Electromagnetic Waves

Review of
Vector Calculus

1
 “Del” Operator

  
  xˆ + yˆ + zˆ This is an “operator”*.
x y z

  
Gradient   = xˆ +y
ˆ + zˆ (Vector)
x y z

 2 2 2 
Laplacian   = (  ) =  2 + 2 + 2 
2
(Scalar)
 x y z 

*An operator is something that operates on a function to return another function.

2
 “Del” Operator (cont.)
  
  xˆ + yˆ + zˆ
x y z

Vector A: A = xA
ˆ x + yA
ˆ y + zA
ˆ z

Ax Ay Az

Divergence  A = + + (Scalar)
x y z

 Az Ay   Ax Az   Ay Ax 

Curl  A = xˆ  −  + yˆ  −  + zˆ  − 
 y z   z x   x y 
(Vector)
(see next slide for more details)

Note:
Results for cylindrical and spherical coordinates are given
in the Chapter 3 of your text book.
3
 “Del” Operator (cont.)
  
  xˆ + yˆ + zˆ
x y z

A = xA
ˆ x + yA
ˆ y + zA
ˆ z

A few more details about calculating the divergence and the curl:

     Ax Ay Az

ˆ

ˆ

ˆ

ˆ ˆ (
 A =  x + y + z   x Ax + y Ay + z Az =
ˆ

+

+ )
z
 x y z  x y

    
(
  A =  xˆ + yˆ + zˆ   xˆ Ax + yˆ Ay + zˆ Az )
 x y z 
xˆ yˆ zˆ
  
=
x y z
Ax Ay Az
 A Ay   Az Ax   Ay Ax 
= xˆ  z −  − ˆ
y  −  + ˆ
z  − 
 y z   x z   x y 
4
 Vector Identities

Two fundamental “zero” identities:

  (   A) = 0

  (  ) = 0

Note: It is usually easiest to prove vector identities by expanding both sides

in rectangular coordinates, though any coordinate system can be used.

5
 Vector Identities (cont.)

Another useful identity:

  ( A  B ) = B  (   A) − A  (  B )

This will be useful in the derivation of the Poynting theorem.

6
 Vector Laplacian

The vector Laplacian of a vector function is a vector function.

 A   (   A) −   (   A)
2

The vector Laplacian is very useful for deriving the vector Helmholtz
equation (the fundamental differential equation that the vector
electric and magnetic fields obey).

7
 Vector Laplacian (cont.)

In rectangular coordinates, the vector Laplacian has a very nice property:

 2 A = xˆ (  2 Ax ) + yˆ (  2 Ay ) + zˆ (  2 Az )

This identity is a key property that will help us reduce the vector
Helmholtz equation to the scalar Helmholtz equation, which the
components of the fields satisfy.

8
 Gradient
Physical Property

  
d   ( r + dr ) −  ( r ) = dx + dy + dz (from calculus)
x y z
          
=  xˆ   + yˆ   + zˆ     xˆ ( dx ) + yˆ ( dy ) + zˆ ( dz )  =   dr
  x   y   z  


d   dr d
d
=
d
 dr 
=    
d  d
=   () d = dr

r dr r + dr

The gradient gives us the “directional derivative”, which tells us the rate of change
in a function as we march in a certain direction .
9
 Gradient (cont.)

Rectangular

  
 = xˆ + yˆ + zˆ
x y z

Cylindrical

 ˆ 1  
 = ˆ + + ẑ
   z

Spherical

 ˆ 1  ˆ 1 
 = rˆ + +
r r  r sin  
10
 Divergence
Physical Property
z
1
ˆ z
zA   A = Lim
V →0 V  A  nˆ dS
S

y The divergence
measures the rate at
ˆ y
yA which the “flux” of the
vector function emanates
ˆ x
xA V = x y z from a region of space.
x
nˆ = outward normal Divergence > 0: “source of flux”
Divergence < 0: “sink of flux”

11
 Divergence (cont.)

Water flow Many small pipes injecting water

Tub of water

A ( x, y, z ) = velocity vector of water inside tub

  A  0 ( inside tub )
12
 Divergence (cont.)
Rectangular:

Ax Ay Az

 A = + +
x y z

Cylindrical:

1  1 A Az
 A =
 
(  A ) + +
  z

Spherical:

1  2  1 A
  A = 2 ( r Ar ) +
1
( A sin  ) +
r r r sin   r sin  

13
 Curl
z Physical Property

y, z → 0
Cx 1
(   A)  xˆ = Lim
S x →0 S  A  dr
x̂ z x Cx

y S x = y z
y
"right-hand rule for C"

Note:
The path may be chosen to be a rectangle for
convenience, but the calculation of the curl does
not depend on the shape of the path. (This can
be proven by using Stokes’s theorem.*)

14
 Curl (cont.)

“Exploded view” 1
(   A)  xˆ = Lim  S x → 0 S  A  dr
z x Cx

1
S z (   A)  yˆ = Lim  A  dr
S →0 x S y Cy
Cz
1
Curl is calculated here S y (   A)  zˆ = Lim  S x → 0 S  A  dr
z Cz

S x y
Cy Note:
The paths are defined according to the
Cx “right-hand rule.”
x (Your thumb is in the direction of the
unit normal.)

Note:
The paths are all centered at the point of interest (shown as the origin for simplicity).
(A separation between the paths is shown in the exploded view for clarity.)
15
 Curl (cont.)

“Curl meter”
= xˆ , yˆ , or zˆ
Assume that A represents
the velocity of a fluid.
Tl = torque in l direction ( shown for = ẑ )
ˆ  curl A  lim 1
s →0 S  C
A  dr
S C

The term A  dr measures the force on the paddles.

A
(going counterclockwise)

Hence,

 curl A is a measure of Tl , the component of torque in the direction.

(If this component is positive, the paddle wheel will spin counterclockwise.)
16
 Curl

Example: V = xˆ ( y ) Vx = y , V y = 0, Vz = 0

 Vz Vy   Vx Vz   Vy Vx 

  V = xˆ  −  + yˆ  −  + zˆ  − 
 y z   z x   x y 

  V = zˆ ( −1)
The paddle wheel thus spins
(   Hence,
V )  zˆ = −1  0 opposite to the fingers of the
right hand, if the thumb points
in the z direction.
y

River

x
17
 Curl (cont.)
Rectangular
 Az Ay   Ax Az   Ay Ax 
  A = xˆ  −  + yˆ  −  + zˆ  − 
 y z   z x   x y 

Cylindrical

 1 Az A  ˆ  A Az  1   (  A ) A 

  A = ˆ  − +  −  + zˆ  − 
   z   z       


Spherical
1   ( A sin  ) A  1  1 Ar  ( rA )  ˆ 1   ( rA ) Ar 
  A = rˆ  −   +  −  +  − 
r sin      r  sin   r  r  r  
 

18
 Curl (cont.)
Determinant Forms

xˆ yˆ zˆ
  
Rectangular  A =
x y z
Ax Ay Az

ˆ  ˆ zˆ
1   
Cylindrical  A =
   z
A  A Az

rˆ rˆ r sin  ˆ
1   
Spherical  A =
r 2 sin  r  
Ar rA r sin  A
19
 Divergence Theorem

S
n̂
V

n̂ = outward normal

   A dV =  A  nˆ dS
V S

A = arbitrary vector function

20
 Stokes’s Theorem

n̂
S (open)

C (closed)

The unit normal is chosen from a “right-hand rule”

according to the direction along C.
(An outward normal corresponds to a counter clockwise path.)

 (   A)  nˆ dS =  A  dr
S C
21