第五章: Electromagnetic Potentials

and Topics for Circuits and Systems

→5.1 Gradient, Laplacian, and the Potential Functions

5.2 Potential Functions for Static Fields
5.3 Poisson and Laplace Equations
5.4 Capacitance, Conductance, and Inductance
5.5 Electric- and Magnetic-Field Systems
5.6 Magnetic Circuits
5.7 Electromechanical Energy Conversion

EEEp282 5.1 Gradient, Laplacian, Potential Functions 1

 Gradient
  
 D   ax
 x

+ ay

y
(
+ a z  Dx a x + D y a y + Dz a z =
z 

x
)
Dx +

y

D y + Dz
z
ax ay az
 : Gradient of a scalar function,   E =
  
x y z
        Ex Ey Ez
   a x + ay + az    ax + ay + az
 x y z  x y z
d  =  (Q ) − ( P )
  
= dx + dy + dz
x y z
  
=( ax + ay + a z ) (dxa x + dya y + dza z )
x y z
=  d l
d  =  PQ
EEEp283,284 5.1 Gradient, Laplacian, Potential Functions 2
 Physical interpretation of Gradient 1D/2D
f(x) = −(cos2x) and its Gradient of f(x,y) = −(cos2x + cos2y)2 on
gradient. bottom plane.

0
f ( x)
1 6 11162126313641465156616671768186 f ( x, y)
-0.5

-1

-1.5

f
1.5

0.5

0
1 6 11 16 21 26 31 36 41 4651 56 6166 71 76 81 86

f

EEEp284,285 5.1 Gradient, Laplacian, Potential Functions 3

 2D gradient 與等位線
h( x , y ) = 6 − 2 x 2 + y 2 h h
h  ax + ay
x y
0, 2, 4, 6 = 6 − 2 x 2 + y 2
2( xa x + ya y )
=−
x2 + y2

2 2
 2( x )   2( y ) 
h =  −  +− 
 x + y  
2 2 
x +y 
2 2 

= 8

2D gradient垂直等位線
等高線(topographic map)
把地形當兩維空間，高度當作
對應的量可畫出等高線
EEEp27,28 1.4 Scalar and Vector Fields 4
Physical interpretation of 3D Gradient
Vector on equi- surface is perpendicular to  .
[ ]P =  P an 3D gradient垂直等位面
d  =  (Q ) − ( P )
=    P d l
=  P an d l
=  P dl cos  .

d
 = an
dn

EEEp284,285 5.1 Gradient, Laplacian, Potential Functions 5

 Gradient in different coordinates
  
 = ax + ay + az
x y z

Cylindrical
 1  
 = ar + a + az
r r  z
Spherical
 1  1 
 = ar + a + a
r r  r sin  

EEEp284 5.1 Gradient, Laplacian, Potential Functions 6

 Ex. 5.1 Finding unit vector normal to a
surface by using the gradient concept
Find the unit vector normal to the surface y=x 2 at the point (2,4,1)
Ans:
Recall: 3D gradient垂直等位面
( x p , y p , z p ) =  p
d
( )( x p , y p , z p ) = ( ) p = an ( p )
dn
surface x 2 -y=0 at the point (2,4,1) → 等位面
( x p , y p , z p ) = xp 2 -y p =0 at the point (2,4,1)
( x , y , z ) = x 2 -y at any point ( x , y, z )
  
 = ax + ay + az = 2 xa − 1a + 0
x y z x y
 an = 
(2, 4,1) 4a x − a y
=
(2, 4,1)
(2, 4,1) = 4a x − a y 17

EEEp285,286 5.1 Gradient, Laplacian, Potential Functions 7

Potential Functions?
需要一些觀察 Curl gradient = 0
d  =  d l
 S
(   A) d S =  C
A dl Stokes' theorem

 (    ) d S = 
S C
 d l

= d  =  beginning = 0 single-valued function 

end
C

Since for arbitrary S

→     = 0

Recall  A   A = 0 (proved in Ex. 3.9)

EEEp283 5.1 Gradient, Laplacian, Potential Functions 8

Magnetic vector and electric scalar potentials
A   A = 0     = 0
 B=0
→  A, known as magnetic vector potential, such that
B =  A 不是嚴格的數學證明(Not a strict proof) !!
B   A
 E = − =−
t t
A
  (E + )=0
t (不嚴格(not strict))
→   , known as electric scalar potential, such that
A A
E+ = − → E = − − If static,  → E
t t
EEEp282-286 5.1 Gradient, Laplacian, Potential Functions 9
 Laplacian of a scalar quantity
     
     = ( a x + a y + a z ) (
2
ax + ay + az )
x y z x y z
 2
  2
  2

→ =
2
+ 2 + 2
x 2
y z

1   1  2  2
Cylindrical:   =
2
(r )+ 2 +
r r r r   2 z 2
1  2  1   1  2
Spherical:   = 2
2
(r )+ 2 (sin  )+ 2 2
r r r r sin    r sin  z 2

EEEp287,288 5.1 Gradient, Laplacian, Potential Functions 10

 Laplacian of a vector

 2 A   ( A) −     A =  2 Ax a x +  2 Ay a y +  2 Az a z

EEEp288 5.1 Gradient, Laplacian, Potential Functions 11

 Laplacian of a vector 及補充(and more) (1/2)
=  2 Ax a x +  2 Ay a y +  2 Az a z ax ay az
     
 2 A   (  A) −     A = (
x
Ax +
y
Ay + Az ) −  
z x y z
 2     →  2 A    A ??? Ax Ay Az
ax ay az
     
= ( Ax +  Ay +  Az ) −  
x y z x y z
Ax Ay Az
ax ay az
  
 Ax  Ax  Ax
 x  x  x     
=( ax + ay + az +  Ay +  Az ) −  
x y z y z x y z
Ax Ay Az

ax ay az
  
 Ax  Ax  Ax
 x  x  x     
=( ax + ay + az +  Ay +  Az ) −
x y z y z x y z
     
y z z x x y
Ay Az Az Ax Ax Ay
EEEp288 5.1 Gradient, Laplacian, Potential Functions 12
 Laplacian of a vector 及補充(and more) (2/2)
=  2 Ax a x +  2 Ay a y +  2 Az a z
 2 A  ( A) −     A

ax ay az
  
 Ax  Ax  Ax
 x  x  x     
=( ax + ay + az +  Ay +  Az ) −
x y z y z x y z
     
y z z x x y
Ay Az Az Ax Ax Ay

           
= ax [ Ax + Ay + Az ] − ax [ ( Ay − Ax ) − ( Ax − Az )] + ...
x x x y x z y x y z z x
     
= ax [ Ax + Ax + Ax ] + ...
x x y y z z

=  2 Ax a x +  2 Ay a y +  2 Az a z
EEEp288 5.1 Gradient, Laplacian, Potential Functions 13
Potential functions enter Maxwell equations (1/3)
→ B A
 B=0 B =  A  E = − → E = − −
t t
 A  
 D=    − −  =  →  2 +  A=−
  t  t 

EEEp288 5.1 Gradient, Laplacian, Potential Functions 14

 Potential functions enter Maxwell equations (2/3)
→ B A
 B=0 B =  A  E = − → E = − −
t t
 A  
 D=    − −  =  →  2 +  A=−
  t  t 
D
 H = J +
t
 A Recall :  2 A   ( A) −     A
  − − 
 t
  A = J +  
1
 t
   2 A 
    A= J +   − − 2 
 t t 
   2 A 
−   ( A) −  A  = −   J +   −
2
− 2  
 t t 
 2 A
 A −  ( A + 
2
) −  2 = −  J
t t
EEEp288 5.1 Gradient, Laplacian, Potential Functions 15
Potential functions enter Maxwell equations (3/3)
B =  A

 
 2 +  A=−
t 
  
  + ( − 
2
)=−
t t 

Helmholtz's theorem: 對 A 而言，

A vector field is completely
其curl被 B =   A 決定了
specified by its curl and divergence.
還有 A 的自由度

 A  −  Lorenz condition  2
 
t  2  −  2 = −
t 
 2 A  2
A
 A −  ( A + 
2
) −  2 = −  J →  2 A −  2 = −  J
t t t
EEEp288,289 5.1 Gradient, Laplacian, Potential Functions 16
 Lorenz condition and continuity

 2 ( A = −  ) Lorenz condition → ? continuity equation
t

 2 ( A) =   2 A = −  2  2 =   2交換律
t
 2  
  −  2 = − 
2

t  

 A
2
 2 A −  2 = −  J 
t 
2 A   2 
 (  2 −  J ) = −  (  2 − )
t t t 
2  
 2 ( A +  ) =  ( J + )
t t t
 
 A  −  (Lorenz condition)   J + =0 (continuity equation)
t t
EEEp289 5.1 Gradient, Laplacian, Potential Functions 17
Lorenz condition and continuity (補充)
 2 =   2交換律證明

 2 (  A) =   (  A) Ax Ay Az

( + + )
   x y z  A  A
= ( a x + a y + az ) ( ax + ay + az )
x y z x y z
 Ax Ay Az
2
 Ax Ay Az
2
 Ax Ay Az
2
=[ 2 ( + + )] + [ 2 ( + + )] + [ 2 ( + + )]
x x y z y x y z z x y z
   2 2 2 2 2 2
= ( a x + a y + a z ) [( 2 + 2 + 2 ) Ax a x + ( 2 + 2 + 2 ) Ay a y + ...]
x y z x y z x y z
  
= ( a x + a y + a z ) ( 2 Ax a x +  2 Ay a y +  2 Az a z ) =   2 A
x y z

EEEp289 5.1 Gradient, Laplacian, Potential Functions 18