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Direct Drive Friction Welding: A Comprehensive Mathematical Model

Article  in  SAE Technical Papers · September 2010

DOI: 10.4271/2010-01-1869

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Direct Drive Friction Welding: A Comprehensive 2010-01-1869

Published
Mathematical Model 09/28/2010

Michele Trancossi and Antonio Dumas

Universita' di Modena e Reggio Emilia

Copyright © 2010 SAE International

The proposed method can be useful for different uses: to

ABSTRACT predict the thermal evolution of welded elements and burn-
This paper presents a theoretical study on direct drive rotary off volume, to reduce setup difficulties and to realize a more
friction welding process and investigates the possibility of effective control on the process.
producing an analytical solution of the heat transfer equation,
both during the first part of heating process and the second INTRODUCTION
part of the process when the operative temperature of the
The energy required in Direct Drive Friction Welding is
material at the end of the rod is assumed to be constant and
supplied by a welding machine through a direct motor
equal to plasticization temperature.
connection for a preset period of the welding cycle. One of
the work pieces is attached to a motor-driven unit while the
The solutions of the set of equations obtained have been
other is restrained from rotation and pressed. The motor-
compared with some experimental data present in literature
driven work piece is rotated at a predetermined constant
[ 9 ] showing a fair agreement The burn-off volume (length in
speed. The work pieces to be welded are forced together and
the case of a cylinder) can be estimated. The proposed
then a friction welding force is applied. Heat is generated as
method is simple, suitable for engineering calculations and
the facing surfaces (weld interfaces) rub together. This
can be used to predict the thermal evolution of welded
continues for a predetermined time, or until a preset amount
elements and the burn-off volume, to reduce setup difficulties
of axial shortening (upset) takes place. The rotational driving
and to realize a more effective control on the process.
force is discontinued and the rotating work piece is stopped
by the application of a braking force or a weld itself (Inertia
Direct drive rotary friction welding has an increasing
Welding). The friction welding force (forge force) is
importance in manufacturing because it produces a solid
maintained, or increased, for a predetermined time after
junction between different material and alloys, even
rotation ceases. The qualitative behaviour of the operative
heterogeneous material which cannot be joined using
parameters is shown in fig. 1.
common welding processes.
The friction welding presents advantages if compared to any
The paper focuses on frictional heat generation and aims to
other welding process. It produces both a natural heating of
describe the heat transfer model during the process, starting
the material and an energetic deformation. The thermal
from the classical theory of friction. The heating phase is
behaviour of the material is described by conductive heat
described as a function of four characteristic physical
transfer equation. Heat spreads from the facing surfaces to the
variables: axial force, spin velocity, torque and time. These
rest of the bodies involved in the process.
parameters are fundamental to predict heating of the welded
rods and the burn-off volume and can be easily controlled
The friction welding technology presents some advantages:
during the industrial process. The consequent heat transfer
equation is solved analytically and the results are compared • the surfaces to be merged must not be cleaned in advance;
with experimental data present in literature. It is shown • different materials can be joined;
• costs lower and energy efficiency higher compared with any
other welding process;
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Figure 1. Diagram of welding speed and forces during the Direct Drive Friction Welding process

• the strength of the joint is comparable with that one of the
adjacent joining materials reducing the problems of fragility;
• Welding fragility zones are avoided;
• The presence of oxides of metals is avoided because of
great weld flash generated;
The process, nevertheless, presents also some intrinsic
problems:
• a complex setup due to difficulties in the prediction of
welding conditions without an experimental activity;
• the formation of an important weld flash which could
require a machine tooling for increasing the quality of
surfaces.
Recent literature presents an increasing number of studies
about friction welding process, due to increasing economic
and industrial benefits produced by this technology. Studies
are oriented in three different directions:
1. physical analysis and modelling concerning heat
generation and diffusion models, which investigates heat
generation and thermal diffusion and helps to realize
provisional models of the welding process, to reduce the
setup time and to facilitate the process control;
2. physical analysis and modelling concerning friction
models which concerns tribologic behavior of materials and
investigates methods to facilitate the heating and adhesive
process;
3. experimental analysis realized on different materials
analyzing the effect of time and upset on the final welding
results, which concerns individual industrial applications and
helps to increase the quality of junctions.
The first approach can produce theoretical models using
general laws, but lacks of attention to individual cases. The
other two approaches produced the experimental analysis of
several particular cases of coupling different pairs of
materials, investigating the conditions to obtain the best
possible technological result. They present a good analysis of
individual cases, but often lack of generality.
Adolf and Andrei Sluzalec [7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12] analyzed of
the thermal problems connected to friction welding, presented
finite elements model describing temperature distribution.
Tsang [13-14] define two process controlling parameters the
friction welding process can be controlled, or both rotation
and force are maintained for a specific period determined by
two different parameters: time and burn-off. Trepte [15-16]
studied the influences of other technological parameters on
burn-off volume (length) and the applied torque in friction
welding.
Other authors [17, 18, 19, 20, 21] are interested into a single
material coupling and a particular rod dimensions. They do
not try to define a general model of the problem. Their
experimental analysis produces good results, but sometimes
looses of generality.
FRICTION MODEL
The general law of friction can be expressed in three different
forms [1, 2]:
1. Friction is independent of apparent contact area
2. Limiting friction is proportional to the normal load
3. Limiting friction is independent of sliding speed
Limiting, or breakout, friction is the friction force on the
reciprocally sliding surfaces.
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The first two laws, proposed by Amonton in 1699, are

generally applicable. The third law, proposed by Coulomb in
1785, has a reduced area of applicability [3].
(4)
The second law can be expressed as:
Dividing both sides by time, t, it can be defined the velocity
of abrasion u=ΔH/t, as a function of average pressure, wear
rate and sliding speed v = L/t:
(1)

The friction occurring between different moving bodies has (5)

one of the following causes or both together:
1. abrasion: a harder surface (or particle) ploughs through the Rearranging equation (10) it is possible to calculate:
softer counter face;
2. adhesion: the contact between surfaces generates local
adhesive microscopic (or large scale) bonds between the two
surfaces. (6)

The simple adhesive theory of friction is expressed as: The product, p v, influences the temperature rise at the sliding
contact, because it is reasonable to assume that:

(2) • power loss is proportional to friction force and speed.

This simplification is useful to indicate that adhesive friction
is sensible to the shear strength of the bonds, which depends
on:
• surface hardness of materials in opposition;
• heat loss by conduction is proportional to temperature
difference, ΔT, between the sliding surface and its
surroundings, the apparent area of the contact, A, and the
thermal conductivity of the materials involved in the friction
phenomena.

• presence of low shear strength surface layers (lubricants);
• difference in terms of surface hardness of the facing
materials.
Wear by sliding (either adhesive or abrasive) is usually
characterized by specific wear rate, ws, which assumes the
following expression:
It is possible to analyze more in depth the nature of friction in
the welding process.
The first part of the process (till the beginning of the
shortening) is characterized by dry sliding friction
phenomena, described by equation (7). Sliding friction
coefficient and sliding stress are represented using the
subscript s.

(3)
(7)

Wear can be classified in two different categories: The second part of the friction phenomena are governed by
viscous sliding model. It can be expressed by a friction
• mild wear: ws ≤ 10−16; coefficient which is proportional to Von Mises stress. It can
be calculated by the viscous stress, τs:
• severe wear: ws > 10−14.

Most material wear rates lie within the range 10−17 and
10−12.
(8)
Calculating V, dividing both sides by the apparent area of where m is a constant and σVM is the Von Mises stress.
contact A, and defining the height of abrasion (ΔH=V/A) and
Dividing and multiplying the second term of equation (8) for
the average contact pressure ( ), it is possible to nominal pressure p it is possible to define the viscous friction
get: coefficient:
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(9)

Viscous friction is expressed in a formulation similar to dry

friction sliding:

(10)

After few rounds the system is characterized by a pure

viscous friction [6]. Under this consideration it is possible to Figure 3. Schema of the contact between the cylinders
assume that the friction is nearly viscous during the whole
welding process. The elemental contact area is dA = r · dα · dr and the
elementary sliding stress τ in the contact region is
DYNAMIC MODEL . The sliding force and the moment on the
The considered system is constituted a cylinder and a plate of elemental contact area are:
the same or different material. This is a general model which
can be extended by symmetry to a configuration constituted
of two facing cylinders. The cylinder is turned by a couple M. (11)
The plate is pressed by a force W.

(12)

Equation (12) can be easily integrated

(13)

HYPOTHESIS ON TEMPERATURE
EVOLUTION AND BURN-OFF
VOLUME
It is considered a finite rod of length L free from thermal
insulation and having thermal contact with the surrounding
medium (atmospheric air).

Figure 2. 3D schema of the considered friction welding
process
By considering the geometry of rotating cylinder it is possible
to define a general mathematical model of the contact.
The following hypotheses have been formulated:
1. Removal of material (burn off formation) proceeds with
velocity u starting from the heated end. There are no heat
fluxes at the free end.
2. The temperature at the heated end of a welding increases
to reach the temperature of plasticization tp. Then it remains
constant in accord to [7].

It is considered that the burn-off is constituted by the volume

of material which reaches the plasticization temperature tp.

Friction welding is one of the heat transfer problems which

are not strictly one-dimensional and/or steady. This problem
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Figure 4. Rod like model of friction welding

can be described as a heated rod on one of its flat sides. The HEAT EXCHANGE MODEL
simplest model would be phenomenon could be modelled as
a rod protruding from a hot base-plate (Fig. 1) and HYPOTHESIS
surrounded by some fluid which has a temperature T∞ far The heat exchange model in the rod can be evaluated
from the rod heated face. adopting the following set of assumptions:

DYNAMIC MODEL 1. the rod is homogeneous;

The general dynamic equation of the rotating system is: 2. the problem can be described with a one-dimensional
model;

3. the fused material is carried away (burn-off);

(14)
4. after the plasticization temperature tp has been reached the
where Mm is the torque applied, is the angular removal of rod material from end proceeds with velocity u
acceleration. During the stationary part of the rotation (burn-off velocity);
equation (14) assumes the following simplified form:
5. there are no heat sources at the free end of the rod;

6. it is assumed that the convective heat exchange is

negligible.
(15)
This problem is not strictly one-dimensional and is naturally
The dissipated work is equivalent to: unsteady because of the time during which it develop.
Friction welding can easily approximate as one-dimensional.
It can be approximated with a physical model similar to rods,
fins, and other extended surfaces.
(16)
where ω is the angular speed (ω = 2 π n / 60) and t is the time. Energy balance can be expressed for a longitudinal cylinder
element (with mass dm = ρ · A · dx) of differential length dx
By equations (16) it is possible to assume that the distribution at some stage x from the root:
of friction forces can be assumed on a single circle
characterized by radius R′ = 2 R / 3.

The dissipated work is equivalent to the heat produced by (17)

friction phenomena.
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Figure 5. Graphical schema of energy balance on a differential length element

The various heat exchange terms in equation (31) are 1. Heating phase: till the sliding surface reaches
plasticization temperature;

2. Viscous phase: after the plasticization temperature has

been reached; during this phase the material volume which
reaches the plasticization temperature is expelled from the
process (burn-off).

Most authors solve heat equation by numerical solutions.

where C is the perimeter of the rod C = 2 · π · R and A is the Considering these two different phases an analytical solution
area of the rod section A = π R2. of heat equation can be produced. Analytical solution is
preferable because it presents
Heat equation is:
Analytical solutions are the best outcome for a problem. It is
not because they are more accurate than numerical ones.
Exactness is not possible in the physical modelling of
(18) phenomena. Analytical solutions are preferable because of
their strict relation to the problem. They permit to evaluate
the influence of the parameters, which governs the problem.
Some consideration may occur about convective term. If the This influence is explicitly shown in the solution.
temperature can be assumed nearly constant on every section
of the rod, it can be ignored: It is possible to say that analytical solutions often maintain
more information about the initial data than the numeric one.

Numerical solutions instead can produce a lack of

(19) information. They must be produced in the cases in which it
is not possible to obtain analytical ones. If an analytical (or
any combination of analytical solutions) can be produced it is
often possible to have a more effective description of the
phenomena.
(20)
Heating phase solution: 0 < t < th
EXACT SOLUTIONS OF THE HEAT This solution can be produced by dimension similarity. This
methodology is based on the conversion of the PDE to an
EQUATION ordinary differential equation (ODE) in a combined variable.
Solutions of heat equation can be produced by considering
two different process stages:
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The PDE (19) can transform to an ODE by assuming the

following variable:

(21)
(24)
The obtained ODE is:
In case of a singular-source regular problem in temperature
the boundary conditions are:

(22)

This equation can be solved in general in terms of hyper-

geometric functions. In particular, for each space dimension, (25)
it has solutions in terms of the error function
In this case the general solution can be expressed as:

and the exponential integral:

(26)

Solving (22) yields (27)

Because of the linearity of equation (22), not only that

(28)
function but its partial derivatives to any order in x and t are
solutions of equation (22), and in particular ∂ erf(η) / ∂x and
∂ erf(η) / ∂t.

In conclusion equation (22) has the following possible (29)

solutions:
Equation 41 is very important to define the time necessary to
reach the temperature of plasticization on the contact surface.

(30)

Equation (26) becomes by using (28)

(23)

In case of a singular initial-value problem in temperature

without sources the boundary conditions are: (31)
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By this set of equations is represented the temperature

distribution in the rod before the plasticization temperature
has been reached.
(34)
Plasticization period: th < t < tp
After the contact surface has reached an average temperature
equal to the temperature of plasticization, the thermal
exchange model changes. In this case integration
methodology is different. The heat distribution becomes a
problem described by partial differential equations. The
initial and boundary conditions only depend on the variables
alone and not on their combination. In this case it is possible
to define the general solution T(x,t) is in separate-variable
functions:
It can be assumed:

The heat equation is

(35)

The general solution is determined and results

and after division by T(x,t)

(32) (36)
becomes: where

(33)
(37)

Each term of equation (33) must be a constant (cannot depend

The temperature can be approximated by the truncated series:
on the other variable).

The two kinds of functions that have a second derivative

proportional to the function values are the exponential and
trigonometric functions.

Time-variation must be an exponentially-decaying function in (38)

all transient problems towards a stationary state. Because of
the sign in (33), trigonometric functions must be chosen for The first term is already good enough for not too-short
the spatial dependence, whose actual form is dictated by the times):
type of boundary conditions.

In the considered case, a constant value of the function must

be maintained at the surface, the simplest choice is of the type
(39)

where .
Assuming , the solution becomes:
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A simple solution has been obtained. And tp can be determined

As assuming a length of the bar equal to L − ΔL where ΔL is

the shortage due to friction it can be obtained the thermal
distribution at the end of the process.
(41)
AN EFFECTIVE MATHEMATICAL
If t p is short in comparison of process time can be possible to
MODEL
describe the friction welding process by equation (39):
Equation (25) gives work dissipated by frictional forces. It is:

It is known the following relation: The rod length reduction it can be considered by assuming a
higher end temperature than Tp, for example the temperature
of fusion Tf.

It can be considered divided in two components, one acting

on one element and the other on another one. It can be
assumed that frictional work acting on the rotating rod is:
(42)

It can be created a virtual rod longer than the welded one that
presents T(xv,t0) = Tp.

It result the following virtual length Hp:

It can be assumed because these

parameters are function of temperature. The general equation
of temperature during heating is: (43)

The length of the bar used for effective calculation is

If we consider that the material which assumes a temperature

over plasticization temperature is expelled out of the bar. If tw
is the time elapsed by friction heating it is possible to
calculate the burn-off length reduction Hw.
It can be assumed

(40)
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Table 1. Properties of the G20 Steel

Young modulus of g 20 Steel can be obtained by literature as

a function of temperature. It can be approximated by the
(44) following line:
The temperature map during the process is

Density can be expressed as

(45)

where 0 ≤ x ≤ Hp.
CALCULATION RESULTS
It can be evaluated at different values of t, producing the Operative temperature is assumed to be plasticization
thermal map of the object in every moment, and the thermal temperature. G20 steel has a plasticization temperature Tp
evolution of the object as a function of time. equal to 1050°C about. Average pressure considered is
40÷100 N/mm2.
VALIDATION OF RESULTS
The same geometry tested by Sluzalec has been used. The rod
PROPERTIES OF THE MATERIAL has a diameter 0.020 m (20 mm). Temperature is evaluated in
The model is validated by results published by Sluzalec [9]. different positions along rod axis (step 5 mm).
These results are referred to G20 steel. Main properties of the
G20 steel are reported below. A section of the rod has area A = 314,16 mm2. The total force
results N = 12566.4÷31416 N.
Using values from this table it is possible to define functions
which approximate the properties of G20 steel. Two welding conditions are assumed: pa = 40 N/mm2 and pb
= 60 N/ mm2. Applied forces are Na = 12566.4 N and Nb =
Thermal conductivity can be approximated by the following 18849.6 N.
first order function:
Friction coefficient is not known and it depends on
temperature. It is assumed by experimental values [11]. By
calculating average value in the temperature range it can be
Average value in the considered interval of data is 20,2 W/(m assumed µ = 1.
K).
In accord to Sluzalec angular speed is assumed to be 1460
Specific heat can be approximated by a third order rpm.
polynomial:
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Figure 6. Graph of temperature obtained by G20 steel data at 5 mm depth compared with Sluzalec data fitting at the same depth.

It can be evaluated the time tp, which results about 4 seconds. CONCLUSIONS
Lp results about 2.5 mm.
This paper presents a general model of the process, which
could be helpful to calculate temperature distribution and
Assuming a length of the rod of 1m (enough to consider the
burn-off volume as a function of directly controllable
problem that the rod is infinite on one side) it results a
technological parameters: axial force, spin velocity, torque
calculation length 1002.5. The graph of temperature obtained
and time.
is similar to the one produced by Sluzalec. In the produced
graph x is assumed, but x is moved on the t axis about 1s.
This model aims to be an advancement of the studies of
Sluzalec, Tsang and Trepte, which describe the process as
The graph appears in line with experimental and theoretical
function of independent variables. This approach could
results obtained by A. Sluzalec [9] at the same depth. By this
present an apparent contrast with Tsang description. It is only
interesting result it can be assumed that the proposed model,
apparent, because it does not exclude the importance of burn-
based on analytical solutions of the heat equation can be
off volume, but assumes that it is a dependent variable of the
useful in order to produce affordable results to the technical
process, instead of an independent one, calculated as a
prediction of thermal behaviour of friction welding.
function of independent variables.
The presented model needs some numerical improvement in
A case of the experimental temperature distribution obtained
order to be more usable. Some improvements are under
by Sluzalec [9-10] is used to verify and validate the model
study. Different and more comprehensive validation are
presented. The last phase of static drawing is not considered,
under development, but it is not easy to obtain experimental
because it is less influenced by thermal heating. It can be
data. An experimental campaign has began but need long
implemented in future developments.
times in order to be completed.
The model has been verified by comparing results to Sluzalec
Figure 12 shows also that in about 20 s the burn-off is about 3
study on G20 steel.
mm in accord with calculation by equation (44), and Sluzalec
experimental data.
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Figure 7. Graph of temperature obtained by equation (45) at different depth

A future development will consist in the burn-off modeling
by verifying the direct applicability of the Reye hypothesis:
proportionality between the volume of burn-off volume and
the work of the forces of friction.
Other future developments will regard the experimental
validation of the model for different materials. A code
implementing a large database of material data to predict
many rotary friction welding cases could be produced. The
problem connected with this activity is related to the
definition of effective and valuable functions describing
material properties, such as density, interface conductivity,
thermal conductivity, which are function of temperature.
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Aluminium Alloys 2002, Gregson, P.J. and Harris, S., pp.
1543-1548 (2002) L total sliding distance [m]
19. Sketchley, P. D., Threadgill, P. L. and Wright, I. G., k specific wear rate [m2 / N]
Rotary friction welding of an Fe3Al based ODS alloy,
Materials Science and Engineering A, Volumes 329-331, pp. H height of abrasion [m]
756-762 (2002)
P contact pressure [N/m2]
20. Satyanarayana, V. V., Reddy, G. Madhusudhan and
Mohandas, T., Dissimilar metal friction welding of austenitic- u abrasion velocity [m/s]
ferritic stainless steels, Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, Volume 160, Issue 2, pp. 128-137 (2005) t sliding stress [N/mm2]
21. Young-Jin, K., Dong-Ho, B. and Yun-Jae, K., On
s sliding stress [N/mm2]
Mechanical Properties of Dissimilar Friction Welded Steel
Bars, Key Engineering Materials (Volumes 297 - 300), Vol. R external radius of the rod [mm], [m]
Advances in Fracture and Strength, pp. 2831-2836 (2005)
D eternal diameter of the rod [mm], [m]
CONTACT INFORMATION
r generic radius of the rod [mm], [m]
michele.trancossi@unimore.it
α generic angle [rad]

ω angular speed [rad/s]

n angular speed [rpm]

W work [J]

Q heat [J]

F force [N]

M couple [Nm]

A area [mm2] [m2]

t time [s]

h convection coefficient

k conduction coefficient

ρ density [kg/m3]

Mf couple of friction [Nm]

Tp plasticization temperature [K]

Tf temperature of fusion [K]

Lp virtual elongation [mm]; [m]

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doi:10.4271/2010-01-1869

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