the radial pulse and inflate the cuff until the pulse disappears. This is a rough estimate
of the systolic pressure.
4. Place the stethoscope over the brachial artery.
5. Inflate the cuff 20 to 30 mmHg above the estimated systolic pressure.
6. Release the pressure slowly, no greater than 5 mmHg per second.
7. The level at which you consistently hear beats is the systolic pressure
8. Continue to lower the pressure until the sounds muffle and disappear. This is the diastolic
pressure.
9. Record the blood pressure as systolic over diastolic (120/70).
Interpretation
1. Higher blood pressures are normal during exertion or other stress. Systolic blood pressures
below 80 may be a sign of serious illness or shock.
2. Blood pressure should be taken in both arms on the first encounter. If there is more than 10
mmHg difference between the two arms, use the arm with the higher reading for subsequent
measurements.
3. Always recheck "unexpected" blood pressures yourself.
4. It is frequently helpful to retake the blood pressure near the end of the visit. Earlier pressures
may be higher due to the "white coat" effect.
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In children, pulse and blood pressure vary with the age. The following table should serve as a rough
guide:
Average Pulse and Blood Pressure in Normal Children

Age Birth 6mo 1yr 2yr 6yr 8yr 10yr
Pulse 140 130 115 110 103 100 95
Systolic BP 70 90 90 92 95 100 105
Blood Pressure Classification in Adults

Category Systolic Diastolic
Normal <130 <85
High Normal 130-139 85-89
Mild Hypertension 140-159 90-99
Moderate Hypertension 160-179 100-109
Severe Hypertension 180-209 110-119
Crisis Hypertension >210 >120
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The Physical Exam

A. Skin
B. Head and Neck Exam; Lymphatic Exam
C. Eye Exam
D. Chest and Lung Exam
E. Cardiovascular Exam and Peripheral vascular System
F. Abdominal Exam
G. Musculoskeletal Exam
H. Neurologic Exam
I. Genito-Urinary
A. Examination of Skin
1. Inspect: skin color and uniformity of color, moisture, hair pattern, rashes, lesions, pallor, edema
2. Palpate: temperature, turgor, lesions, edema, texture
3. Percussion and auscultation: rarely used on skin
4. Terminology: pallor, cyanosis, edema, ecchymosis, macule, papule, cyanosis, jaundice, types
of edema, vitiligo, hirsutism, alopecia, etc.
5. Pale, cool, moist skin can be indicative of heat stroke, shock or other cardiac complications.
6. There are abnormal and normal skin findings (such as nevus)
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B. Examination of the Head and Neck
Equipment Needed
1. Otoscope
2. Tongue blades
3. Cotton tipped applicators
4. Non-latex exam gloves
The head and neck exam is not a single, fixed sequence. The assessment varies depending on the
examiner and the situation.
Head
1. Look for scars, lumps, rashes, hair loss, or other lesions.
2. Look for facial asymmetry, involuntary movements, or edema.
3. Palpate to identify any areas of tenderness or deformity.
Fontanels in a newborn - toddler:

1. Posterior fontanel – triangle shaped; closes 1-2 months
2. Anterior fontanel – diamond shaped; closes at 9 months – 2 years
Page 8 of 35
Ears - See also notes under Cranial Nerves for other assessments related to ears and hearing
1. Inspect the auricles and move them around gently. Ask the patient if this is painful.
2. Palpate the mastoid process for tenderness or deformity.
3. Assess ears using otoscope:
a) Hold the otoscope upside down with your thumb and fingers so that the ulnar aspect of your
hand makes contact with the patient.
b) For adults, pull the ear upwards and backwards to straighten the canal.
c) PEDIATRICS: For children pull the ear down and back.
d) Use the largest speculum that will fit comfortably.
e) Inspect the ear canal and middle ear structures noting any redness, drainage, or deformity.
f) Insufflate the ear and watch for movement of the tympanic membrane.
g) Repeat for the other ear.
4. Normal color of eardrum: shiny translucent, pearly gray.
5. Abnormal findings:
a) erythema – suppurative Otitis Media. purulent drainage.
b) Dull, nontransparent gray – serous otitis media with effusion
6. Conductive hearing loss is due to mechanical dysfunction of inner or middle ear.
7. Sensory-neural loss is due to pathological problem of inner ear, CNS or cerebral cortex.
8. In older adults, there may be some normal high-tone hearing loss.
Nose and sinuses

It is often convenient to examine the nose immediately after the ears using the same speculum.
1. Tilt the patient's head back slightly. Ask them to hold their breath for the next few seconds.
2. Insert the otoscope into the nostril, avoiding contact with the septum.
3. Inspect the visible nasal structures and note any swelling, redness, drainage, or deformity.
4. Repeat for the other side.
5. Turbinates should be pink and moist
6. Frontal sinuses are below eyebrows
7. Maxillary sinuses are below zygomatic arch
Mouth and Throat

It is often convenient to examine the throat using the otoscope with the speculum removed.
1. Ask the patient to open their mouth.
2. Using a wooden tongue blade and a good light source, inspect the inside of the patients mouth
including the buccal folds and under the tongue. Note any ulcers, white patches (leukoplakia), or
other lesions.
3. If abnormalities are discovered, use a gloved finger to palpate the anterior structures and floor
of the mouth.
4. Inspect the posterior oropharynx by depressing the tongue and asking the patient to say "Ah."
Note any tonsillar enlargement, redness, or discharge.
5. Hard palate is located in the anterior part of the mouth. It is made of bone and is pale or whitish.
6. Soft plate is located in the posterior part of the mouth. It is softer, more mobile and pink in color.
Neck
1. Inspect the neck for asymmetry, scars, or other lesions.
2. Palpate the neck to detect areas of tenderness, deformity, or masses.
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Lymph Nodes
1. Systematically palpate with the pads of your index and middle fingers for the various lymph
node groups.
2. Preauricular - In front of the ear
3. Postauricular - Behind the ear
4. Occipital - At the base of the skull
5. Tonsillar - At the angle of the jaw
6. Submandibular - Under the jaw on the side
7. Submental - Under the jaw in the midline
8. Superficial (Anterior) Cervical - Over and in front of the
sternomastoid muscle
9. Supraclavicular - In the angle of the sternomastoid and the
clavicle
10. The deep cervical chain of lymph nodes lies below the
sternomastoid and cannot be palpated without getting
underneath the muscle. Inform the patient that this procedure
will cause some discomfort.
11. Hook your fingers under the anterior edge of the sternomastoid
muscle.
12. Ask the patient to bend their neck toward the side you are examining.
13. Move the muscle backward and palpate for the deep nodes underneath.
14. Note the size and location of any palpable nodes and whether they were soft or hard, non-
tender or tender, and mobile or fixed
Thyroid Gland
1. Inspect the neck looking for the thyroid gland. Note whether it is visible and symmetrical. A
visibly enlarged thyroid gland is called a goiter.
2. One way to look is to have person swallow sip of water; the thyroid gland will move upward with
a swallow.
3. Move to a position behind the patient. Have the patient tilt head slightly to right.
4. Identify the cricoid cartilage with the fingers of both hands.
5. Move downward two or three tracheal rings while palpating for the isthmus.
6. Move laterally from the midline while palpating for the lobes of the thyroid.
7. Note the size, symmetry, and position of the lobes, as well as the presence of any nodules. The
normal gland is often not palpable.
Special Tests
A. Facial Tenderness
1. Ask the patient to tell you if these maneuvers cause excessive discomfort or pain.
2. Press upward under both eyebrows with your thumbs. (frontal sinus)
3. Press upward under both maxilla with your thumbs. (maxillary sinus)
4. Excessive discomfort on one side or significant pain suggests sinusitis.
B. Sinus Transillumination
1. Darken the room as much as possible.
2. Place a bright otoscope or other point light source on the maxilla.
3. Ask the patient to open their mouth and look for an orange glow on the hard palate.
4. A decreased or absent glow suggests that the sinus is filled with something other than air.
5. Not always definitive of disease process.
Page 10 of 35
C. Temporomandibular Joint
1. Place the tips of your index fingers directly in front of the tragus of each ear.
2. Ask the patient to open and close their mouth.
3. Note any decreased range of motion, tenderness, or swelling.
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C. Examination of the Eye - see also Cranial Nerve II, III, IV, V
Equipment Needed
• Snellen Eye Chart or Rosenbaum Pocket Vision Card
• Ophthalmoscope
Visual Acuity
In cases of eye pain, injury, or visual loss, always check visual acuity before proceeding with the rest of
the exam or putting medications in your patients eyes.
1. Allow the patient to use their glasses or contact lens if available. You are interested in the
patient's best corrected vision.
2. Position the patient 20 feet in front of the Snellen eye chart (or hold a Rosenbaum pocket card
at a 14 inch "reading" distance).
3. Have the patient cover one eye at a time with an opaque card.
4. Ask the patient to read progressively smaller letters until they can go no further.
5. Record the smallest line the patient read successfully (20/20, 20/30, etc.)
6. Repeat with the other eye.
Unexpected/unexplained loss of acuity is a sign of serious ocular pathology.
Inspection
1. Observe the patient for ptosis, exophthalmos, lesions, deformities, or asymmetry.
2. Ask the patient to look up and pull down both lower eyelids to inspect the conjunctiva and
sclera.
3. Next spread each eye open with your thumb and index finger. Ask the patient to look to each
side and downward to expose the entire bulbar surface.
4. Note any discoloration, redness, discharge, or lesions. Note any deformity of the iris or lesion
cornea.
5. If you suspect the patient has conjunctivitis, be sure to wash your hands immediately. Viral
conjunctivitis is very contagious, so protect your self!
Visual Fields - Screen Visual Fields by Confrontation

1. Stand two feet in front of the patient and have them look into your eyes.
2. Hold your hands to the side half way between you and the patient.
3. Wiggle the fingers on one hand.
4. Ask the patient to indicate which side they see your fingers move.
5. Repeat two or three times to test both temporal fields.
6. If an abnormality is suspected, test the four quadrants of each eye while asking the patient to
cover the opposite eye with a card.
Extraocular Muscles
A. Corneal Reflections
1. Shine a light from directly in front of the patient.
2. The corneal reflections should be centered over the pupils.
3. Asymmetry suggests extraocular muscle pathology.
Page 11 of 35
B. Extraocular Movement (EOM)

1. Stand or sit 3 to 6 feet in front of the patient.
2. Ask the patient to follow your finger with their eyes without moving their head.
3. Check gaze in the six cardinal directions using a cross or "H" pattern.
4. Check convergence by moving your finger toward the bridge of the patient's nose.
5. Pause during upward and lateral gaze to check for nystagmus (involuntary eye movement which
differs in each eye).
6. Tests CN 3, 4, and 6
C. Pupillary Reactions
1. PERRLA is a common abbreviation that stands for "Pupils Equal Round Reactive to Light and
Accommodation." The use of this term is so routine that it is often used incorrectly. If you did not
specifically check the accommodation reaction use the term PERRL.
2. Look for direct and consensual responses. In a normal response, the eye which the light is
shined has pupillary constriction (direct reflex) AND the other pupil also constricts (indirect or
consensual reflex). An abnormal response (no pupillary constriction) can help to localize the
lesion, particularly when interpreted with the result of vision testing. While observing the
pupillary light response one should also check that the pupils are the same size.
3. Light
a) Dim the room lights as necessary.
b) Ask the patient to look into the distance.
c) Shine a bright light obliquely into each pupil in turn.
d) Look for both the direct (same eye) and consensual (other eye) reactions.
e) Record pupil size in mm and any asymmetry or irregularity.
4. Accommodation
If the pupillary reactions to light are diminished or absent, check the reaction to accommodation
(near reaction):
a) Hold your finger about 10cm from the patient's nose.
b) Ask them to alternate looking into the distance and at your finger.
c) Observe the pupillary response in each eye.
Ophthalmoscopic Exam
1. Darken the room as much as possible.
2. Adjust the ophthalmoscope so that the light is no brighter than
necessary. Adjust the aperture to a plain white circle. Set the diopter dial
to zero unless you have determined a better setting for your eyes.
3. Use your left hand and left eye to examine the patient's left eye. Use your right hand and right
eye to examine the patient's right eye. Place your free hand on the patient's shoulder for better
control.
4. Ask the patient to stare at a point on the wall or corner of the room.
5. Look through the ophthalmoscope and shine the light into the patient's eye from about two feet
away. You should see the retina as a "red reflex." Follow the red color to move within a few
inches of the patient's eye.
6. Adjust the diopter dial to bring the retina into focus. Find a blood
vessel and follow it to the optic disk. Use this as a point of reference.
7. Inspect outward from the optic disk in at least four quadrants and note
any abnormalities.
8. Move nasally from the disk to observe the macula.
9. Repeat for the other eye.
10. Normal color should be creamy yellow-orange to pink.
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Notes
1. Visual acuity is reported as a pair of numbers (20/20) where the first number is how far the
patient is from the chart and the second number is the distance from which the "normal" eye can
read a line of letters. For example, 20/40 means that at 20 feet the patient can only read letters
a "normal" person can read from twice that distance.
2. You may, instead of wiggling a finger, raise one or two fingers (unilaterally or bilaterally) and
have the patient state how many fingers (total, both sides) they see. To test for neglect, on
some trials wiggle your right and left fingers simultaneously. The patient should see movement
in both hands.
3. Diopters are used to measure the power of a lens. The ophthalmoscope actually has a series of
small lens of different strengths on a wheel (positive diopters are labeled in green, negative in
red). When you focus on the retina you "dial-in" the correct number of diopters to compensate
for both the patient's and your own vision.
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D. Examination of the Chest and Lungs
Equipment Needed
• Stethoscope
• Peak Flow Meter
1. The patient must be properly undressed and gowned for this examination.
2. Ideally the patient should be sitting on the end of an exam table.
3. The examination room must be quiet to perform adequate percussion and auscultation.
4. Observe the patient for general signs of respiratory disease (finger clubbing, cyanosis, air
hunger, etc.).
5. Try to visualize the underlying anatomy as you examine the patient.
Inspection
1. Observe the rate, rhythm, depth, and effort of breathing. Note whether the expiratory phase is
prolonged.
2. Listen for obvious abnormal sounds with breathing such as wheezes.
3. Observe for retractions and use of accessory muscles (sternomastoids, abdominals).
4. Observe the chest for asymmetry, deformity, or increased anterior-posterior (AP) diameter.
5. Confirm that the trachea is near the midline
6. A-P (anterior-posterior) diameter vs. transverse diameter
a) A-P should be less than Transverse in adults; 1:2 – 5:7
b) Elevated A-P size = barrel chest, may be COPD in adult; normal in children
Palpation
1. Identify any areas of tenderness or deformity by palpating the ribs and sternum.
2. Assess expansion and symmetry of the chest by placing your hands on the patient's back,
thumbs together at the midline, and ask them to breathe deeply.
3. Check for tactile fremitus. (process page 16)
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Percussion
Proper Technique
1. Hyperextend the middle finger of one hand and place the distal
interphalangeal joint firmly against the patient's chest.
2. With the end (not the pad) of the opposite middle finger, use a quick
flick of the wrist to strike first finger.
3. Categorize what you hear as normal, dull, or hyperresonant.
4. Practice your technique until you can consistently produce a "normal"
percussion note on your (presumably normal) partner before you work
with patients.
Diaphragmatic Excursion
1. Find the level of the diaphragmatic dullness on both sides.
2. Ask the patient to inspire deeply.
3. The level of dullness (diaphragmatic excursion) should go down 3-5 m symmetrically.
Posterior Chest Anterior Chest
Anterior Chest
1. Percuss from side to side and top to bottom using the pattern shown in the illustration.
2. Compare one side to the other looking for asymmetry.
3. Note the location and quality of the percussion sounds you hear.
Posterior Chest
1. Percuss from side to side and top to bottom using the pattern shown in the illustration. Omit the
areas covered by the scapulae.
3. Note the location and quality of the percussion sounds you hear.
4. Find the level of the diaphragmatic dullness on both sides.
Interpretation
Percussion Notes and Their Meaning
Flat or Dull Pleural Effusion or Lobar Pneumonia
Normal Healthy Lung or Bronchitis
Hyperresonant Emphysema or Pneumothorax
Page 14 of 35
Auscultation
Use the diaphragm of the stethoscope to auscultate breath sounds.
Posterior Chest
1. Auscultate from side to side and top to bottom using the pattern shown in the illustration. Omit the
areas covered by the scapulae.
3. Note the location and quality of the sounds you hear.
Anterior Chest
1. Auscultate from side to side and top to bottom using the pattern shown in the illustration.
3. Note the location and quality of the sounds you hear.
Interpretation
Breath sounds are produced by turbulent air flow. They are categorized by the size of the airways that
transmit them to the chest wall (and your stethoscope). The general rule is, the larger the airway, the
louder and higher pitched the sound.
c) Vesicular breath sounds are low pitched and normally heard over most lung fields.
d) Tracheal breath sounds are heard over the trachea.
e) Bronchovesicular and bronchial sounds are heard in between. Inspiration is normally longer
than expiration (I > E).
1. Breath sounds are decreased when normal lung is displaced by air (emphysema or
pneumothorax) or fluid (pleural effusion).
2. Breath sounds shift from vesicular to bronchial when there is fluid in the lung itself
(pneumonia).
3. Extra sounds that originate in the lungs and airways are referred to as "adventitious" and are
always abnormal (but not always significant).
Adventitious (Extra) Breath Sounds

Crackles These are high pitched, discontinuous sounds similar to the sound produced by rubbing
your hair between your fingers. (Also known as Rales)
Wheezes These are generally high pitched and "musical" in quality. Stridor is an inspiratory wheeze
associated with upper airway obstruction (croup).
Rhonchi These often have a "snoring" or "gurgling" quality. Any extra sound that is not a crackle or
a wheeze is probably a rhonchi. Low pitched.
Special Tests
A. Peak Flow Monitoring
Peak flow meters are inexpensive, hand-held devices used to monitor pulmonary function in
patients with asthma. The peak flow roughly correlates with the FEV1
1. Ask the patient to take a deep breath.
2. Then ask them to exhale as fast as they can through the peak flow meter.
3. Repeat the measurement 3 times and report the average.
Page 15 of 35
B. Voice Transmission Tests

These tests are only used in special situations. This part of the physical exam has largely been
replaced by the chest x-ray. All these tests become abnormal when the lungs become filled with
fluid (referred to as consolidation).
C. Tactile Fremitus
1. Ask the patient to say "ninety-nine" several times in a normal voice
2. Palpate using the ball of your hand.
3. You should feel the vibrations transmitted through the airways to the lung.
4. Increased tactile fremitus suggests consolidation of the underlying lung tissues.
D. Bronchophony
1. Ask the patient to say "ninety-nine" several times in a normal voice.
2. Auscultate several symmetrical areas over each lung.
3. The sounds you hear should be muffled and indistinct. Louder, clearer sounds are called
bronchophony.
E. Whispered Pectoriloquy
1. Ask the patient to whisper "ninety-nine" several times.
3. You should hear only faint sounds or nothing at all. If you hear the sounds clearly this is referred
to as whispered pectoriloquy.
F. Egophony
1. Ask the patient to say "ee" continuously.
3. You should hear a muffled "ee" sound. If you hear an "ay" sound this is referred to as "E -> A" or
egophony.
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E. Cardiovascular Examination and Peripheral Vascular System
1. The patient must be properly undressed and in a gown for this examination.
2. The examination room must be quiet to perform adequate auscultation.
3. Observe the patient for general signs of cardiovascular disease (finger clubbing, cyanosis,
edema, etc.).
Pulses – see vital signs for radial pulse standards; Apical and others described below
1. Check the radial pulses on both sides. If the radial pulse is absent or weak, check the brachial
pulses.
2. Check the posterior tibia and dorsalis pedis pulses on both sides. If these pulses are absent or
weak, check the popliteal and femoral pulses.
3. Location of pulses
a) Carotid – neck
b) Brachial – upper arm
c) Radial – wrist
d) Femoral – groin
e) Popliteal – behind knee
f) Posterior tibial – back of leg near Achilles tendon
g) Dorsalis pedis (pedal) – top of foot. Requires light touch
Page 16 of 35
4. Grading force of pulse

0 absent
1+ weak, thready
2+ normal
3+ increased, full, bounding
Blood Pressure – see vital signs (Blood pressure for process and interpretation)
Pulse pressure: difference between the systolic and diastolic blood pressure reading.
Amplitude and Contour (Carotid)

1. Observe for carotid pulsations.
2. Place your fingers behind the patient's neck and compress the carotid artery on one side with
your thumb at or below the level of the cricoid cartilage. Press firmly but not to the point of
discomfort.
3. Assess the following:
a. The amplitude of the pulse.
b. The contour of the pulse wave.
c. Variations in amplitude from beat to beat or with respiration.
4. Repeat on the opposite side.
Auscultation for Bruits (Carotids)

If the patient is late middle aged or older, you should auscultate for bruits. A bruit is often, but not
always, a sign of arterial narrowing and risk of a stroke.
1. Place the bell of the stethoscope over each carotid artery in turn. You may use the diaphragm if
the patient's neck is highly contoured.
2. Ask the patient to inhale deep breath then exhale and hold momentarily.
3. Listen for a blowing or rushing sound--a bruit. Do not be confused by heart sounds or murmurs
transmitted from the chest.
Jugular Venous Pressure

1. Position the patient supine with the head of the table elevated 30 degrees.
2. Use tangential, side lighting to observe for venous pulsations in the neck.
3. Look for a rapid, double (sometimes triple) wave with each heart beat. Use light pressure just
above the sternal end of the clavicle to eliminate the pulsations and rule out a carotid origin.
4. Adjust the angle of table elevation to bring out the venous pulsation.
5. Identify the highest point of pulsation. Using a horizontal line from this point, measure vertically
from the sternal angle.
6. This measurement should be less than 4 cm in a normal healthy adult.
Precordial Movement
1. Position the patient supine with the head of the table slightly elevated.
2. Always examine from the patient's right side.
3. Inspect for precordial movement. Tangential lighting will make movements more visible.
4. Palpate for precordial activity in general. You may feel "extras" such as thrills or exaggerated
ventricular impulses.
5. Palpate for the point of maximal impulse (PMI or apical pulse). It is normally located in the 4th or
5th intercostal space just medial to the midclavicular line and is less than the size of a quarter.
6. Note the location, size, and quality of the impulse.
Page 17 of 35
Capillary Refill
1. Press down firmly on the patient's finger or toe nail so it blanches.
2. Release the pressure and observe how long it takes the nail bed to "pink" up.
3. Capillary refill times greater than 2 to 3 seconds suggest peripheral vascular disease, arterial
blockage, heart failure, or shock.
Auscultation
1. Position the patient supine with the head of the table slightly elevated.
2. Always examine from the patient's right side. A quiet room is essential.
3. Listen with the diaphragm at the right 2nd interspace near the sternum (aortic area).
4. Listen with the diaphragm at the left 2nd interspace near the sternum (pulmonic area).
5. Listen with the diaphragm at the left 3rd, 4th, and 5th interspaces near the sternum (tricuspid
area).
6. Listen with the diaphragm at the apex (PMI) (mitral area).
7. Listen with the bell at the apex.
8. Listen with the bell at the left 4th and 5th interspace near the sternum
9. Have the patient roll on their left side. Listen with the bell at the apex. This position brings out
S3, S4 and mitral murmurs.
10. Have the patient sit up, lean forward, and hold their breath in exhalation. Listen with the
diaphragm at the left 3rd and 4th interspace near the sternum. This position brings out aortic
murmurs.
11. Record S1, S2, (S3), (S4), as well as the grade and configuration of any murmurs ("two over
six" or "2/6", "pansystolic" or "crescendo").
Heart sounds
S1: normal: closure AV, start systole, heard all over, loudest apex
S2: normal: closure of semilunar valves, end systole, all over but loudest base, “dub”
S3: extra heart sounds: vibrations that come from filling ventricles, start diastolic usually; audible in
children, young adults, pregnant women – otherwise may be indicative of disease
S4: extra heart sounds: end of diastolic, vibrations; usually abnormal to hear – may be indicative of
disease
Page 18 of 35
Murmurs
1. Grade i-ii functional systolic murmurs are common in young children and resolve with age
2. Auscultate for blowing, swishing sound.
3. Some are ‘innocent” murmurs, but most are indicative of disease.
4. Murmurs are graded. A grade “2” murmur would be rated ii/vi.
Grade Description
i Barely audible. Heard only if room silent and then still hard to hear
ii Clearly audible, but faint
iii Moderately loud, easy to hear
iv Loud, associated with thrill on chest wall
v Very loud, can hear with edge of stethoscope off chest
vi Loudest, can hear with entire stethoscope off chest wall
Edema, Cyanosis, and Clubbing

1. Check for the presence of edema (swelling) of the feet and lower legs.
2. Check for the presence of cyanosis (blue color) of the feet or hands.
3. Check for the presence of clubbing of the fingers.
a) Normal = 160 degrees
b) Curved = 160 degrees or less
c) Early clubbing = 180 degrees
Pitting edema:
Scale Level of pitting Indentation Swelling of leg
1+ Mild Slight Not noticeable
2+ moderate Subsides rapidly
3+ Deep Remains for short time Leg looks swollen
4+ Very deep Remains for long time Grossly swollen and misshapen
Lymphatics
1. Check for the presence of epitrochlear lymph nodes. (antecubital)
2. Check for the presence of axillary lymph nodes. (breast and arm)
3. Check for the presence of inguinal lymph nodes. (groin)
4. PEDIATRICS: to assess lymph nodes in younger children, tilt head slightly to check neck nodes.
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Page 19 of 35
F. Examination of the Abdomen

Equipment Needed
 Stethoscope
1. When assessing start in RLQ over ileocecal valve
2. The patient should have an empty bladder.
3. The patient should be lying supine on the exam table and appropriately draped.
4. The examination room must be quiet to perform adequate auscultation and percussion.
5. Watch the patient's face for signs of discomfort during the
examination.
6. Use the appropriate terminology to locate your findings:
a) Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)
b) Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)
c) Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)
d) Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)
e) Midline: Epigastric
f) Periumbilical
g) Suprapubic
Notes
1. Disorders in the chest will often manifest with abdominal symptoms. It is always wise to
examine the chest when evaluating an abdominal complaint.
2. Consider the inguinal/rectal examination in males.
3. Consider the pelvic/rectal examination in females.
Inspection
1. Look for scars, striae, hernias, vascular changes, lesions, or rashes.
2. Look for movement associated with peristalsis or pulsations.
3. Note the abdominal contour. Is it flat, scaphoid, or protuberant?
4. Contour in newborn is normally protuberant and soft
5. Contour in child is normally symmetric and slightly rounded
Auscultation
1. Place the diaphragm of your stethoscope lightly on the abdomen.
2. Listen for bowel sounds. Are they normal, increased, decreased, or
absent? Borborygmus = “growling”
3. Listen for bruits over the renal arteries, iliac arteries, and aorta.
Percussion
1. Percuss in all four quadrants (clockwise) using proper technique: Inspect – Auscultation –
Percuss – Palpate.
2. Categorize what you hear as tympanic or dull. Tympany is normally present over most of the
abdomen in the supine position. Unusual dullness may be a clue to an underlying abdominal
mass or full bladder.
Page 20 of 35
Liver Span
1. Percuss downward from the chest in the right midclavicular
line until you detect the top edge of liver dullness.
2. Percuss upward from the abdomen in the same line until you
detect the bottom edge of liver dullness.
3. Measure the liver span between these two points. This
measurement should be 6-12 cm in a normal adult.
Splenic Dullness
1. Percuss the lowest costal interspace in the left anterior axillary
line. This area is normally tympanic.
2. Ask the patient to take a deep breath and percuss this area again.
Dullness in this area is a sign of splenic enlargement.
Palpation
General Palpation
1. Begin with light palpation (1cm deep). At this point you are
mostly looking for areas of tenderness. The most sensitive
indicator of tenderness is the patient's facial expression (so watch the patient's face, not your
hands). Voluntary or involuntary guarding may also be present.
2. Proceed to deep palpation (5-8 cm deep) after surveying the abdomen lightly. Try to identify
abdominal masses or areas of deep tenderness.
Palpation of the Liver

Standard Method
1. Place your fingers just below the right costal margin and press firmly.
3. You may feel the edge of the liver press against your fingers. Or it may
slide under your hand as the patient exhales. A normal liver is not
tender.
4. Usual location is about 1-2 cm. below right costal margin.
Alternate Method
This method is useful when the patient is obese or when the examiner is small
compared to the patient.
1. Stand by the patient's chest.
2. "Hook" your fingers just below the costal margin and press firmly.
4. You may feel the edge of the liver press against your fingers.
Palpation of the Aorta

1. Press down deeply in the midline above the umbilicus.
2. The aortic pulsation is easily felt on most individuals.
3. A well defined, pulsatile mass, greater than 3 cm across, suggests an aortic aneurysm.
Palpation of the Spleen

1. Use your left hand to lift the lower rib cage and flank.
2. Press down just below the left costal margin with your right hand.
4. The spleen is not normally palpable on most individuals.
Page 21 of 35
Measurement of Abdominal girth

1. Measure the distance around the abdomen at a specific point, usually at the level of the belly
button (navel).
Special Tests
A. Rebound Tenderness (Blumberg sign)
This is a test for peritoneal irritation. Warn the patient what you are about to do.
1. Press deeply on the abdomen with your hand.
2. After a moment, quickly release pressure.
3. If it hurts more when you release, the patient has rebound tenderness.
B. Costovertebral Tenderness
This is often associated with renal disease.
1. Warn the patient what you are about to do.
2. Have the patient sit up on the exam table.
3. Use the heel of your closed fist to strike the patient firmly over the costovertebral angles.
4. Compare left and right sides
C. Shifting Dullness
This is a test for peritoneal fluid (ascites).
1. Percuss the patient's abdomen to outline areas of dullness and tympany.
2. Have the patient roll away from you.
3. Percuss and again outline areas of dullness and tympany. If the dullness has shifted to areas of
prior tympany, the patient may have excess peritoneal fluid.
D. Psoas Sign
This is a test for appendicitis.
1. Place your hand above the patient's right knee.
2. Ask the patient to flex the right hip against resistance.
3. Increased abdominal pain indicates a positive psoas sign.
E. Obturator Sign
This is a test for appendicitis.
1. Raise the patient's right leg with the knee flexed.
2. Rotate the leg internally at the hip.
3. Increased abdominal pain indicates a positive obturator sign.
4. Not used as much lately as there is a question on how well it predicts appendicitis
F. Assessment of hernia
1. Often need to assess standing up
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G. Musculoskeletal System
1. The patient should be undressed and gowned as needed for this examination.
2. Some portions of the examination may not be appropriate depending on the clinical situation
(performing range of motion on a fractured leg for example).
3. The musculoskeletal exam is all about anatomy. Think of the underlying anatomy as you obtain
the history and examine the patient.
4. When taking a history for an acute problem always inquire about the mechanism of injury, loss
of function, onset of swelling (< 24 hours), and initial treatment.
5. When taking a history for a chronic problem always inquire about past injuries, past treatments,
effect on function, and current symptoms.
6. The cardinal signs of musculoskeletal disease are pain, redness (erythema), swelling, increased
warmth, deformity, and loss of function.
7. With Musculoskeletal system, Always begin with inspection, palpation and range of
motion, regardless of the region you are examining (except abdomen). Specialized tests are
often omitted unless a specific abnormality is suspected.
8. A complete evaluation will include a focused neurologic exam of the affected area.
Regional Considerations
1. Remember that the clavicle is part of the shoulder. Be sure to include it in your examination.
2. The patella is much easier to examine if the leg is extended and relaxed.
3. Be sure to palpate over the spinous process of each vertebrae.
4. It is always helpful to observe the patient standing and walking.
5. Always consider referred pain, from the neck or chest to the shoulder, from the back or pelvis
to the hip, and from the hip to the knee.
6. Pain with, or limitation of, rotation is often the first sign of hip disease.
7. Diagnostic hints based on location of pain:
Back Side Front
Shoulder Pain Muscle Spasm Bursitis or Rotator Cuff
Glenohumeral Joint
Hip Pain Sciatica Bursitis
Hip Joint
Inspection
1. Look for scars, rashes, or other lesions.
2. Look for asymmetry, deformity, or atrophy.
3. Always compare with the other side.
Palpation
1. Examine each major joint and muscle group in turn.
2. Identify any areas of tenderness.
3. Identify any areas of deformity.
Range of Motion
1. Start by asking the patient to move through an active range of motion (joints moved by patient).
2. Proceed to passive range of motion (joints moved by examiner) if active range of motion is
abnormal.
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Active Range of Motion

1. Ask the patient to move each joint through a full range of motion.
2. Note the degree and type (pain, weakness, etc.) of any limitations.
3. Note any increased range of motion or instability.
5. Proceed to passive range of motion if abnormalities are found.
Passive Range of Motion

1. Ask the patient to relax and allow you to support the extremity to be examined.
2. Gently move each joint through its full range of motion.
3. Note the degree and type (pain or mechanical) of any limitation.
4. If increased range of motion is detected, perform special tests for instability as appropriate.
Specific Joints
1. Fingers - flexion/extension; abduction/adduction
2. Thumb - flexion/extension; abduction/adduction; opposition
3. Wrist - flexion/extension; radial/ulnar deviation
4. Forearm - pronation/supination (function of BOTH elbow and wrist)
5. Elbow - flexion/extension
6. Shoulder - flexion/extension; internal/external rotation; abduction/adduction (2/3 glenohumeral
joint, 1/3 scapulo-thoracic)
7. Hip - flexion/extension; abduction/adduction; internal/external rotation
8. Knee - flexion/extension
9. Ankle - flexion (plantar flexion)/extension (dorsiflexion)
10. Foot - inversion/eversion
11. Toes - flexion/extension
12. Spine - flexion/extension; right/left bending; right/left rotation
Notes
1. Scoliosis = lateral curvature of spine with unequal leg length. Minimal with young children which
resolves with change of position. More common as a concern in adolescents.
2. Kyphosis = “hunchback”; over-curvature of the thoracic vertebrae
3. Flatfoot = pronation of foot in children. Comes from turning of medial side of foot. Normal for
12-30 months; abnormal otherwise.
4. “knock knees” – knees together when standing. Normal to age 7years; abnormal older.
5. “bow legs” – normal to age 3 years; abnormal older.
6. Toe walking – usually stops by 3 months after start of walking.
Special Tests – Upper Extremities

A. Snuffbox Tenderness (Scaphoid)
1. Identify the "anatomic snuffbox" between the extensor pollicis longus and brevis (extending the
thumb makes these structures more prominent).
2. Press firmly straight down with your index finger or thumb.
3. Any tenderness in this area is highly suggestive of scaphoid fracture.
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B. Drop Arm Test (Rotator Cuff)

1. Start with the patient's arm abducted 90 degrees.
2. Ask the patient to slowly lower the arm.
3. If the rotator cuff (especially the supraspinatus) is torn, the patient will be unable to lower the
arm slowly and smoothly. The arm will fall to the side.
C. Impingement Sign (Rotator Cuff)
1. Start with the patient's arm relaxed and the shoulder in neutral rotation.
2. Abduct the arm to 90 degrees.
3. Significant shoulder pain as the arm is raised suggests an impingement of the rotator cuff
against the acromion.
D. Flexor Digitorum Superficialis Test
1. Hold the fingers in extension except the finger being tested.
2. Ask the patient to flex the finger at the proximal interphalangeal joint.
3. If the patient cannot flex the finger, the tendon is cut or non-functional.
E. Flexor Digitorum Profundus Test
1. Hold the metacarpophalangeal and proximal interphalangeal joints of the finger being tested in
extension.
2. Ask the patient to flex the finger at the distal interphalangeal joint.
3. If the patient cannot flex the finger, the tendon is cut or non-functional.
Vascular and Neurologic Tests
A. Allen Test (Radial/Ulnar Arteries)
1. Ask the patient to make a tight fist.
2. Compress both the ulnar and radial arteries to stop blood flowing to the hand.
3. Ask the patient to open the hand.
4. Release pressure on the ulnar side. The hand should "pink" up in a few seconds unless the
ulnar artery is occluded.
5. Repeat the process for the radial artery as indicated.
B. Phalen's Test (Median Nerve)
1. Ask the patient to press the backs of the hands together with the wrists fully flexed (backward
praying).
2. Have the patient hold this position for 60 seconds and then comment on how the hands feel.
3. Pain, tingling, or other abnormal sensations in the thumb, index, or middle fingers strongly
suggest carpal tunnel syndrome.
C. Tinel's Sign (Median Nerve)
1. Use your middle finger or a reflex hammer to tap over the carpal tunnel.
2. Pain, tingling, or electric sensations strongly suggest carpal tunnel syndrome.
Special Tests - Lower Extremities

A. Collateral Ligament Testing
1. The patient should be supine with the legs resting on the exam table.
2. Hold the leg to be examined in 20-30 degrees of flexion.
3. Place one hand laterally just below the knee. Grasp the leg near the ankle with your other hand.
4. Gently push with both hands in opposite directions to stress the knee.
5. If the knee joint "opens up" medially, the medial collateral ligament may be torn.
6. Reverse your hands and repeat the stress.
7. If the knee joint "opens up" laterally, the lateral collateral ligament may be torn.
8. Repeat the test using posterior stress.
9. The normal knee has a distinct end point. If the tibia moves back under the femur, the posterior
cruciate ligament may be torn.
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B. Anterior/Posterior Drawer Test (Cruciate Ligaments)

1. Ask the patient to lie supine on the exam table with knees flexed to 90 degrees and feet flat on
the table.
2. Sit on or otherwise stabilize the foot of the leg being examined.
3. Grasp the leg just below the knee with both hands and pull forward.
4. If the tibia moves out from under the femur, the anterior cruciate ligament may be torn.
5. Without changing the position of your hands, push the leg backward.
6. If the tibia moves back under the femur, the posterior cruciate ligament may be torn.
C. Ballotable Patella (Major Knee Effusion)
1. Ask the patient to lie supine on the exam table with leg muscles relaxed.
2. Press the patella downward and quickly release it.
3. If the patella visibly rebounds, a large knee effusion (excess fluid in the knee) is present.
D. Milking the Knee (Minor Knee Effusion)
1. Ask the patient to lie supine on the exam table with leg muscles relaxed.
2. Compress the suprapatellar pouch with your thumb, palm, and index finger.
3. "Milk" downward and laterally so that any excess fluid collects on the medial side.
4. Tap gently over the collected fluid and observe the effect on the lateral side, or ballot the patella
as outlined above.
5. A fullness on the lateral side indicates that a small knee effusion is present.
E. Homan’s sign
1. Flex the knee, gently press the calf anteriorly against the tibia OR dorsiflex the foot toward the
thigh
2. Normal = no pain
3. Abnormal = presence of pain occurs with other conditions but a deep vein thrombosis should be
ruled out.
Tests - Back
A. Straight Leg Raising (L5/S1 Nerve Roots)
1. Ask the patient to lie supine on the exam table with knees straight.
2. Grasp the leg near the heel and raise the leg slowly towards the ceiling.
3. Pain in an L5 or S1 distribution suggests nerve root compression or tension (radicular pain).
4. Dorsiflex the foot while maintaining the raised position of the leg.
5. Increased pain strengthens the likelihood of a nerve root problem.
6. Repeat the process with the opposite leg.
7. Increased pain on the opposite side indicates that a nerve root problem is almost certain.
B. FABER Test (Hips/Sacroiliac Joints)
FABER stands for Flexion, ABduction, and External Rotation of the hip. This test is used to
distinguish hip or sacroiliac joint pathology from spine problems.
1. Ask the patient to lie supine on the exam table.
2. Place the foot of the effected side on the opposite knee (this flexes, abducts, and externally
rotates the hip).
3. Pain in the groin area indicates a problem with the hip and not the spine.
4. Press down gently but firmly on the flexed knee and the opposite anterior superior iliac crest.
5. Pain in the sacroiliac area indicates a problem with the sacroiliac joints.
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H. Neurologic Examination
1. Always consider left to right symmetry
2. Consider central vs. peripheral deficits
3. Organize your thinking into seven categories:
a) Mental Status
b) Cranial Nerves
c) Motor
d) Coordination and Gait
e) Reflexes
f) Sensory
g) Special Tests
Mental Status:
1. Assess level of consciousness; facial expression and body language; speech; cognition and
functioning
2. Assess while doing health history
General notes:
1. Cerebral – mental status
2. Cerebellum – gait, coordination, balance, etc.
Cranial Nerves:
1. Sensory, motor, parasympathetic or mixed
Observation
1. Ptosis (III)
2. Facial Droop or Asymmetry (VII)
3. Hoarse Voice (X)
4. Articulation of Words (V, VII, X, XII)
5. Abnormal Eye Position (III, IV, VI)
6. Abnormal or Asymmetrical Pupils (II, III)
I – Olfactory
1. Sensory nerve: Tests sense of smell
2. Not routinely tested unless indicated.
II – Optic
1. Sensory nerve: vision
2. Test Visual Acuity: Use Snellen eye chart or a Rosenbaum pocket card at a 14 inch "reading"
distance). Process is on pg. 10 under “Examination of eye”.
3. Screen Visual Fields by Confrontation. Process is on pg. 11 under “Examination of eye”.
III – Oculomotor
1. Mixed nerve: (A) Motor: controls extraocular movements (EOM), opening eyelids;
(B) Parasympathetic: pupil constriction, iris shape
2. Observe for Ptosis (drooping eyelid)
3. Test Extraocular Movements Process is on page 11 under “Examination of Eye”
4. Test Pupillary Reactions to Light. Process is on page 11 under “Examination of Eye”
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IV – Trochlear
1. Motor nerve: inward and down movement of eye
2. Test Extraocular Movements (Inward and Down Movement). Process is on page 11 under
“Examination of Eye”
V - Trigeminal
1. Mixed nerve. (A) Motor: muscles of mastication; (B) sensory: face, scalp, mouth, nose
2. Test Temporal and Masseter Muscle Strength
a. Ask patient to both open their mouth and clench their teeth.
b. Palpate the temporal and masseter muscles as they do this.
3. Test the Three Divisions for Pain Sensation
a. Explain what you intend to do.
b. Use a suitable sharp object to test the forehead, cheeks, and jaw on both sides.
c. Substitute a blunt object occasionally and ask the patient to report "sharp" or "dull."
d. If you find and abnormality then: Test the three divisions for temperature sensation with a
tuning fork heated or cooled by water.
e. Test the three divisions for sensation to light touch using a wisp of cotton.
4. Test the Corneal Reflex (normally not checked unless specific concerns)
a. Ask the patient to look up and away.
b. From the other side, touch the cornea lightly with a fine wisp of cotton.
c. Look for the normal blink reaction of both eyes.
d. Repeat on the other side.
e. Use of contact lens may decrease this response.
VI – Abducens
1. Motor: lateral eye movement
2. Test Extraocular Movements (Lateral). Process is on page 11 under “Examination of Eye”
VII – Facial
1. Mixed: (A) Motor: muscles used for facial expressions, close eye and mouth; (B) Sensory
(sense of taste in the front 2/3 of tongue; (C) Parasympathetic: saliva and tear secretion
2. Sense of taste not usually checked unless specific concerns
3. Observe for Any Facial Droop or Asymmetry
a) Ask Patient to do the following, note any lag, weakness, or asymmetry: Raise eyebrows
b) Close both eyes to resistance
c) Smile
d) Frown
e) Show teeth
f) Puff out cheeks
4. Test the Corneal Reflex (See C.N. V above)
VIII - Acoustic
1. Sensory: Hearing and Equilibrium
2. Initial test:
a) Face the patient and hold out your arms with your fingers near each ear.
b) Rub your fingers together on one side while moving the fingers noiselessly on the other.
c) Ask the patient to tell you when and on which side they hear the rubbing.
d) Increase intensity as needed and note any asymmetry.
e) Test hearing with normal voice and whispers
3. If abnormal, proceed with the Weber and Rinne tests.
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4. Test for Lateralization (Weber)

a) Screening tool – not used as often as in past
b) Use a 512 Hz or 1024 Hz tuning fork.
c) Start the fork vibrating by tapping it on your opposite hand.
d) Place the base of the tuning fork firmly on top of the patient's head.
e) Ask the patient where the sound appears to be coming from (normally in the midline).
f) Normal is to hear equally in bone ears. If louder in one ear, it is abnormal. Abnormal
indicates conductive hearing loss in that ear or sensory hearing loss in opposite ear.
5. Compare Air and Bone Conduction (Rinne)
a) Screening tool – not used as often as in past
b) Use a 512 Hz or 1024 Hz tuning fork.
c) Start the fork vibrating by tapping it on your opposite hand.
d) Place the base of the tuning fork against the mastoid bone behind the ear.
e) When the patient no longer hears the sound, hold the end of the fork near the patient's ear
(air conduction is normally greater than bone conduction).
f) Normal (positive result) = hearing sound still once moved behind mastoid bone. Abnormal =
not hearing the sound, usually indicates conductive hearing loss.
IX – Glossopharyngeal
1. Mixed: motor: (A) Motor: pharynx (phonation and swallowing); (B) Sensory: taste on posterior
1/3 of tongue; gag reflex; (C) parasympathetic: parotid gland, carotid reflex.
X – Vagus
1. Mixed – (A) Motor: pharynx and larynx (swallowing and talking); (B) Sensory: general sensation
from carotid body, carotid sinus, pharynx, viscera; (C) parasympathetic: carotid reflex. Slows
heart rate.
2. Listen to the patient's voice, is it hoarse or nasal?
3. Ask patient to swallow
4. Ask patient to Say "Ahhh". Watch the movements of the soft palate and the pharynx.
5. Test gag reflex. On an unconscious or uncooperative patient, stimulate the back of the throat
on each side. It is normal to gag after each stimulus.
XI – Spinal Accessory
1. Motor: trapezius and sternomastoid muscles
2. From behind, look for atrophy or asymmetry of the trapezius muscles.
3. Ask patient to shrug shoulders against resistance.
4. Ask patient to turn their head against resistance. Watch and palpate the sternomastoid muscle
on the opposite side.
XII – Hypoglossal
1. Motor: movement of tongue
2. Listen to the articulation of the patient's words.
3. Observe the tongue as it lies in the mouth
4. Ask patient to: Protrude tongue
5. Move tongue from side to side
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Assessment of Motor responses

Observation Involuntary Movements
1. Compare muscle symmetry left to right
2. Proximal vs. distal
3. Atrophy
4. Pay particular attention to the hands, shoulders, and thighs.
5. Gait
Muscle Tone
1. Ask the patient to relax.
2. Flex and extend the patient's fingers, wrist, and elbow.
3. Flex and extend patient's ankle and knee.
4. There is normally a small, continuous resistance to passive movement.
5. Observe for decreased (flaccid) or increased (rigid/spastic) tone.
Muscle Strength
Test strength by having the patient move against your resistance.
Always compare one side to the other. Grade strength on a scale from 0 to 5 "out of five":
Grading Motor Strength
Grade Description
0/5 No muscle movement
1/5 Visible muscle movement, but no movement at the joint
2/5 Movement at the joint, but not against gravity
3/5 Movement against gravity, but not against added resist
4/5 Movement against resistance, but less than normal
5/5 Normal strength
Test the following:

1. Flexion at the elbow (C5, C6, biceps)
2. Extension at the elbow (C6, C7, C8, triceps)
3. Extension at the wrist (C6, C7, C8, radial nerve)
4. Squeeze two of your fingers as hard as possible ("grip," C7, C8, T1)
5. Finger abduction (C8, T1, ulnar nerve)
6. Opposition of the thumb (C8, T1, median nerve)
7. Flexion at the hip (L2, L3, L4, iliopsoas)
8. Adduction at the hips (L2, L3, L4, adductors)
9. Abduction at the hips (L4, L5, S1, gluteus medius and minimus)
10. Extension at the hips (S1, gluteus maximus)
11. Extension at the knee (L2, L3, L4, quadriceps)
12. Flexion at the knee (L4, L5, S1, S2, hamstrings)
13. Dorsiflexion at the ankle (L4, L5)
14. Plantar flexion (S1)
Pronator Drift
1. Ask the patient to stand for 20-30 seconds with both arms straight forward, palms up, and eyes
closed.
2. Instruct the patient to keep the arms still while you tap them briskly downward.
3. The patient will not be able to maintain extension and supination (and "drift into pronation) with
upper motor neuron disease.
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Coordination and Gait

A. Rapid Alternating Movements
1. Ask the patient to strike one hand on the thigh, raise the hand, turn it over, and then strike it
back down as fast as possible.
2. Ask the patient to tap the distal thumb with the tip of the index finger as fast as possible.
3. Ask the patient to tap your hand with the ball of each foot as fast as possible.
B. Point-to-Point Movements
1. Ask the patient to touch your index finger and their nose alternately several times. Move your
finger about as the patient performs this task.
2. Hold your finger still so that the patient can touch it with one arm and finger outstretched. Ask
the patient to move their arm and return to your finger with their eyes closed.
3. Ask the patient to place one heel on the opposite knee and run it down the shin to the big toe.
Repeat with the patient's eyes closed.
C. Romberg
1. Be prepared to catch the patient if they are unstable.
2. Ask the patient to stand with the feet together and eyes closed for 5-10 seconds without
support.
3. The test is said to be positive if the patient becomes unstable (indicating a vestibular or
proprioceptive problem).
D. Gait. Ask the patient to:
1. Walk across the room, turn and come back
2. Walk heel-to-toe in a straight line
3. Walk on their toes in a straight line
4. Walk on their heels in a straight line
5. Hop in place on each foot
6. Do a shallow knee bend
7. Rise from a sitting position
Reflexes
Deep Tendon Reflexes
1. The patient must be relaxed and positioned properly before starting.
2. Reflex response depends on the force of your stimulus. Use no more force than you need to
provoke a definite response.
3. Reflexes can be reinforced by having the patient perform isometric contraction of other muscles
(clenched teeth).
4. Exaggerated hyperactive reflexes in a pregnant woman may be related to pre-eclampsia.
5. Reflexes should be graded on a 0 to 4 "plus" scale:
Tendon Reflex Grading Scale

Grade Description
0 Absent
1+ or + Hypoactive
2+ or ++ "Normal"
3+ or +++ Hyperactive without clonus May indicate disease but also may be normal
4+ or ++++ Hyperactive with clonus Indicative of disease (see definition below)
Page 31 of 35
Check DTRs -
A. Biceps (C5, C6) The patient's arm should be partially flexed at the elbow with the palm down.
1. Place your thumb or finger firmly on the biceps tendon.
2. Strike your finger with the reflex hammer.
3. You should feel the response even if you can't see it.
B. Triceps (C6, C7) Support the upper arm and let the patient's forearm hang free.
1. Strike the triceps tendon above the elbow with the broad side of the hammer.
2. If the patient is sitting or lying down, flex the patient's arm at the elbow and hold it close to the
chest.
C. Brachioradialis (C5, C6) Have the patient rest the forearm on the abdomen or lap.
1. Strike the radius about 1-2 inches above the wrist.
2. Watch for flexion and supination of the forearm.
D. Abdominal (T8, T9, T10, T11, T12) Use a blunt object such as a key or tongue blade.
1. Stroke the abdomen lightly on each side in an inward and downward direction above (T8, T9,
T10) and below the umbilicus (T10, T11, T12).
2. Note the contraction of the abdominal muscles and deviation of the umbilicus towards the
stimulus.
F. Knee (L2, L3, L4) Have the patient sit or lie down with the knee flexed.
1. Strike the patellar tendon just below the patella.
2. Note contraction of the quadraceps and extension of the knee.
G. Ankle (S1, S2) Dorsiflex the foot at the ankle.
1. Strike the Achilles tendon.
2. Watch and feel for plantar flexion at the ankle.
Clonus
1. Definition: rapid rhythmic contractions of same muscle
2. If the reflexes seem hyperactive, test for ankle clonus:
a) Support the knee in a partly flexed position.
b) With the patient relaxed, quickly dorsiflex the foot.
c) Observe for rhythmic oscillations
Plantar Response (Babinski)

1. Stroke the lateral aspect of the sole of each foot with the end of a reflex hammer or key.
2. Note movement of the toes, normally flexion (withdrawal).
3. Extension of the big toe with fanning of the other toes is abnormal in other than a young child.
This is referred to as a positive Babinski
4. Positive Babinski is normal to age 24 months.
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Assessment of Sensory responses
General
1. Explain each test before you do it.
2. Unless otherwise specified, the patient's eyes should be closed during the actual testing.
3. Compare symmetrical areas on the two sides of the body.
4. Also compare distal and proximal areas of the extremities.
5. When you detect an area of sensory loss map out its boundaries in detail.
Vibration
1. Use a low pitched tuning fork (128 Hz). Test with a non-vibrating tuning fork first to ensure that
the patient is responding to the correct stimulus.
2. Place the stem of the fork over the distal interphalangeal joint of the patient's index fingers and
big toes.
3. Ask the patient to tell you if they feel the vibration.
4. If vibration sense is impaired proceed proximally:
a) Wrists
b) Elbows
c) Medial malleoli
d) Patellas
e) Anterior superior iliac spine
f) Spinous processes
g) Clavicle
Position Sense
1. Grasp the patient's big toe and hold it away from the other toes to avoid friction.
2. Show the patient "up" and "down."
3. With the patient's eyes closed ask the patient to identify the direction you move the toe.
4. If position sense is impaired move proximally to test the ankle joint.
5. Test the fingers in a similar fashion.
6. If indicated move proximally to the metacarpophalangeal joints, wrists, and elbows.
Dermatomal Testing
1. If vibration, position sense, and subjective light touch are normal in the fingers and toes you
may assume the rest of this exam will be normal.
Pain
1. Use a suitable sharp object to test "sharp" or "dull" sensation.
2. Test the following areas:
a) Shoulders (C4)
b) Inner and outer aspects of the forearms (C6 and T1)
c) Thumbs and little fingers (C6 and C8)
d) Front of both thighs (L2)
e) Medial and lateral aspect of both calves (L4 and L5)
f) Little toes (S1)
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Temperature
1. Often omitted if pain sensation is normal.
2. Use a tuning fork heated or cooled by water and ask the patient to identify "hot" or "cold."
a) Shoulders (C4)
f) Little toes (S1)
Light Touch
1. Test several areas on both the upper and lower extremities.
2. Use your fingers to touch the skin lightly on both sides simultaneously. Ask the patient to tell you
if there is difference from side to side or other "strange" sensations.
3. Use a fine wisp of cotton or your fingers to touch the skin lightly. Ask the patient to respond
whenever a touch is felt.
a) Shoulders (C4)
f) Little toes (S1)
Discrimination
1. Since these tests are dependent on touch and position sense, they cannot be performed when
the tests above are clearly abnormal.
2. Graphesthesia:
a) With the blunt end of a pen or pencil, draw a large number in the patient's palm.
b) Ask the patient to identify the number.
3. Stereognosis
a) Use as an alternative to graphesthesia.
b) Place a familiar object in the patient's hand (coin, paper clip, pencil, etc.).
c) Ask the patient to tell you what it is.
4. Two Point Discrimination
a) Use in situations where more quantitative data are needed, such as following the
progression of a cortical lesion.
b) Use an opened paper clip to touch the patient's finger pads in two places simultaneously.
c) Alternate irregularly with one point touch.
d) Ask the patient to identify "one" or "two."
e) Find the minimal distance at which the patient can discriminate
Routine pediatric neuro testing:

1. Plantar (Babinski) – described above. Normal to age 24 months.
2. Moro (startle) – normal to about 4 months
3. Rooting – birth to about 3-4 months
4. Palmar grasp – birth, stronger at 1-2 months, gone by 3-4 months
Page 34 of 35
I. Genito-urinary and wellness
Male:
Prostate screening
1. Digital exam – recommended annually. Hemocult any specimen.
2. PSA – lab test. Recommendations vary – every 1-2 years
Testicular Self-exam:
1. Start age 15 on
2. Remember:
Timing: 1 x month
Shower – warm water
Examine – should be no lumps
Men should also perform BSE but are less likely to have routine mammograms
Female:
Mammogram
1. Follow current recommendations
Breast Self Exam (BSE):
1. perform monthly right after menses or day 4-7 of cycle
2. include raising arms to look for retraction
Pap smear. – tests for cervical cancer
1. Specimens taken from (in order) vaginal pool, cervical scrape, endocervical specimen.
2. Post hysterectomy and cervix removal – scrape from end of vagina and cervical pool.
General notes:
***When taking the exam—there are questions about what should cause concern—think about the
nurse action being incorrect. “What action should be discussed with the nurse?” means what
nurse action was incorrect?
Pediatric
General notes:
1. To compare leg length measurement, measure from anterior superior iliac spine. Cross to
the medial side of knee and measure to the medial malleolus. Further testing can be done
by x-ray
2. Key milestones in children: (not inclusive)
2 months smiles recognizes parents

4 months babbles few words
5 months sits up with support
6 months grasps things; may hold bottle
7 months begins crawling
8 months sits without support; stranger anxiety
12 months walks alone
Page 35 of 35
IV Solution Cheat Sheet
A quick reference guide on the different intravenous solutions.
Type Use Special Considerations

Normal Saline (NS)  Increases circulating plasma  Do not use in patients with heart failure,
volume when red cells are edema, or hypernatremia, because NSS
 0.9% NaCl in adequate replaces extracellular fluid and can lead to
Water  Shock fluid overload.
 Crystalloid  Fluid replacement in patients  Replaces losses without altering fluid
Solution with diabetic ketoacidosis concentrations.
 Isotonic (308  Hyponatremia  Helpful for Na+ replacement
mOsm)  Blood transfusions
 Resuscitation
 Metabolic Alkalosis
 Hypercalcemia
1/2 Normal Saline  Water replacement  Use cautiously; may cause cardiovascular
(1/2 NS)  Raises total fluid volume collapse or increase in intracranial
 DKA after initial normal pressure.
 0.45% NaCl in saline solution and before  Don’t use in patients with liver disease,
Water dextrose infusion trauma, or burns.
 Crystalloid  Hypertonic dehydration  Useful for daily maintenance of body fluid,
Solution  Sodium and chloride but is of less value for replacement of
 Hypotonic (154 depletion NaCl deficit.
mOsm)  Gastric fluid loss from  Helpful for establishing renal function.
nasogastric suctioning or  Fluid replacement for clients who don’t
vomiting. need extra glucose (diabetics)
Lactated Ringer’s  Replaces fluid and buffers  Has similar electrolyte content with serum
(LR) pH but doesn’t contain magnesium.
 Hypovolemia due to third-  Has potassium therefore don’t use to
 Normal saline space shifting. patients with renal failure as it can cause
with electrolytes  Dehydration hyperkalemia
and buffer  Burns  Don’t use in liver disease because the
 Isotonic (275  Lower GI tract fluid loss patient can’t metabolize lactate; a
mOsm)  Acute blood loss functional liver converts it to bicarbonate;
don’t give if patient’s pH > 75.
 Normal saline with K+, Ca++, and lactate
(buffer)
 Often seen with surgery
D5 W  Raises total fluid volume.  Solution is isotonic initially and becomes
 Helpful in rehydrating and hypotonic when dextrose is metabolized.
 Dextrose 5% in excretory purposes.  Not to be used for resuscitation; can
water Crystalloid  Fluid loss and dehydration cause hyperglycemia
solution  Hypernatremia  Use in caution to patients with renal or
 Isotonic (in the cardiac disease, can cause fluid overload
bag)  Doesn’t provide enough daily calories for
 *Physiologically prolonged use; may cause eventual
hypotonic (260 breakdown of protein.
mOsm)  Provides 170-200 calories/1,000cc for
energy.
 Physiologically hypotonic -the dextrose is
metabolized quickly so that only water
remains - a hypotonic fluid
D5NS  Hypotonic dehydration  Do not use in patients with cardiac or
 Replaces fluid sodium, renal failure because of danger of heart
 Dextrose 5% in chloride, and calories. failure and pulmonary edema.
0.9% saline  Temporary treatment of  Watch for fluid volume overload
 Hypertonic (560 circulatory insufficiency and
mOsm) shock if plasma expanders
aren’t available
 SIADH (or use 3% sodium
chloride).
 Addisonian crisis
D5 1/2 NS  DKA after initial treatment  In DKA, use only when glucose falls < 250
with normal saline solution mg/dl
 Dextrose 5% in and half-normal saline  Most common postoperative fluid
0.45% saline solution – prevents  Useful for daily maintenance of body
 Hypertonic (406 hypoglycemia and cerebral fluids and nutrition, and for rehydration.
mOsm) edema (occurs when serum
osmolality is reduced
rapidly).
D5LR  Same as LR plus provides  Contraindicated in newborns (≤ 28 days of
about 180 calories per age), even if separate infusion lines are
 Dextrose 5% in 1000cc’s. used (risk of fatal ceftriaxone-calcium salt
Lactated Ringer’s  Indicated as a source of precipitation in the neonate’s
 Hypertonic (575 water, electrolytes and bloodstream).
mOsm) calories or as an alkalinizing  Contraindicated in patients with a known
agent hypersensitivity to sodium lactate.
Normosol-R  Replaces fluid and buffers  Not intended to supplant transfusion of
pH whole blood or packed red cells in the
 Normosol  Indicated for replacement of presence of uncontrolled hemorrhage or
 Isotonic (295 acute extracellular fluid severe reductions of red cell volume
mOsm) volume losses in surgery,
trauma, burns or shock.
 Used as an adjunct to restore
a decrease in circulatory
volume in patients with
moderate blood loss
IG: @danedelion tiktok: @daanedelions Fluids and Electrolytes Cram Sheets Your Nursing Ate 1 of 20
Electrolyte Values Laboratory test Normal Value Description
Na+ 136-145 mEq/L

Serum Osmolality 275-290 mOsm/kg Concentration of solutes (sodium) in ECF
Ca++ 8.6-10.2 mg/dL
K+ 3.5-5.0 mEq/L
Urine Osmolality 200-800 mOsm/kg Indicator of urine concentration. (Urea,
creatinine, uric acid)
Mg++ 1.3-2.1 mEq/L
Cl- 97-107 mEq/L Urine Specific Gravity 1.010-1.025 Measures kidney’s ability to conserve or
excrete H20
HPO4- 3.0-4.5 mEq/dL *inc. glucose/protein in urine can give a
falsely elevated specific gravity.
HCO3- 24-31 mEq/L BUN 10-20 mg/dL Inc: dec renal func, GI bleeding,
(3.6 to 7.2 mol.L) dehydration, inc. protein intake, fever,
sepsis
ABG Values Dec: liver dse, low protein diet,
starvation, expanded fluid vol.
(< Acidosis) (>Alkalosis)
pH 7.35 to 7.45 Creatinine 0.7-1.4 mg/dL Increases when renal function decreases
Higher H+ conc. Lower H+ conc. (62-124 mmol/L)
(<alkalosis) (>acidosis)
PaCO2 35 to 45 mmHg Hematocrit 42%-52% men Inc: dehydration, polycythemia
35%-47% women Dec: over hydration, anemia
(< Acidosis) (>Alkalosis)
HCO3 22 to 26 mEq/L
Urine Sodium 75-200mEq/24hrs Inc Na+ intake, inc = inc. Na- excretion
Partially compensated: Uncompensated: (75-200 mmol/24hrs) Dec in circulating fluid volume = Na+ is
• PaCO2 or HCO3 is out of normal • PaCO2 or HCO3 is normal conserved
range • pH is not normal
Urine output 1 ml/kg/hr for all age groups Dec U/O = dehydration, infection, or
• pH is not normal
>30 cc per hr obstruction in urinary tract.
↑ pH ↓pH ↑ pH ↓pH
↓ PaCO2 ↑ PaCO2 ↑ HCO3- ↓HCO3-
Respiratory Respiratory Metabolic Metabolic
alkalosis acidosis alkalosis acidosis
ISOTONIC SOL’N HYPOTONIC SOL’N

Isotonic • Expands ECF 0.45% NaCl (half strength saline) • Provides Na+, Cl, and free water
• Hypovolemic states • Aids in elimination of solute
0.9% NaCl / NS • Resuscitative efforts Na+ 77 mEq/L • Hypertonic dehydration
• Shock Cl- 77 mEq/L • Na+ and Cl- depletion
Na+ 154 mEq/L • DKA 154 mOsm/L • Gastric fluid loss
Cl- 154 mEq/L • Metabolic alkalosis • Not indicated: 3rd spacing and inc. ICP
(Also available c dextrose 5% conc. common) • Hypercalcemia • Administer cautiously; may cause fluid shifts
308 mOsm/L • Mild Na+ deficit from vascular system into cells, resulting
• Monitor for FVE & hyperchloremic acidosis in into CV collapse and inc. ICP
pts with: impaired renal func, HF, or edema.
• Only solution to be given with blood HYPERTONIC SOL’N
products
• Tonicity similar to plasma
3% NaCl • Inc ECF
• Decrease cellular swelling
Na+ 513 mEq/L • Hyponatremia
Lactated Ringer’s Solution • Contains multiple electrolytes in similar conc. Cl- 513 mEq/L • Administer slowly and cautiously,
found in plasma 1,026 moSm/L • Monitor for intravascular volume overload
• Hypovolemia and pulmonary edema
Na+ 130 mEq/L • Burns 5% NaCl • Supplies no calories
K+ mEq/L • Fluid lost as bile or diarrhea Na+ 855 mEq/L
Ca++ 3 mEq/L • Acute blood loss replacement Cl- 855 mEq/L
Cl- 109 mEq/L • Lactate metabolized as bicarbonate 1,710 moSm//L
• CI: lactic acidosis— lactate metabolism COLLOID SOL’N
impaired
• pH >7.5
• Kidney injury — risk for hyperkalemia
Dextran in NS or D5W • Volume/plasma expander for intravascular
part of ECF
• Decreases ability to clot
5% Dextrose in Water (D5W) • Renal excretion of solutes • Remains in circulation for 24h
• Hypernatremia • Treats hypovolemia in shock: inc. pulse
• Fluid loss pressure, cardiac output, and arterial BP
No electrolytes • Caution during post op period (ADH sec inc • Improves microcirculation— dec RBC
50g of dextrose DT stress reaction) aggregation
• May dilute plasma electrolyte conc. • CI: hemorrhage, thrombocytopenia, renal dse,
• CI: head injury — inc ICP severe dehydration
• Fluid resuscitation — hyperglycemia • Not a substitute for blood/blood products
• May cause: peripheral circulatory collapse,
anuria with Na deficiency, and inc. body fluid
loss.
• Monitor for water intoxication
• Monitor for hypokalemia
FVD (Hypovolemia)
Nursing Interventions
Loss of ECF volume exceeded the intake of fluid
Monitor I&O
Monitor VS
Contributing Factors -weak rapid pulse
-orthostatic hypotension
- ↓ temp
Vomiting Decreased intake Daily weights
Diarrhea Anorexia Monitor skin turgor

-sternum
Fistulas Nausea -inner thigh
-forehead
Excess sweating Inability to gain access to fluid Monitor tongue turgor
-↑ longitudinal furrows
-smaller in size DT fluid loss
Burns Diabetes insipidus -dry mucous membranes
Monitor mental function
Blood loss Uncontrolled DM
-delirium
-cold extremities
GI suction Third spacing
Encourage/assist with oral hygiene
Manifestations Administer IV fluids

Weight loss Flattened neck veins
Poor skin turgor Weakness
Oliguria Thirst
Concentrated urine Confusion
>3 cap. Refill Sunken eyes
Low CVP Cool clammy skin
↑ HBG, HCT, serum & urine ↓ Urine sodium, CVP

osmolality, specific gravity,
BUN, creatinine
FVE (Hypervolemia) Manifestations
Isotonic expansion of ECF caused by abnormal retention of Na+ Weight gain ↑ BP, bounding pulse, RR, UO
and H2O.
Peripheral (pitting) edema ↓ HGB, HCT, BUN, serum and
urine osmolality, urine sodium,
Contributing Factors and specific gravity
Ascites CXR: pulmonary congestion
Kidney injury Distended jugular veins SOB
Heart failure Crackles, cough Dyspnea
Cirrhosis
Excess admin. Of Na+ containing fluids Nursing Interventions
Aminister diuretics (loop, thiazide, K sparing)

Interstitial to plasma fluid shifts (hypertonic fluids, burns)
Restrict sodium intake
Corticosteroid therapy
Monitor RR, symmetry, and effort
Severe stress
Monitor edema, ascites, measure abdominal girth
Hyperaldosteronism
Weight daily
Strict I&O
Monitor VS
Reposition regularly
Semi-fowlers position if dyspnea occurs
Elevate swollen extremities
Limit fluid intake

Hyponatremia Clinical Manifestations Nursing Interventions
Serum sodium <135 mEq/L Anorexia Confusion Monitor I&O
Most abundant in ECF N/V Muscle cramps /twitching Daily weights

Controls H2O distribution in body
Muscle contraction and nerve impulses Headache Weakness / fatigue, lethargy Monitor laboratory values: urine specific gravity, serum sodium
levels
Euvolemic hyponatremia: H2O inc but Na+ stays same. Na+
Lethargy Muscular twitching
diluted — SIADH, DI, Adrenal Insuff— Addisons dse. —-> Encourage food and fluids with high sodium content
restrict fluids, ADH antagonist, declomyacin (no food, dairy, or
antacids) Lithium— inc toxicity. Dizziness Seizures
Water restriction in pts with normal or excess fluid volume
Hypovolemic hyponatremia: Dec in Na, dec in H2O — Papilledema Weight gain
vomiting, diarrhea, NG suction, diuretic therapy, bruns, excessive Administer fluids: Lactated ringers or 0.9 NaCl
sweating —-> 3% saline hypertonic sol’n (central line) Dry skin Edema
SIADH: Furosemide + hypertonic sol’n + lithium (observe for
Hypervolemic hyponatremia: Inc Na+ and Inc H2O — total body toxicity)
Abdominal cramping Alt. Mental status, and coma
H2O dilutes Na+ — CHF, KF, Exc. infusion of saline sol, or LF.
—> restrict fluid intake, diuretics, dialysis Highly hypertonic sol’n should be given slowly and pt
↑ Pulse ↓ BP, serum and urine sodium, monitored closely because only small volumes are needed to
urine specific gravity and elevate the Na+ conc. From a low level
Contributing factors osmolality
Pt c CV dse: assess for signs of circulatory overload— cough
Diuretics dyspnea, puffy eyelids, dependent edema, excess weight gain.
Mnemonics Auscultate lungs for crackles
GI fluid loss Monitor CNS changes: lethargy, confusion, muscle twitching
N- Na+ excretion inc with: S: seizures & stupor
seizures
Renal dse renal problems, sweating, DI, A: abdominal cramping/
aldosterone sec. attitude changes
O- overload of fluids: CHF, L: lethargic
Adrenal insufficiency
hypotonic fluids, LF T: tendon reflexes diminished Serum sodium must not be increased by >12 mEq/L in 24 hrs
and trouble concentrating to avoid neurologic damage due to demyelination
Gain of water: excess. Admin of D5W, & H2O supplement for pt N- Na+ intake low: NPO,
receiving hypotonic tube feedings elderly L: loss of urine and appetite
SIADH A- Antidiuretic hormone, O: orthostatic hypotension and
adrenal insufficiency. overactive bowel sounds
Medications that retain water (oxytocin, tranquilizers) S: shallow respirations
S: spasms of muscles
Psychogenic polydipsia
Bacon, butter, canned foods, cheese, hot dogs, lunch meat,
Hyperglycemia processed food, table salt.
HF
Hypernatremia
Clinical Manifestations Nursing Interventions
Serum sodium >145 mEq/L
Thirst Pulmonary edema Obtain medication hx
↑ Body temp, pulse, BP Hyperreflexia Monitor I&O
Contributing factors Swollen, dry tongue Twitching Daily weights
Fluid deprivation in pt who cannot respond to thirst Sticky mucous membranes N/V Monitor laboratory values: urine specific gravity, serum sodium
levels, serum osmolality
Hypertonic tube feedings w/o water supplement Halucinations Anorexia
Administer hypotonic electrolyte solution or isotonic non saline
Diabetes insipidus solution (D5W)
Restlessness Lethargy
Restrict sodium intake
Heat stroke Irritability Partial/tonic-clonic seizures
Provide oral hydration at regular intervals
Hyperventilation ↑ serum Na+, urine specific ↓ urine sodium, CVP
gravity, osmolality Enteral feedings— sufficient water supplementation
Watery diarrhea
Pts c DI— need adequate hydration
Burns
Mnemonics
Monitor neurologic signs, symptoms should improve as the
Diaphoresis serum sodium gradually reduces.
H: hypercortisolism (Cushing’s S/Sx
Exc. Corticosteroid, sodium bicarbonate, sodium chloride syndrome and Monitor for signs of cerebral edema
administration. hyperventilation) F: fever, flushed skin
I: increased Na+ intake (oral or R: restlessness, really agitated
Salt water, near drowning victims IV routes) I: increased fluid retention
G: GI feeding without adequate E: edema, extremely confused
supplement D: decreased urine output, dry Isotonic sol’n safer than D5W; reduced risk for CE.
H: hypertonic solutions (3% mouth, skin
saline) Serum Na+ gradually reduced at rate no faster than 0.5 mEq/
L/hr to prevent risk for cerebral edema
S: Sodium excretion dec.
(corticosteroids) *rapid reduction of serum Na+ renders the plasma to be
A: aldosterone problems hypo-osmotic to the fluid in the brain tissue = movement of
L: loss of fluid (fever, fluid into brain cells = life threatening cerebral edema
sweating, dehydration)
T: thirst impairment

Hypokalemia
Lethargy, low and shallow respirations, lethal cardiac Encourage potassium intake through diet
Serum K+ < 3.5 mEq/L changes, loss of urine, leg cramps, limp muscles, low BP and
HR Monitor I&O
Major intracellular electrolyte
Skeletal and muscle activity Anorexia
Monitor ECG
Myocardial irritability and rhythm
N/V
Adequate urine output must be established before admin. K+ via
IV
Muscle weakness
Contributing factors
K+ is never given by IV push or IM, to avoid replacing K+
Polyuria too quickly. IV K+ must be admin. Through infusion pump.
Diarrhea < 2.5 mEq/L
dec. bowel motility Watch for phlebitis or infiltrates
Vomiting
Monitor for worsening signs of hypokalemia or hyperkalemia,
Ventricular asystole or fibrillation
Gastric suction watch magnesium, glucose, sodium, and calcium levels
Paresthesias Admin KCl, potassium acetate, or potassium phosphate as
Corticosteroid admin.
ordered.
Dysrhythmias
Hyperaldosteronism: increases renal K+ wasting Give oral K+ with 1/2 glass of fluid to avoid irritating gastric
Ileus, abdominal distension mucosa
Carbencillin
Oral K+ can produce small bowel lesions — monitor for
Hypoactive reflexes abdominal dissension, pain, or GI bleeding.
Amphotericin B
ECG: flattened T waves, prominent U waves, ST depression, Hold lasix, thiazide, or K wasting diuretics and hold digoxin
Bulimia prolonged PR interval
Sprinolactone, aldactone - K sparring diuretics.
Osmotic diuresis
Mnemonics
Alkalosis D- drugs (laxatives, P- potatoes and Carrots, raisins,
diuretics, pork bananas
Starvation corticosteroids O- oranges
I- inadequate intake T- tomatoes
Diuretics— thiazide and loop (NPO, A- avoados
anorexia, nausea S- strawberries
Digoxin toxicity T- too much water S- spinach
intake fIsh
Cushing’s syndrome— inc. cortisol = dec. K+ C- Cushing’s mUshrooms
syndrome (too Musk melons—
much cantaloupe
aldosterone
H - heavy fluid loss
Hyperkalemia Clinical Manifestations Nursing Interventions
Serum K+ > 5.0 mEq/L Muscle weakness Monitor I&O
Tachycardia → Bradycardia Monitor EKG— Bradycardia → stop IV infusion of K+

Dysrhythmias Take apical pulse
Pseudohyperkalemia
Flaccid paralysis Monitor serum K+, BUN, creatinine, glucose and ABG
Kidney injury
Paresthesias Potassium restriction
K+ sparing diuretics
Intestinal colic IV calcium gluconate if serum K+ is dangerously elevated,
Metabolic acidosis monitor for hypotension.
Cramps
Addison dse / hypoaldosteronism — deficient adrenal Sodium bicarbonate in severe metabolic acidosis — monitor for
hormones lead to Na+ loss and K+ retention Abdominal distension s/sx of circulatory overload and hypernatremia.
Crush injury IV admin regular insulin + hypertonic dextrose sol’n to shift K+

Irritability back into cells
Burns Anxiety Caution pts to use salt substitutes sparingly
Stored blood bank transfusions ECG: tall tented T waves, prolonged PR interval and QRS Monitor solution concentration & rate of administration via
duration, absent P waves, ST depression, Shortened QT interval infusion pump.
Rapid IV admin of K+
ACE inhibitors C: cellular movement from intra-cell to extra cell

(burns, tissue damage)
NSAIDs A: adrenal insufficiency K+ SUPPLEMENTS DANGEROUS IN PATIENTS WITH
R: renal insufficiency IMPAIRED RENAL FUNCTION
Cyclosporine E: Excessive K+ intake Decreased ability to excrete potassium — risk for hyperkalemia
D: Drugs (K+ sparing, Ace inhibitors, NSAID) Aged (stored blood) has inc. K+ because of RBC deterioration
M: muscle weakness
U: urine production low/absent
R: respiratory failure (muscle weakness/seizures)
D: decreased cardiac contractility
E: early signs of muscle twitching — profound
weakness, flaccid
R: rhythm changes EKG
Hypocalcemia Clinical Manifestations Nursing Interventions
Serum Ca- < 8.6 mEq/L Tetany Dilute IV Calcium in D5W and give as a slow bolus or via IV
infusion.
Transmitting nerve impulses Numbness
Regulate muscle contaction and relax (inc. cardiac muscle) Observe for signs of infiltration —extraversion results in
Blood coagulation cellulitis or necrosis
(+) Trosseau’s sign carpopedal spasm induced by inflating bp
cuff 20 mmHg over systolic BP Monitor BP during infusion — postural hypotension
Absorbed in GI, stored in bones, excreted in kidneys
(+) Chvostek’s sign contraction of facial muscles by tapping on
Seizure precautions
facial nerve in front of ear.
Contributing factors Seizures — CNS and PNS irritability Safety precautions as indicated
Hypoparathyroidism: PTH releases Ca stores from the GI tract, Irritability, depression, impaired memory, confusion, delirium, Educate pt about foods rich in Ca-
renal tubule, and bones. hallucinations.
Malabsorption Oral form of Ca- with Vit D supplement. After meal or at
Bronchospasm, dyspnea, laryngospasm bedtime with full glass of water
Pancreatitis — Anxiety
Ca+ ions bind with fatty acids, forming soaps
Pancreas releases glucagon which inc. calcitonin prod = dec Ca-
Impaired clotting time, brittle hair and nails, hyperactive bowel
Mnemonics
Alkalosis signs
Diarrhea L-low PTH (removal, neck C-confusion
Vitamin D deficiency surgery) R- reflexes hyperactive
↓ BP, prothrombin time, Mg++ O- oral intake inadequate A- arrhythmias (prolong QT or
Massive subcutaneous infection (alcoholism, bulimia) ST interval)
ECG: prolonged QT interval, lengthened ST. W- wound drainage (GI M- muscle spasms/ seizures
Peritonitis system) P- positive trousseau and
S- sign of chvostek
Massive transfusion of citrated blood — citrate + ionized calcium C- celiac’s disease, chron’s dse
removes Ca from the circulation. (malabsorption)
Calcium salts are dangerous for pts receding digitalis derived A- acute pancreatitis
Chronic diarrhea meds — risk for toxicity L- low vit D intake
C- chronic kidney dse
Diuretic phase of kidney injury: Hyperphosphatemia = drop in 0.9% NaCl with Ca- salts inc. renal calcium loss I- increase phosphorus levels
Ca- levels U- using medications (Mg
Sol’n c bicarbonate & phospate + Ca- yield precipitates supplements, laxatives, loop
Burns
diuretics)
Ca gluconate: 4.5 mEq of Ca- , give slowly & monitor HR, M- mobility issues
Alcoholism watch for infiltration/ phlebitis
Ca chloride: 13.6 mEq of Ca-
Hypercalcemia Clinical Manifestations Nursing Interventions
Serum Ca- > 10.2 mEq/L Muscular weakness: ↑Ca = ↓act. At myoneural junction. Ca- restriction
Constapation / Diarrhea Administer fluids: 0.9% NaCl, IV phosphate, Calcitonin (skin

test before admin. Salmon calcitonin for reax)
Anorexia
Administer diuretics: furosemide
N/V
Contributing factors Increasing pt mobility, early ambulation
Polyuria
Hyperparathyroidism Encourage fluid intake, fluids containing Na+ unless CI
polydipsia
Malignant neoplastic dse Adequate fiber
dehydration
Prolonged immobilization: bone mineral is lost = ↑Ca- in BS Safety precautions when confusion is present
Hypoactive deep tendon reflexes
Calcium supp. Monitor for s/sx of digitalis toxicity
Lethargy, confusion, coma
Vit D excess Monitor vital signs esp cardiac rate & rhythm
Deep bone pain
Oliguric phase of renal failure Admin calcitonin per dr. order
Flank pain
Acidosis
Calcium stones, HTN Mnemonics
Corticosteroid therapy
ECG: shortened ST segment and QT interval, bradycardia, H- hyperparathyroidism Y-yogurt
Thiazide diuretic use: potentiate action of PTH on kidneys = ↓ heart block I- increased intake S- sardines
Ca- urinary excretion. G- glucocorticoids C- cheese
Digoxin toxicity: ↑Ca aggravates D.T H- hyperthyroidism S-spinach
C- collared greens
Hypercalcemia crisis | Serum Ca- > 17 mEq/L C- Ca excretion dec. c/ thiazide T- tofu
A- adrenal insufficiency R- rhubarb
Severe thirst & polyuria, abdominal cramps, peptic ulcer (Addisons dse) M- milk
symptoms, bone pain, intractable nausea. *req prompt treatment L- lithium usage: phos inc. Ca
before cardiac arrest occurs dec.
Hypomagnesemia Clinical Manifestations Nursing Interventions
Serum Mg++ <1.3 mg/dL Neuromuscular irritability Dietary sources of Mg
(+) Trosseau’s sign carpopedal spasm induced by inflating bp Administer magnesium salts as indicated
Neuromuscular irritability and contractility cuff 20 mmHg over systolic BP
Regulation of PTH which plays a role in Ca+ levels
Monitor VS during mag su administration
Regulates BP (+) Chvostek’s sign contraction of facial muscles by tapping on
Metabolizes lipids, carbs, and proteins. facial nerve in front of ear.
Absorbed in small intestine. Monitor urine output, refer if <100ml over 4 hours
insomnia
Seizure precautions
Contributing factors Mood changes
Safety precautions
Chronic alcoholism anorexia
Screen for dysphagia
Hyperparathyroidism vomiting
Hyperaldosteronism Increased tendon reflexes
Magnesium sulfate given too rapidly can lead to heart block
Kidney injury ↑BP or asystole. Monitor for changes in cardiac rate, rhythm, or
respiratory distress.
Malabsorption disorders ECG: PVCs, flat or inverted T waves, depressed ST segment,
prolonged PR interval, widened QRS IV mag su must be given via infusion pump at a rate not
Diabetic ketoacidosis faster than 150 mg/min or 67 mEq over 8 hours.
Referring after starvation Mnemonics
Parenteral nutrition Causes: T: trousseau’s sign

W: weak respirations
laxatives, diarrhea L- limited intake Mg+ I: irritability
(Starvation) T: torsades de pointes, tetany
Acute MI, HF O- other electrolyte issues C: cardiac changes, chovstek
(hypokalemia, hypocalcemia) H: hypertension, hyperreflexia
hypokalemia & hypocalcemia W- wasting Mg+ via kidneys I: involuntary movements
N: nausea
Pharmacologic agents M- malabsorption issues G: GI issues (dec bowel sounds
(churns, celiac, PPIs,) + mobility)
A- alcohol (poor dietary intake,
stimulates magnesium exc.)
G- glycemic issues (DKA,
insulin)

Hypermagnesemia
flushing Restrict Mg
Serum Mg++ >3.0 mg/dL
hypotension IV calcium gluconate and ventilation in respiratory depression or
defective cardiac conduction
Muscle wekness
Hemodialysis with a magnesium free dialysate
Contributing factors drowsiness
Loop diuretics and NaCl or LR in pts with adequate renal func
Kidney injury Hypoactive reflexes
Monitor VS
Note shallow respirations and hypotension
Adrenal isufficiency Depressed respirations
Assess DTR and changes in LOC
Excess IV magnesium admin: PIH or hypomagnesemia Cardiac arrest
Tell pt to consult with their provider before taking any OTC
Diabetic ketoacidosis: catabolism causes the release of cellular Diaphoresis meds (kidney injury/ compromised renal function)
magnesium that can’t be excreted bc of a profound fluid volume
depletion and resulting oliguria Coma
Hypothyroidism Tachycardia → bradycardia
ECG: Prolonged PR interval and QRS, peaked T waves

Hypochloremia Clinical Manifestations

Nursing Management
Serum Cl < 97 mEq/L aggitation
Monitor I&O, ABG, serum electrolytes
Maintains acid-base balance Irritability
Buffer in exchange of O2 and CO2 in RBC Report changes in LOC, muscle strength, and movement
Proportionate to Na+ conc. promptly
Tremors
Inverse to HCO3- conc. V/S monitoring
Muscle cramps
Respiratory assessment
Contributing factors Hyperactive DTR
Educate about foods high in chloride content:
Addison’s dse hypertonicity
Tomato juice, bananas, dates, eggs, cheese, milk, salty broth,
Reduced intake/absorption tetany canned vegetables, processed meats
Diabetic ketoacidosis Slow, shallow respi
Chronic respiratory acidosis Seizures, coma
Excessive sweating Dysrhythmias
Vomiting & diarrhea ↑ serum HCO3, total CO2 ↓ serum Cl-, Na+, K+, urine
Cl-
NG suction, GI drainage, gastric surgery
Burns, fever
Medical Management
Na+ and K+ deficiency
Normal saline 0.9% NaCl
Metabolic alkalosis
Half strength saline 0.45% NaCl
Diuretics (loop, osmotic, thiazide)
D/c or change diuretic
IVF that lack Cl-
Ammonium chloride tx for metabolic alkalosis
HF, CF
Admin of aldosterone, corticosteroids, bicarbonate, or laxatives.

Hypechloremia Clinical Manifestations (same as metabolic acidosis) Nursing Management
Serum Cl- > 108 mEq/L Tachypnea Monitor I&O, ABG, serum electrolytes
Lethargy Report changes in LOC, muscle strength, and movement

promptly
Weakness
V/S monitoring
Exc. NaCl infusions with waterloss
Deep, rapid respirations
Respiratory assessment
Head injury (Na+ retention)
Decline in cognitive status, coma
Educate about avoiding foods high in chloride content:
hypernatremia
Dec cardiac output, HTN
Tomato juice, bananas, dates, eggs, cheese, milk, salty broth,
Kidney injury canned vegetables, processed meats
Dyspnea
corticosteroids
Tachycardia
dehydration
Hypervolemia, fluid retention — Pitting edema
Severe diarrhea (loss of bicarbonate)
Dysrhythmias
Respiratory alkalosis
↑ serum Cl-, K+, Na+ urine Cl- ↓ serum HCO3, normal anion
gap
Diuretics
Overdose of salicylates, kayexalate, acetazolamide,

phenylbutazone, and ammonium chloride use
Medical Management
Hyperparathyroidism
Hypotonic IV sol’n
Metabolic acidosis
LR: converts lactate to HCO3 in the liver
IV NaHCO3 - increase bicarbonate levels, dec chloride levels
Diuretics
Na, Cl, and fluids restriction

Hypophosphatemia Clinical Manifestations Nursing Management
Serum HPO4- < 2.5 mg/dL parenthesias Prevent infection
Formation of ATP Muscle weakness Monitor serum phosphorous levels

Facilitates release of O2 from HGB
Maintains ABG, NS,& metal. Of carbs, protein, fat. Bone pain Monitor for infiltration during IV phosphorus admin.
Structural support to bones and teeth
tenderness Foods rich in phosphorous:
Chest pain Milk and milk products, organ meats, nuts, fish, poultry, whole
Contributing factors grains
confusion
Refeeding after starvation
cardiomyopathy
Alcohol withdrawal
RF
DKA
seizures
R&M alkalosis
Tissue hypoxia
Dec Mg++, K+, and hyperparathyroidism
Susc. To infections
Acute volume expansion, osmotic diuresis, carbonic anhydrase
inhibitors Nystagmus — eyes make repetitive, uncontrolled movements
vomiting
diarrhea
Medical Management
hyperventilation
IV admin of sodium or potassium phosphate
Vitamin D def. assoc c malabsorptive disorders
Oral supplements
Acid-base disorders, respiratory alkalosis
Parenteral nutrition
Burns, diuretic and antacid use.
Hepatic encephalopathy
Hyperphosphatemia Clinical Manifestations Nursing Management
Serum HPO4- > 4.5 mg/dL tetany Low phosphorus diet: avoid
Reciprocal relationship with calcium: high phosphorous = low tachycardia Milk and milk products, organ meats, nuts, fish, poultry, whole
calcium grains, sardines, dried fruits/vegetables, cream
Anorexia
Avoid phosphorus containing laxatives and enemas
Contributing factors N/V
Educate about s/sx of impending hypocalcemia and monitoring
for changes in U/O
Kidney injury/dse Muscle weakness
Exc. intake of HPO4- S/sx of hypocalcemia: soft tissue calcifications in lungs, heart,
kidney, and cornea
Vitamin D excesss
Decreased urine output
Respiratory and metabolic acidosis
Impaired vision
Hypoparathyroidism
palpitations
Volume depletion
Leukemia, lymphoma treated with cytotoxic agents Medical Management
Inc tissue breakdown Treat underlying condition
Rhabdomyolysis: death of muscle fibers and release of their Vitamin D (calcitirol)

contents into the BS
Calcium binding antacids (calcium carbonate, calcium citrate)
Amphojel
Restrict dietary phosphate
Forced diuresis with loop diuretic
Volume replacement c saline
dialysis
Surgery to remove large Ca- deposits

Metabolic Acidosis High anion gap Causes: Assessment and dx findings
Low pH and low plasma bicarbonate concentration Results from excessive accumulation of organic acid pH < 7.35
Anion gap = Na+ + K+ - (Cl- + HCO3-) ketoacidosis Serum HCO3- < 22 mEq/L — cardinal feature
Anion gap = Na+ - (Cl- + HCO3-)
Lactic acidosis Hyperkalemia as K+ moves out of cell — dysrhythmias
Reduced or Normal anion High anion
negative anion gap gap
Salicylate poisoning Hypokalemia as K+ moves back into cell when acidosis is
gap
corrected
W/o K+ <8 8-12 mEq/L >12 uremia
Hyperventilation dec CO2 level as a compensatory action
With K+ <12 12-16 mEq/L >16 Methanol
hypoproteine Normal anion High anion Ethylene glycol toxicity Medical management
mia gap metabolic gap metabolic
acidosis acidosis ketoacidosis with starvation Tx directed at correcting the metabolic imbalance, fixing the
cause of metabolic acidosis
Bicarbonate admin.
Normal anion gap metabolic acidosis (hyperchloremic Clinical manifestations
acidosis) Causes:
NaHCO3- admin during cardiac arrest may lead tot paradoxical
headache intracellular acidosis
Results from direct loss of bicarbonate
confusion Monitor serum K+ closely
diarrhea
drowsiness In chronic metabolic acidosis: treat serum Ca+ levels first to
Lower intestinal fistulas prevent tetany
Increased respiratory rate, depth
ureterostomies Alkalizing agents
N/V
Early renal insuff. Dialysis
Hypotension
Exc admin of chloride
Cold, clammy skin
Administration of parenteral nutrition without bicarbonate or
bicarbonate producing solutes
Dysrhythmias and shock
Metabolic Alkalosis Assessment and Dx findings
High pH and high plasma bicarbonate concentration pH > 7.45 and serum HCO3- > 26 mEq/L
PaCO2 increases to compensate for excess bicarbonate by

retaining CO2.
Causes: hypoventilation
Vomiting Hypoxemia
Gastric suction Urine chloride levels <25 mEg/L
-metabolic alkalosis due to: vomiting, CF, nutritional repletion,
Pyloric stenosis diuretic therapy, hypovolemia and hypochloremia
Hypokalemia from diuretic therapy (thiazide, furosemide), Urine chloride > 40 mEq/L
ACTH secretion (Cushing’s syndrome, Addison’s disease) (-) signs of hypovolemia
Mineralocorticoid excess or alkali loading
1) kidneys conserve potassium —> H+ excretion increases (H+
> HCO3 = alkalosis) Urine chloride conc < 15 mEq/L when decreased chloride levels
2) Potassium shifts from inside the cell to outside, making H+ and hypovolemia occur.
ions enter the cell to maintain neutrality. Less H+ ions in
plasma = greater number of bicarbonate ions = alkalosis `
Villous adenoma, chronic ingestion of milk and calcium Medical management
carbonate.
Monitor I&O carefully
Administer sodium chloride fluids

Clinical manifestations
In patients with hypokalemia, KCl is given
Tingling of fingers and toes
Cimetidine (H+ receptor antagonists — reduce production of
dizziness gastric hydrogen chloride, dec. alkalosis caused by gastric
suctioning
Hypertonic muscles
Carbonic anhydride inhibitors— treat metabolic alkalosis in
Depressed respirations patients who can’t tolerate rapid vol expansion (HF)
Atrial tachycardia
Decreased motility and paralytic ileum
U-waves (premature ventricular contractions) on EKG

Respiratory acidosis: carbonic acid excess Clinical manifestations Medical management
Low pH and high PaCO2 inc. PR, RR, BP Tx aimed at improving ventilation
Inadequate excretion of CO2 with inadequate ventilation, Mental cloudiness, dizziness, disorientation Bronchodilators
resulting in inc. levels of carbonic acid
Feeling of fullness in the head Antibiotics for infec
Causes: Dec LOC, drowsiness Thrombolytics or anticoagulants
Acute pulmonary edema Dysrhythmias, Ventricular fibrillation Pulomnary hygiene measures
aspiration Papilledema Adequate hydration
Foreign object vasodilation Mechanical ventilation
atelectasis Hyperkalemia, muscle weakness Semi-fowler’s position
Pneumothorax cyanosis
OD of sedatives Tachypnea — rapid, shallow respirations
Sleep apnea
ARDS Assessment and Dx findings
Muscular dystrophy pH < 7.35 and PaCO2 > 45 mm Hg
GBS Compensation: renal retention of bicarbonate
Mysanthenia gravis CXR— identify respi dse
ECG
Drug screen for OD

Respiratory alkalosis Clinical manifestations Medical management
High pH low paCO2 Lightheadedness due to vasoconstriction Breathe into a paper bag
Inability to concentrate Treat underlying condition
Causes Numbness and tingling
hyperventilation Tinnitus
Extreme anxiety Loss of consciousness
hypoxemia tachycardia Thank you for downloading my fluid &

Salicylate intoxication Ventricular and atrial dysrhythmias electrolytes cram sheets! I hope this helps
you in studying for your med surg exams.
Gram-negative bacteremia N/V Please bear in mind that these are my
personal notes & as accurate as I try to be,
Inappropriate ventilator settings Seizures
there may be missing/inaccurate
Chronic hypocapnia Deep rapid breathing information. That being said, I still highly
encourage you to read your textbooks.
Chronic hepatic insufficiency
Cerebral tumors Assessment and Dx findings Best of luck on your nursing journey!
pH > 7.45 and PaCO2 < 35 mm Hg

Padayon, Future Nurse.
Normal bicarbonate level
- Dane (Your Nursing Ate)
Possible hypokalemia, hypocalcemia, or hypophosphatemia
Toxicology screen R/O salicylate poisoning

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Complete Head-to-Toe Physical

Assessment Cheat Sheet

 Head: The head of the client is rounded; normocephalic and symmetrical.

Eyes and Vision

Ears and Hearing

Nose and Sinus

Thorax, Lungs, and Abdomen

 The extremities are symmetrical in size and length.

Nursing Assessment in Tabular Form

When skin is pinched it goes to previous state

 Bulbar conjunctiva Transparent with capillaries slightly visible

 Hearing Acuity Test Voice sound audible.

Rapidly touches each finger to thumb with each

A. Inspection – critical observation *always first*

B. Palpation – light and deep touch

C. Percussion – sounds produced by striking body surface

D. Auscultation – listening to sounds produced by the body

Appearance appears to be reported age;

How to measure Height:

C. Pulse – see also Cardiovascular Exam

D. Blood Pressure – see also Cardiovascular Exam

Average Pulse and Blood Pressure in Normal Children

Blood Pressure Classification in Adults

The Physical Exam

B. Examination of the Head and Neck

Fontanels in a newborn - toddler:

Nose and sinuses

Mouth and Throat

Visual Fields - Screen Visual Fields by Confrontation

B. Extraocular Movement (EOM)

D. Examination of the Chest and Lungs

Posterior Chest Anterior Chest

Adventitious (Extra) Breath Sounds

B. Voice Transmission Tests

E. Cardiovascular Examination and Peripheral Vascular System

4. Grading force of pulse

Amplitude and Contour (Carotid)

Auscultation for Bruits (Carotids)

Jugular Venous Pressure

Edema, Cyanosis, and Clubbing

F. Examination of the Abdomen

Palpation of the Liver

Palpation of the Aorta

Palpation of the Spleen

Measurement of Abdominal girth

Active Range of Motion

Passive Range of Motion

Special Tests – Upper Extremities

B. Drop Arm Test (Rotator Cuff)

Special Tests - Lower Extremities

B. Anterior/Posterior Drawer Test (Cruciate Ligaments)

4. Test for Lateralization (Weber)

Assessment of Motor responses

Test the following:

Coordination and Gait

Tendon Reflex Grading Scale

Plantar Response (Babinski)

Assessment of Sensory responses

Routine pediatric neuro testing:

I. Genito-urinary and wellness

2 months smiles recognizes parents

Type Use Special Considerations

Electrolyte Values Laboratory test Normal Value Description

A. Inspection – critical observation always first