energies
Article
The Characteristics of the After-Combustion in a Commercial
CFBC Boiler Using the Solid Waste Fuel
Jong-Seon Shin 1,2 , Dowon Shun 1, *, Churl-Hee Cho 2, * , Yujin Choi 1 and Dal-Hee Bae 1
Citation: Shin, J.-S.; Shun, D.; Cho,
C.-H.; Choi, Y.; Bae, D.-H. The
Characteristics of the
After-Combustion in a Commercial
CFBC Boiler Using the Solid Waste
Fuel. Energies 2022, 15, 5507.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en15155507
Academic Editor: Dino Musmarra
Received: 23 June 2022
Accepted: 26 July 2022
Published: 29 July 2022
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Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
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This article is an open access article
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Energies 2022, 15, 5507. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15155507
1 Greenhouse Gas Laboratory, Korea Institute of Energy Research (KIER), 152 Gajeong-ro, Yuseong-gu,
Daejeon 34129, Korea; sjs@kier.re.kr (J.-S.S.); yjinchoi1@kier.re.kr (Y.C.); dalbae@kier.re.kr (D.-H.B.)
2 Graduate School of Energy Science and Technology, Chungnam National University, 99 Daehak-ro,
Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34134, Korea
* Correspondence: dshun@kier.re.kr (D.S.); choch@cnu.ac.kr (C.-H.C.)
Abstract: A CFBC (Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustor) boiler for combusted SRF (Solid Refused
Fuel) is designed for solid waste combustion and power generation. The boiler consumes about
200 tons/day of SRF and generates 60 ton/h of steam or 10 MWe in electricity. The boiler is designed
to burn pelletized waste fuel made of municipal solid waste collected from a town with a population
of 400,000. Heat and mass balance calculations over the combustor and at each boiler section
were performed and compared between the designed and measured data to analyze the boiler’s
performance. After-combustion, the most significant phenomenon in low-density waste-derived fuel
combustion in a CFBC boiler was monitored. The heat and mass balance were the most appropriate
tools to analyze the boiler performance. The flow rate of spray water at the de-superheater was
a reliable indicator to quantify the after-combustion. The design modification of the boiler unit
for after-combustion control in the existing boiler was based on the quantification of spray water.
The load distribution of the de-superheater decreases from 1.76% to 0.87% in 89% MCR before the
installation of the evaporator and 82* % MCR load distribution of each boiler part after installation.
The result was effective for the control of after-combustion in the existing boiler.
Keywords: CFBC (Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustor) boiler; after-combustion; SRF (Solid
Refused Fuel); heat and mass balance
1. Background
The energy conversion of solid waste is one of the biggest issues in modern metropoli-
tan life and government administration. Instead of using simple incineration or landfills,
converting waste to solid fuel and combusting it in a designated combustor is acknowl-
edged as an improved concept for both safety and energy saving considerations [1–3].
The Korean government has also made significant efforts in municipal waste utilization,
especially thermal energy conversion [4]. So far, the regulations regarding manufactur-
ing waste-derived fuel and emissions as a result of combustion have been well prepared.
Several promotions regarding SRF (Solid Refused Fuel) manufacturing and its thermal
utilization have been launched [5]. CFBC of waste-derived fuel showed higher combustion
and boiler efficiency than other technologies [6–8]. A steam 60 ton/h CFBC combusting
pelletized SRF was designed by the authors to demonstrate the energy utilization of munic-
ipal solid waste [9]. The boiler was constructed using parameters from previous results of
lab and pilot scale studies [9–11].
The operational characteristics of SRF combustion in conventional boilers share most
parameters yet are different in several significant points from the boilers combusting con-
ventional solid fuel. First, Figure 1 shows the density of sloid fuels; the fuel manufactured
from SRF is lighter in density, and it contains more volatile components than conventional
coal. Its ignition and combustion start faster than coal, but it flows in the combustor region
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Energies 2022, 15, 5507 2 of 15

with the flue gas, resulting in the after-combustion phenomenon in which the combustion
with the
reaction flue gas, resulting in the after-combustion phenomenon in which the combustion
continues.
reaction continues.
900

800

700

600

500
[kg/m3]

400

300

200

100

0
Density @ 15oC
-p-

Anthracite Bituminous coal Wood Peat Coke Charcoal, soft wood Charcoal, hard wood SRF

Figure 1. Density of soild fuels.

Figure 1. Density of soild fuels.
Until 2019, solid waste fuel combustion in power generation was mainly focused on
theUntil
study 2019,
of thesolid waste fuel combustion
co-combustion of coal/SRF. in Authors
power generation
have studied wasthe mainly focused on of
co-combustion
thecoal
study of the co-combustion of coal/SRF. Authors have studied
and SRF. The most important factor that influences this process is the composition the co-combustion of
coal and SRF. The most important factor that influences this
of alternative fuels. Using the SRF instead of coal in the co-combustion process helps toprocess is the composition of
alternative
preserve fuels. natural Using the SRF
resources, insteadthe
limiting of use
coalof infossil
the co-combustion
fuels and reducing process thehelps
impact to on
pre-the
serve natural resources, limiting the use of fossil fuels
environment through lower CO2 emissions. However, SRF combustion is the main part and reducing the impact on the of
environment through lower CO 2 emissions. However, SRF combustion is the main part of
small-scale commercial combustion, and it shows different combustion characteristics from
small-scale
co-combustion. commercial combustion,
Therefore, the problem and of it shows different combustion
after-combustion characteristics of
due to the characteristics
from co-combustion. Therefore, the problem of after-combustion
SRF has begun and related research is needed [12]. When SRF is combusted in a CFBC, the due to the characteristics
of density
SRF hasofbegun and related
the circulating research
material is needed
inside [12]. When
the combustor hasSRF is combusted
a great influence on insolving
a CFBC,the
theafter-combustion
density of the circulatinggeneration. material inside the characteristics
The combustion combustor hasand a great
heatinfluence
transfer of onSRF
solv-fuel
inginthe after-combustion generation. The combustion characteristics
CFBC are affected by the fuel and circulating material. For this purpose, the study of and heat transfer of
SRFCFD fuel(Computational
in CFBC are affected by the fuelsimulation
Fluid Dynamics) and circulating material.
according to the For this purpose,
density the
and diameter
study of CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) simulation according
of circulating materials in a fluidized bed reactor is proceeding. It is reported that the to the density and
diameter
numberofofcirculating
heat transfer materials in a increases
coefficients fluidizedwhen bed reactor
the densityis proceeding.
of the circulating It is reported
material
that the number
increases in theoffluidized
heat transfer coefficients
bed reactor [13].increases
SRF has lesswhen ash the density
content thanof the coalcirculating
fuel, which
material increases in
is characterized bythelowfluidized bed reactor
solid density [13]. SRF has
in the fluidized bedless ash content
reactor. For thisthan coalthe
reason, fuel,
low
which
heat is characterized
transfer coefficient by should
low solid density in
be applied the fluidized
compared to coalbed reactor. For this reason,
[14,15].
the lowInheat transfer
a CFBC coefficient
boiler, the cycloneshould be applied
region includingcompared to coalis[14,15].
the furnace called the combustor,
and Inthe
a CFBCcombustion
boiler, thereaction
cyclonegenerated between the furnace
region including convection pass from
is called the cyclone
the combustor,
andexittheiscombustion
called the after-combustion.
reaction generated between Second, it thecontains
convection a higher
pass from levelthe of cyclone
mineralexit salts,
is K/NaCl,
called theas they have low melting
after-combustion. Second,temperatures
it contains a and higher easily
levelstick to superheater
of mineral tubes in
salts, K/NaCl,
asthe
they convection
have low pass, melting forming hard deposits
temperatures or fouling
and easily stick[16,17]. When the
to superheater combustion
tubes in the con- zone
vection pass, forming hard deposits or fouling [16,17]. When the combustion zone is ex-by
is extended to the heat recovery zone, such as the convection pass, potential damage
these to
tended compounds to the boiler
the heat recovery zone,tube
suchmaterial is increased
as the convection [16].potential
pass, The waste fuel combustion
damage by these
boiler must provide high combustion and boiler efficiency,
compounds to the boiler tube material is increased [16]. The waste fuel combustion yet it should not damage boilerthe
boiler
must material.
provide highThus, the basicand
combustion design
boilerandefficiency,
operationyet philosophy
it shouldisnot thatdamage
combustion should
the boiler
not extend
material. Thus, to the
the basic
combustor
designoutside.
and operationHowever, in cases is
philosophy where the design isshould
that combustion fixed or notthe
fuel property varies, it is difficult to control this by adjusting
extend to the combustor outside. However, in cases where the design is fixed or the fuel the operation parameters
only [18].
property For itperformance
varies, is difficult toenhancement
control this by and upgrading,
adjusting a quantified
the operation understanding
parameters only
of boiler performance is necessary, and modifying
[18]. For performance enhancement and upgrading, a quantified understanding the design according to the data is
of boiler
essential [19].
performance is necessary, and modifying the design according to the data is essential [19].
This
This study
study introduces
introduces the
the monitoring
monitoring and
and analysis
analysis results
results ofof a 60ton/h
a 60 ton/h CFBC,
CFBC, which
which
waswas built
built byby domestic
domestic design
design andand engineering
engineering in in Korea
Korea [9–11].
[9–11]. TheThe purpose
purpose of of
thethe work
work
was to set up a reliable approach to boiler performance
was to set up a reliable approach to boiler performance measurement. To do this, heat and measurement. To do this, heat
and mass balance equations were set up at each boiler
mass balance equations were set up at each boiler to analyze their performances individ- to analyze their performances
individually.
ually. This wasThis was applied
applied to the quantitative
to the quantitative analysis analysis of after-combustion,
of after-combustion, which which
is
 Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 15
Energies 2022, 15, 5507 3 of 15

prevailing in solid waste fuel combustion in CFBC. The results were compared with the
is prevailing in solid waste fuel combustion in CFBC. The results were compared with
measured operation data such as the flue gas temperature, boiler load, and thermal ca-
the measured operation data such as the flue gas temperature, boiler load, and thermal
pacity of each boiler unit. The engineering parameters obtained through the heat and mass
capacity of each boiler unit. The engineering parameters obtained through the heat and
balance were applied to the design of the modification unit of the existing boiler. The re-
mass balance were applied to the design of the modification unit of the existing boiler. The
sult was compared with the previous operating conditions to prove the improvement of
result was compared with the previous operating conditions to prove the improvement of
theboiler
the boilerperformance.
performance.

2.2. Experimental
Experimental
2.1. Dimension
2.1. Dimensionand
andCondition
ConditionofofBoiler
Boiler
ThisCFBC
This CFBCboiler
boilerwithwithaa60 60ton/h
ton/h steam flow
flow and
and a concept
concept similar
similar to
to the
the conventional
conventional
CFBC
CFBC coal boiler
boiler isiscomposed
composedofofa combustor
a combustor chamber,
chamber, a single
a single cyclone,
cyclone, a convection
a convection pass,
pass,
and twoandbagtwofilters
bag filters [10]. Figure
[10]. Figure 2 shows 2 shows a diagram
a diagram of the commercial
of the commercial CFBCsystem.
CFBC boiler boiler
system. The combustor
The combustor is a tall is a tall vertical
vertical square square
columncolumn
with wallwithdimensions
wall dimensions
of 4 mof ×4m× × 244mm
×(width depth ××height)
24 m ×(width depth and × height) and is surrounded
is surrounded by vertical tube
by vertical evaporator evaporator tube
walls. The walls.
nominal
The nominal
capacity capacity
of this boiler of thissteam
is 60 boilerton/h
is 60orsteam ton/h
10 MWe in or 10 MWe The
electricity. in electricity. The design
design specifications
specifications
of the boiler are of listed
the boiler are listed
in Table in Table 1. A predetermined
1. A predetermined amount material
amount of a fluidizing of a fluidizing
(sand)
material (sand) is filled
is filled in the bottom of in the bottom of the combustor as the initial bed content.
combustor as the initial bed content. The boiler is heated The boiler
up
istoheated up to operating temperature by auxiliary fuel during startup.
operating temperature by auxiliary fuel during startup. The preheated combustion air The preheated
combustion
by an air-gasair by an
heater is air-gas
provided heater is provided
through through
the distributor on the
the distributor on the floorThe
floor of the combustor. of
the
fuelcombustor.
is fed to theThelowerfuel is fed
part to the
of the lower part
combustor overofthe
thesand
combustor
bed. Theover the sand
start-up bed. The
and operation
start-up and operation procedures are the
procedures are the same as in other CFBC boilers [11]. same as in other CFBC boilers [11].

2
Final
Steam
4 5

1 Attemperator
6
Water

7
3 12

Active
Carbon
8 Feed
Water

9
11 13

14
Air
Stack
10

Figure2.2. Process diagram of 60

Figure 60 ton/h
ton/hCFBCCFBCboiler.
boiler.(1)(1)
Fuel surge
Fuel bin,
surge (2)(2)
bin, Drum,
Drum, (3)(3)
Combustor,
Combustor, (4)
Cyclone,
(4) Cyclone,(5)(5)
S/H(superheater)
S/H(superheater) 2, 2,
(6)(6)de-superheater,
de-superheater,(7)
(7)S/H(superheater)
S/H(superheater)1,1, (8)
(8) Economizer, (9) Air
Economizer, (9) Air
pre-heater,(10)
pre-heater, (10)P.A.
P.A.Fan,
Fan,(11)
(11)SDR
SDR(Semi-Dry
(Semi-DryReactor;
Reactor;HCl HCland
andSOx
SOx absorption),
absorption), (12)
(12) Bag
Bag filter
filter 1,
1,
(13)Bag
(13) Bagfilter
filter2,2,(14)
(14)I.D.
I.D.Fan.
Fan.

Table 1. Design specifications.

Table 1. Design specifications.
Specifications Unit Value
Specifications Unit Value
Net electricity output MWe 5.5–14.5
Net electricity output MWe 5.5–14.5
Maximum steam rate ton/h 60
Maximum steam rate ton/h 60
FinalFinal
steamsteam temperature
temperature ◦C °C 450 450
FinalFinal
steamsteam pressure
pressure Ata Ata 45 45
FeedFeed
waterwater
temperature ◦C 143 143
temperature °C
Boiler load variation % MCR 55–109
Boiler load variation % MCR 55–109
Fuel flow range ton/h 5.4–10.6
Fuel flow range ton/h 5.4–10.6

There are three boiler units: the economizer, the evaporator, and the superheater. In
order to cool overheated steam and precisely control the steam temperature, the superheater
Energies 2022, 15, 5507 4 of 15

is divided into two sets of tube bundles, namely superheater 1 (S/H 1) and superheater
2 (S/H 2), and a de-superheater that controls the steam temperature by injecting water
is designed to be in between them. An evaporator is located at a water wall tube panel
surrounding the combustor. The superheaters and economizer units are all located in the
convection pass. The air-gas heater is also located in the lower part of the convection pass,
which is downstream of the flue gas. Since heat recovered in the air heater only increases
the heat content of the combustion air and the added heat goes to the combustor flame side,
the air heater is not a part of the boiler but of the combustor unit.
The combustor side flow circuit is shown below:
Fuel from fuel feeder → Combustor → Cyclone → Convection pass → Air heater →
SDR (semi-dry reactor for SOx and HCl absorption) → Bag filter 1 → Bag filter 2 → Stack.
The water and steam circuit are shown below:
Water from BFWP (boiler feed water pump) → Economizer → Steam drum → Down-
comer → Water wall evaporator → Drum → Wall superheater → S/H 1 → De-superheater
→ S/H 2 → Final steam exit.

2.2. Boiler Design

The SRF fuel used for this boiler is shown in Table 2. This 60 ton/h CFBC boiler was
designed to burn only fuel derived from municipal waste. The properties of the test fuel
are similar to the design fuel. The meaningful differences between the low test fuel and
high test fuel were the heating value, water, and ash content. This waste-derived fuel was a
pelletized type, but the bulk density was lower than that of the designed fuel by over 40%,
indicating that a larger amount of light-density fluff is contained.

Table 2. Properties of the design and test fuels.

Parameter Design Fuel Test Fuel Low Test Fuel High

Carbon, wt% 43.5 41.4 44.6
Hydrogen, wt% 5.8 5.8 6.3
Nitrogen, wt% 0.7 1.0 1.0
Sulfur, wt% 0.2 0.2 0.2
Oxygen, wt% 24.2 21.3 24.2
Chloride, wt% 1.4 1.0 1.1
Water, wt% 7.0 12.4 8.9
Ash, wt% 17.2 16.9 13.7
Bulk density, kg/m3 700 400 400
High Heating Value, analysis, kJ/kg 18,744 18,990 20,781

The enthalpy of the final steam and feed water were 3335 and 601 kJ/kg, respectively.
Thus, the thermal output of the boiler was 45.6 MWth in the following manner.

Thermal output = ( Hsteam − Hwater ) × Feed mass (1)

The combustion efficiency of the boiler can be calculated from carbon loss through
ash. The carbon content of bottom ash was 0.05–0.06% and that of fly ash was 0.3–0.67%.
The combustion efficiency was calculated by heat loss based on unburned carbon in ash.
The total carbon loss from bottom ash and fly ash was 16.9/100 × (0.2 × 0.06 + 0.8 × 0.67)
= 0.09%. Thus, combustion efficiency was 99.9% and is considered to be complete. The
after-combustion, i.e., the extended combustion zone to the cyclone and convection pass
after the combustor exit, was consistently monitored, and the phenomena were displayed as
the temperature increased after the combustor exit [20,21]. Figure 3 presents that, compared
with the measured and calculated temperature distribution in accordance with boiler
load alongside the gas flow. The temperature profile showed the highest temperature
at the convection pass inlet (S/H 2 up), indicating that a significant part of the after-
combustion occurred after the combustor exit. The extent of the temperature difference
was not proportional to the boiler load and thus did not relate to it, which was considered
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 15

Energies 2022, 15, 5507 temperature at the convection pass inlet (S/H 2 up), indicating that a significant part 5 of of
15
the after-combustion occurred after the combustor exit. The extent of the temperature dif-
ference was not proportional to the boiler load and thus did not relate to it, which was
considered to be
to be affected byaffected by the mode
the operation operation mode
or fuel or fueland
density, density, and the
the main main discrepancy
discrepancy is due to
is due to heterogeneity
heterogeneity of combustion
of combustion in the combustor
in the combustor section.section. The reading
The reading of the thermo-
of the thermo-sensor
sensor
is also is also influenced
influenced by location,
by location, such assuch
theas the steam
steam tubesteam
tube and and steam
wall, wall, providing
providing false
false information
information for thermal
for thermal analysis.
analysis.

1000

800
Temperature (oC)

600

400

109% load, measured

200 109% load, calculated
55% load, measured
55% load, calculated

0
Combustor S/H 2 S/H 1 Eco A/H
exit inlet inlet inlet inlet

Boiler locations

Measured and
Figure 3. Measured
Figure and calculated
calculated temperature difference at boiler locations.

3. Results and Discussion

3. Results and Discussion
3.1. The Effect of Air Heater on Flue Gas Temperature
3.1. The Effect of Air Heater on Flue Gas Temperature
The main purpose of adopting the air heater in the combustion system was to provide
extraThe main
heat intopurpose of adopting
the combustor andthe
thusairincrease
heater inthe thecombustor
combustiontemperature.
system was toAprovide
higher
extra heat into the combustor and thus increase the combustor
temperature in the combustion environment provides a better combustion and temperature. A heat
higher tem-
transfer
perature
but yieldsin less
the combustion environment
unburned residue. provides
However, a better
increased aircombustion
temperature and heatthe
over transfer
boiler
but yields less unburned residue. However, increased air temperature
design temperature can cause an elevated combustor exit temperature, which can lead over the boiler de-
sign temperature can cause an elevated combustor exit temperature,
to a corrosive environment in the boiler tubes. This is common when waste-derived fuel which can lead to a
corrosive environment in the boiler tubes. This is common when
is burned, especially when the fuel contains a high concentration of Na and K [9,22–24].waste-derived fuel is
burned,
The flueespecially when the
gas temperature fueleconomizer
at the contains a high concentration
downstream controlsof Na
theand
inletKcombustion
[9,22–24]. Theair
flue gas temperature
temperature. at the
Since heat economizer
transfer downstream
is determined by thecontrols
flue gasthe
flowinlet combustion
rate and the in air
andtem-
out
perature.
temperaturesSinceofheat transfer
the flue gas, is determined by the flue gas flow rate and the in and out
temperatures of the flue gas,
Q f lue,A = m air C p, air ( Tout, air − Tin, air ) (2)
𝑄𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒,𝐴 = 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝐶𝑝,𝑎𝑖𝑟 (𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛,𝑎𝑖𝑟 ) (2)
where Q
where 𝑄𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒,𝐴 is the
f lue, A is the heat
heat exchange
exchange of of flue
flue gas
gas over
over air heater,m𝑚air𝑎𝑖𝑟is is
air heater, thethe
mole
moleflow rate
flow of
rate
air, C
of air,p,𝐶air is the heat capacity of air, T is the inlet temperature at the air heater, and
𝑝,𝑎𝑖𝑟 is the heat capacity of air, 𝑇𝑖𝑛,𝑎𝑖𝑟 is the inlet temperature at the air heater, and
in, air

𝑇T𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑎𝑖𝑟 is the
out, air is the outlet
outlet temperature
temperature atat the
the air
air heater.
heater.
From the designer’s point of view,
From the designer’s point of view, control of control of the
the combustor
combustor exit exit temperature
temperatureisises-es-
sential because if it is higher than the design range, it may damage the boiler material,
sential because if it is higher than the design range, it may damage the boiler material,
including the steam tubes, whereas if it is lower, the combustion may not be complete inside
including the steam tubes, whereas if it is lower, the combustion may not be complete
the furnace, which would yield more CO and carbonaceous residue. The general design
inside the furnace, which would yield more CO and carbonaceous residue. The general
condition of combustor exit temperature is known to be between 800 and 900 ◦ C [20,25].
design condition of combustor exit temperature is known to be between 800 and 900 °C
Figure 4 presents the effect of the economizer downstream temperature on the air
[20,25].
temperature at the air heater exit and the flue gas temperature at the combustor exit. The
data was calculated by assuming a fixed heat input into the combustor by fixed fuel and
the flow rate of primary air and also the fixed heat extraction rate water wall. The results of
the measured and calculated temperature were similar within the margin of error. The air
temperature at the air heater exit increases linearly according to the flue gas temperature
 Figure 4 presents the effect of the economizer downstream temperature on the air
temperature at the air heater exit and the flue gas temperature at the combustor exit. The
data was calculated by assuming a fixed heat input into the combustor by fixed fuel and
Energies 2022, 15, 5507 the flow rate of primary air and also the fixed heat extraction rate water wall. The results 6 of 15
of the measured and calculated temperature were similar within the margin of error. The
air temperature at the air heater exit increases linearly according to the flue gas tempera-
ture
because C p, air𝐶𝑝,𝑎𝑖𝑟
because is almost
is almost constant
constant intemperature
in this this temperature
range.range. Furthermore,
Furthermore, the com-
the combustor
bustor exit temperature
exit temperature varies varies linearly
linearly with thewith theair
inlet inlet air temperature
temperature because
because the combus-
the combustion air
tion air provides
provides additional additional
heat intoheat
theinto the combustor.
combustor. The airThe air temperature
temperature at the of
at the outlet outlet of
the air
the air heater
heater is easy is toeasy to predict,
predict, but duebut dueheterogeneity
to the to the heterogeneity
of solid of solid
fuel fuel combustion,
combustion, it is
it is difficult
difficult
to predict tothe
predict
valuethe value
with with precision.
precision.

1000

800
Temperature (oC)

600
Air temperature at air heater exit, measured
Air temperature at air heater exit, calculated
Combustor exit temperature, measured
Combustor exit temperature, calculated
400

200

0
200 225 250 275 300

Flue gas temperature at economizer downstream (oC)

Figure
Figure 4.
4. Effect
Effect of
of the
the economizer
economizer downstream
downstream temperature
temperature on
on the
the air
air temperature
temperature at
at the
the air
air heater
heater
exit and the flue gas temperature at the combustor exit.
exit and the flue gas temperature at the combustor exit.

3.2. Non-Homogeneity
3.2. Non-Homogeneity in in Combustor
Combustor
Predicting the
Predicting the average
average combustor
combustor temperature
temperature by by monitoring
monitoring the thetemperature
temperature sensor
sensor
is impractical
is impracticaldue duetotothe the heterogeneity
heterogeneity of the
of the combustion
combustion inside inside the combustor.
the combustor. The com-The
combustor
bustor exit exit temperature
temperature showsshows neither
neither reliable
reliable precision
precision nornor a atrend
trendwith
withthe
thecalculated
calculated
temperature. Considering
temperature. Considering that thatthe
thecombustion
combustioninside thethe
inside combustor
combustor is not uniform
is not because
uniform be-
the particle density inside the combustor varies vertically as well as
cause the particle density inside the combustor varies vertically as well as horizontally, horizontally, the local
temperature
the is different
local temperature corner bycorner
is different corner.by When theWhen
corner. temperature at the exit at
the temperature was
thecompared
exit was
with the cyclone exit temperature, there was an increased temperature
compared with the cyclone exit temperature, there was an increased temperature at the cyclone
at exit.
the
This indicates
cyclone thatindicates
exit. This part of the unburned
that part of thefuelunburned
inside thefuel
combustor
inside the section was entrained
combustor section
out to
was the cyclone
entrained out to exit,
theand the combustion
cyclone exit, and the continued
combustionnearcontinued
the inlet section
near theofinlet
S/Hsection
2.
Even
of S/H 2. though the heat and mass balance calculation of the temperature did not coincide
withEven
the measured
though the temperature,
heat and massit provided
balanceconceptual
calculationdata
of theontemperature
the heat distribution over
did not coin-
the boiler section as well as a better understanding of the boiler performance
cide with the measured temperature, it provided conceptual data on the heat distribution over various
boilerthe
over loads. The
boiler flue gas
section as temperature
well as a betterat the combustor exit
understanding of is
thecalculated as follows when
boiler performance over
there is no after-combustion:
various boiler loads. The flue gas temperature at the combustor exit is calculated as fol-
lows when there is no after-combustion: Z T
comb
Q f uel + Q air − Q BA = mw ( Hsat − HEC0 ) + mmix · C pmix dT (3)
Tre𝑇f𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏
𝑄𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 + 𝑄𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝑄𝐵𝐴 = 𝑚𝑤 (𝐻𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝐻𝐸𝐶0 ) + 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑥 ∙ ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝑚𝑖𝑥 𝑑𝑇 (3)
where Q f uel is the heat input to the combustor by fuel combustion, 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 Q is the heat input
air
to the combustor by heated air through air heater, Q BA is the heat loss by bottom ash
discharge, mw is the mass flow rate of feed water, Hsat is the enthalpy of saturated steam at
drum pressure, HEC0 is the enthalpy of feed water at economizer outlet, mmix is the mass
flow rate of flue gas and fly ash mixture, C pmix is the heat capacity of the flue gas and fly ash
mixture, Tcomb is the temperature of flue gas at the combustor exit or superheater upstream,
and Tre f is the reference temperature. All other values are known, so the combustor exit
temperature, Tcomb , can be calculated from Equation (3).
Energies 2022, 15, 5507 7 of 15

Table 3 shows the boiler operation data with a variation of the load. The boiler
performance was compared with various load conditions. The calculation was made upon
stable operation between 55 and 109% boiler load. The emission was controlled by the
Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction (SNCR) and the Semi-Dry Reactor (SDR). The value
given is not related to the combustion condition.

Table 3. Operation data of 60 ton/h CFBC combustion.

% Load 109 105 88 76 55 82 * 76 *

Steam rate (kg/h) 65,600 62,900 53,000 45,400 33,000 48,000 45,600
Measured combustor exit temperature (◦ C) 905 913 894 831 760 785 800
Calculated combustor exit temperature (◦ C) 882 889 864 861 668 816 801
Convection pass inlet temperature (◦ C) 921 978 947 953 815 894 881
2nd evaporator down temperature (◦ C) - - - - - 805 757
Heat transfer coefficient of wall, measured (W/m2 -K) 134 128 110 100 89 109 99
Radiative heat transfer coefficient, calculated (W/m2 -K) 129 131 125 111 95 101 104
Convective heat transfer coefficient, calculated (W/m2 -K) 37 37 37 35 34 34 34
Average density in freeboard (kg/m3 ) 33.4 24.2 8.6 10.4 4.6 7.8 6.4
SO2 emission (ppm) 1.6 2.0 1.3 2.8 3.4 0.1 0.1
NOx emission (ppm) 35.4 34.4 42.2 0.8 1.6 43.5 35.7
O2 (%) 4.6 5.5 4.7 5.3 9.1 7.4 7.7
HCl (ppm) 6.6 7.7 6.7 9.6 18.9 3.5 5.0
(* After additional evaporator installation).

The heat transfer coefficient is explained as being mainly an addition of convective

heat transfer and radiative heat transfer [25]

hc = hconv + hr (4)

hc , hconv , and hr are the combustor overall, the convective, and the radiative heat
transfer coefficient, respectively.
The radiative heat transfer coefficient was calculated by following equations [26].

Tb4 − Tw4


hr = σ (5)
(1/eb + 1/es − 1)( Tb − Tw )

where hr is the radiative heat transfer coefficient, σ is the Stefan–Boltzman constant (5.67 ×
10−8 W/m2 ·K4 ), Tb is the temperature of combustor, Tw is the temperature of water wall
tube, and eb and es are the emissivity of the combustor and the surface of the water wall
tube, respectively.
The dispersed phase heat transfer coefficient was calculated as follows: [24].
0.3  0.21
Kg Cp u2t

ρdis
hd = Pr (6)
d p Cg ρp gd p

where hd is the dispersed phase heat transfer coefficient, K g is the thermal conductivity of
gas, d p is the diameter of particle inside combustor, Cg and C p are the heat capacity of gas
and particle, ρdis and ρ p are the density of dispersed phase and particle, ut is the terminal
velocity of particle, g is the gravitational acceleration (9.8 m/s2 ), and Pr is Prandtl number.
The measured heat transfer coefficient of the combustor wall tube was calculated as
follows:
Q EVA = h EVA A EVA ( Tb − Tw ) (7)
where h EVA is the evaporator heat load, that is, the overall heat transfer coefficient of
evaporator, and A EVA is the heat transfer area of the evaporator. Since the overall freeboard
density of the combustor inside where the water wall is installed is 4.6–33.4 kg/m3 at a
100% load, the bed density is relatively low. The major heat transfer to the wall tube inside
Energies 2022, 15, 5507 8 of 15

of the combustor is that of radiation; thus, the effect of the convective heat transfer, which
was influenced by the average density of the free board, was low [27].

3.3. After-Combustion in Convection Pass

The superheater dries up and heats up the saturated steam coming out of the drum
up to the designed temperature. The design purpose of the de-superheater is to consume
excess heat, which is a deviation from the design margin in the convection pass, and to
control the final steam temperature precisely. The combustor has only the evaporator wall,
the convection pass consisting of S/H 2, S/H 1, and the economizer. If the after-combustion
proceeds at the combustor exit, the flue gas would carry excess heat far more than the
design; thus, a large number of de-superheaters is required between the S/H 1 and S/H 2
to remove this extra heat. The amount of spray water at the de-superheater added to the
super heater, which increases the quantity of the final steam, is a quantitative indicator
of after-combustion. With the same boiler heat capacity, the quantity of the combustor
evaporation mw without after-combustion is decreased to m0w with after-combustion.
If the measured temperature at the convection pass inlet temperature is reliable,
the heat content when after-combustion occurred can be calculated with the measured
temperature using Equation (3). The equations for the superheater section are as follows:
Z T 0con
QSH = mmix · C pmix dT (8)
Tre f

Z T
ECO
QSH = m0w ( HSH − Hsat ) + mdes ( HSH − Hw ) + mmix · C pmix dT (9)
Tre f

where QSH is the heat input from the flue gas and fly ash mixture to the superheater, T 0con
is the measured convection pass inlet temperature, HSH is the enthalpy of superheated
steam, Hw is the enthalpy of the boiler feed water, m0w is the mass flow rate of the feed
water with after-combustion, and mw = m0w + mdes , and mdes is the spray water rate at the
de-superheater.
Figure 5 presents the comparison of the flue gas heat content at the combustor exit
and convection pass inlet. The amount of heat can be calculated with thermodynamic
calculations from Equation (8) using the measured and calculated temperatures, respec-
tively. If the heat calculated using convection pass inlet temperature represents the actual
flue gas conditions, the heat introduced to the super heater should be proportional to
the measured temperature. However, the measured temperature does not represent the
flue gas temperature at the location because at the combustor exit, at the cyclone, and
even at the inlet of the convection pass, the combustion is not homogeneous due to the
after-combustion, and the thermocouple only represents the conditions where it is installed.
Figure 6 presents the comparison of the calculated and measured spray water flow
rate at the de-super heater. The heat content difference of the flue gas (10) is the difference
between the heat content of the flue gas calculated by the measured inlet temperature of
SH 2 and theoretical temperature calculated by Equations (8) and (3).
Z T 0 con Z T
comb
∆Q = mmix · C pmix dT − mmix · C pmix dT ≈ mdes ( HSH − Hw ) (10)
Tre f Tre f

While the calculated spray water at de-superheater proportionally increased with the
heat content difference of the flue gas, the measured spray water flow rate had no correlation
with it. This deviation explains the measured temperature at the super heater inlet, and
the heat content calculated by this temperature did not represent reliable thermodynamic
conditions of flue gas. The measured spray water flow rate, however, provided more
Energies 2022, 15, 5507 9 of 15

credulous information on the flue gas conditions and the extent of after-combustion. The
amount of spray water presents the content of the after-combustion as in the Equation (11).

QSH = (mw + m0 des )( HSH − Hsat ) + mdes ( Hsat − HECO ) + mdes ( HEC0 − Hw )
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
RT (11)
9 of 15
+mmix · T ECO C pmix dT
re f

35

30
Heat content of flue gas (MW)

25

20

15

10

5 Convection pass inlet

Combustor exit with measured temp
Combustor exit with calculated temp
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Boiler load (MCR %)
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Figure 5.
5. Flue
Flue gas
gas heat
heat content
content at the
the combustor
combustor exit
exit and
and convection 10 ofthe
convection pass inlet based on both
both 15
Figure the
measured and
measured and calculated
calculated temperatures.
temperatures.

Figure 6 presents the comparison of the calculated and measured spray water flow
5000
rate at the de-super heater. The heat content difference of the flue gas (10) is the difference
between the heat content of the flue gas calculated by the measured inlet temperature of
Spray water flow rate at de-superheater (kg/h)

SH 2 and theoretical temperature calculated by Equations (8) and (3).

4500
𝑇 ′𝑐𝑜𝑛 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏
Δ𝑄 = 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑥 ∙ ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝑚𝑖𝑥 𝑑𝑇 − 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑥 ∙ ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝑚𝑖𝑥 𝑑𝑇 ≈ 𝑚𝑑𝑒𝑠 (𝐻𝑆𝐻 − 𝐻𝑤 ) (10)
𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓
4000
While the calculated spray water at de-superheater proportionally increased with the
heat content difference of the flue gas, the measured spray water flow rate had no corre-
lation with it. This deviation explains the measured temperature at the super heater inlet,
and3500
the heat content calculated by this temperature did not represent reliable thermody-
namic conditions of flue gas. The measured spray water flow rate, however, provided
more credulous information on the flue gas conditions and the extent of after-combustion.
The3000
amount of spray
Mesured water
spray presents
water flow the content of the after-combustion as in the Equation
rate at de-superheater
Calculated amount of spray water due to after-combustion
(11).
0
′
0 𝑄𝑆𝐻 = (𝑚 )(𝐻𝑆𝐻 − 𝐻𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝑤 + 𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑠2000
1000 ) + 𝑚𝑑𝑒𝑠 (𝐻
3000 𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝐻𝐸𝐶𝑂 ) + 𝑚𝑑𝑒𝑠 (𝐻𝐸𝐶0 − 𝐻𝑤 )
4000
(
Heat content difference of flue gas (kW) 𝑇𝐸𝐶𝑂
+𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑥 ∙ ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝑚𝑖𝑥 𝑑𝑇 (11)
Figure 6.
Figure 6. A comparison
comparison of the calculated
calculated spray
spray water
water flow rate by convection
𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 flow convection pass
pass inlet temperature
temperature
and measured
and measuredflow
flowrate
rateof
ofspray
spraywater
waterat
atde-superheater.
de-superheater.
The heat load of the de-superheater can be divided into three parts: economizing,
evaporation,
The heatand
3.4. Improvement ofsuperheating.
load Since economizing
of thePerformance
Boiler de-superheater and superheating
can be divided shouldeconomizing,
into three parts: occur in the
convection
evaporation, pass even without after-combustion, the amount of heat generated from after-
In order and superheating.
to control Since economizing
the after-combustion, and evaporator
a wing wall superheating (45 should occur
m2) in the in
upper
combustion
the convectionis close
pass to the without
even amount of heat of2 the evaporation
after-combustion, the portion
amount of of thegenerated
heat spray water
fromat
combustor and a second evaporator (15 m ) in the convection pass inlet are installed in
the de-superheater (𝑚𝑑𝑒𝑠 (𝐻𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝐻𝐸𝐶𝑂 )).
addition to the original combustor wall evaporator (330 m2). A total of 14% of the evapo-
rator area is increased, and 4% of the area of the second evaporator is added from the
initial design to absorb extra heat generated by after-combustion. Considering the same
heat transfer coefficient among the water wall, wing wall, and second evaporator, the heat
absorption of all three evaporator surfaces should increase by 18% absorption capability
 Spray wa
3000 Mesured spray water flow rate at de-superheater
Calculated amount of spray water due to after-combustion

0
Energies 2022, 15, 5507 10 of 15
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Heat content difference of flue gas (kW)

Figure 6. A comparison of the calculated spray water flow rate by convection pass inlet temperature
after-combustion is close to the amount of heat of the evaporation portion of the spray
and measured flow rate of spray water at de-superheater.
water at the de-superheater (mdes ( Hsat − HECO )).
3.4.Improvement
3.4. ImprovementofofBoilerBoilerPerformance
Performance
Inorder
In orderto tocontrol
controlthe
theafter-combustion,
after-combustion,aawing wingwall wallevaporator
evaporator(45 (45mm2 2))in
inthe
theupper
upper
combustor and
combustor and aa second
second evaporator
evaporator (15 (15 m m2) )ininthe
2
theconvection
convectionpass passinlet
inletare
areinstalled
installed in
addition to the original combustor wall evaporator (330 m 2). A 2total of 14% of the evapo-
in addition to the original combustor wall evaporator (330 m ). A total of 14% of the
rator area is
evaporator increased,
area and 4%
is increased, andof4% the
of area of the
the area second
of the secondevaporator
evaporator is added
is addedfrom the
from
initial design to absorb extra heat generated by after-combustion.
the initial design to absorb extra heat generated by after-combustion. Considering the Considering the same
heat transfer
same coefficient
heat transfer amongamong
coefficient the water
the wall,
waterwing wall,wall,
wingand second
wall, and evaporator, the heat
second evaporator,
absorption
the of all three
heat absorption evaporator
of all surfaces should
three evaporator surfacesincrease
should by 18% absorption
increase capability
by 18% absorption
after the installation.
capability The quantity
after the installation. Theofquantity
the after-combustion heat was asheat
of the after-combustion much wasas the spray
as much
water
as evaporation,
the spray 𝑚𝑑𝑒𝑠 (𝐻𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝐻m𝐸𝐶𝑂
water evaporation, des
),
( which
H sat − H had
ECO to
) , be recovered
which had to in
be the superheater
recovered in in-
the
stead of in the evaporator. Figure 7 presents the heat content of each
superheater instead of in the evaporator. Figure 7 presents the heat content of each boiler boiler unit with dif-
ferent
unit boiler
with loads.boiler
different Tableloads.
4 summarizes the heat content
Table 4 summarizes of the
the heat flue gas
content of out of the
the flue gascombus-
out of
tor combustor
the section andsection
the heatandcontent of the
the heat de-superheater.
content of the de-superheater.

100
Load distribution of each boiler part (%)

80

60

0
Design 109 105 89 76 70 82*
Boiler load (MCR %)
Wall evaperator
Wing wall evaoerator
2nd Evaperator
Superheater
Economizer
De-superheater

Figure7.7.Relative
Figure Relativeboiler
boilerpartition
partitionby
byboiler
boilerload
load(*(*After
Afteradditional
additionalevaporator
evaporatorinstallation).
installation).
The evaporation portion of the de-superheater to evaporator heat content was 6.6~10%
(1.5~1.9 MWth ) in between 76 and 109% load before boiler modification. After the mod-
ification, it reduced to ~4% (~0.9 MWth ) in between 76 and 82% load. By adding two
sets of evaporators (the wing wall and the second evaporator), the heat recovery ratio
in the evaporator was increased from 55~59% before the modification to 58% after the
modification. The after-combustion still occurred even after the wing wall and the second
evaporator installation, but the spray water heat extraction reduced from 3.2 to 1.4 MWth .
Around 1.8 MWth of excess heat was extracted by the additional evaporator before the flue
gas entered S/H 2 at 76% load. The heat extraction capability of the second evaporator mea-
sured by using the overall heat transfer coefficient of the water wall was 0.5 and 0.7 MWth
at 82 and 76% load, respectively. The second evaporator could control the S/H 2 upstream
temperature below 800 ◦ C; thus, it was more effective to control the after-combustion. The
installation of the larger wing wall was relatively ineffective since it could only extract the
remaining evaporator portion of spray water of around 0.9 MWth at 76% load. Also, the
ineffective wing wall was monitored. When the combustor exit temperature was lower
than 800 ◦ C, carbon monoxide emission increased.
Energies 2022, 15, 5507 11 of 15

Table 4. Heat content of flue gas and boiler units according to boiler location (using measured
temperature).

Heat Content [MW]\% Load 109 105 88 76 55 82 * 76 *

Total boiler output 49.8 47.8 40.4 34.7 24.9 37.3 34.7
Evaporator 28.3 27.6 23.0 19.0 14.7 21.5 20.2
Flue gas at combustor exit 28.4 28.8 22.7 18.7 16.5 22.6 21.5
Flue gas at 2nd evaporator down - - - - - 26.2 23.9
Flue gas at convection pass inlet 29.0 31.2 24.3 21.8 17.1 23.3 20.2
Spray water heat rate 2.7 2.6 2.5 3.2 1.0 1.6 1.4
Spray water evaporation portion 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.9 0.6 0.9 0.9
(* After additional evaporator installation).

3.5. Heat Transfer Coefficient

The last boiler part in the 60 ton/h CFBC flue gas stream is the economizer, which
recovers heat from low temperature flue gas and heats up feed water to a near boiling
temperature. The temperature of the flue gas at the economizer inlet (TECO ) is calculated
by the following equations.
 
Q ECO = mmix ·C pmix TECO − Tre f (12)

Z T
AH
Q ECO = mw ( HECO − Hw ) + mmix · C pmix dT (13)
Tre f

where Q ECO is the heat input from flue gas to economizer and TECO is the flue gas tempera-
ture at the economizer upstream.
Figure 8 is the comparison of the measured and calculated economizer inlet flue gas
temperature according to the boiler load. Since the flue gas at the economizer inlet is more
homogeneous, and no additional combustion occurs after S/H 1, the measured temperature
is closer to the calculated value. The economizer inlet temperature is increased with the
increasing boiler load due to the increasing heat requirement.
Figure 9 presents the measured heat transfer coefficient of the boiler units in the
convection pass. The heat transfer in the convection pass is calculated as follows:

Q B = mw ( HECO − Hw ) = h B A B ∆Tl (14)

where Q B is the heat load of boiler unit in convection pass, h B is the overall heat transfer
coefficient, A B is the heat transfer area, and ∆Tl is the logarithmic mean temperature
difference between the tube and the gas side inlet and outlet.
The heat transfer coefficient of S/H 2 had a lower value than that of the economizer.
Since superheater tubes are likely to be contaminated by molten fly ash and sand particles at
temperatures around 850 ◦ C, the heat transfer was hindered by these hard deposits [28,29].
However, the economizer surface was exposed to a relatively low temperature of 500 ◦ C
where fly ash had already solidified. Consequently, the fly ash stuck less to the tube surface,
and the tube surface was cleaner. The gas side heat transfer was less hindered than that of
the super heater, and the overall heat transfer coefficient of the economizer will present
that of the bare tube [30].
Energies 2022, 15,
Energies 2022, 15, 5507
x FOR PEER REVIEW 1212of
of 15
15
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 15

600
600

550
550

oC)
Temperature(o(C)
500
500
Temperature

450
450

400 Economizer inlet, measured

400 Economizer inlet, measured
100 Economizer inlet, calculated
100 Economizer inlet, calculated
0
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Boiler load (MCR %)
Boiler load (MCR %)
Figure 8. Measured and calculated flue gas temperature at the economizer inlet.
Figure 8. Measured and calculated flue gas temperature at the economizer inlet.

160
160
2K)
2K)

140
140
(W/m
coefficient(W/m

Design
120 Design
MCR 109%
120 MCR 105%
109%
MCR
100 MCR 89%
MCR 105%
transfercoefficient

100 MCR 76%

MCR 89%
MCR 82%*
MCR 76%
80 MCR 82%*
80
60
60
Heattransfer

40
40
20
Heat

20
0
0 Combustor S/H 2 Economizer
Combustor S/H 2 Economizer
Boiler part
Boiler part
Figure 9. Heat transfer coefficient of boiler parts. (* After additional evaporator installation).
Figure 9. Heat transfer coefficient
coefficient of
of boiler
boiler parts. (* After
parts. (* After additional
additional evaporator
evaporatorinstallation).
installation).

The heat transfer coefficient of S/H 2 had a lower value than that of the economizer.
4. Conclusions
The heat transfer coefficient of S/H 2 had a lower value than that of the economizer.
SinceThe
superheater
operation tubes
dataareof likely
a CFBC to be contaminated
boiler, which was by designed
molten fly ashwaste-derived
and sand particles
Since superheater tubes are likely to be contaminated by molten flyfor ash and sand particlesfuel
at temperatures
combustion, around
witharound 850
a capacity °C, the heat transfer was hindered by these hard deposits
at temperatures 850of °C,a 60
theton/h
heat steam
transferrate was
was analyzedbyand
hindered conclusions
these were
hard deposits
[28,29].
drawn However,
follows: the economizer surface was exposed to a relatively low temperature of
[28,29].asHowever, the economizer surface was exposed to a relatively low temperature of
500 °C where fly ash had already solidified. Consequently, the fly ash stuck less to the
500 °C
1. where fly ash had
After-combustion alreadybecause
occurred solidified. Consequently,
of the light densitythe of fly
the ash
fuel.stuck
The less to the
measured
tube surface, and the tube surface was cleaner. The gas side heat transfer was less hindered
tube surface, and the tube at
higher temperature surface was cleaner.
the combustor The
exit andgasthe
side heat transfer
convection was
pass lesscould
inlet hindered
not
than that of the super heater, and the overall heat transfer coefficient of the economizer
than represent
that of theitssuper heater, andconditions
thermodynamic the overalldue heat
to transfer coefficientcombustion
non-homogeneous of the economizer
charac-
will present that of the bare tube [30].
will present
teristics.that of the bare tube
Thermodynamic [30].
calculation provided more consistent heat information on
the variation of operation conditions. Inside of the convection pass, where combustion
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
is completed and gas conditions are more homogeneous, the measured temperature
The
andoperation
calculateddata of a CFBCcoincided
temperature boiler, which
well.was designed for waste-derived fuel com-
The operation data of a CFBC boiler, which was designed for waste-derived fuel com-
bustion,
2. with
Thewith a capacity
load adistribution of a 60 ton/h steam rate was analyzed and conclusions
to 0.87% inwere
bustion, capacity ofofa the de-superheater
60 ton/h steam ratedecreases from 1.76%
was analyzed and conclusions 89%
were
drawn MCRas follows:
before installation of the evaporator and 82* % MCR load distribution of each
drawn as follows:
boiler part after installation.
1. After-combustion occurred because The change
of theoflight
the heat transfer
density of thearea
fuel.according to the
The measured
1. After-combustion occurred because of the light density of the fuel. The measured
installation
higher of the evaporator
temperature at the combustor directly
exitaffects
and thetheconvection
amount ofpass spray water
inlet couldinnot
therep-
de-
higher temperature at the combustor exit and the convection pass inlet could not rep-
superheater. Through this, the improvement of the heating
resent its thermodynamic conditions due to non-homogeneous combustion charac- area for the prevention of
resent its thermodynamic conditions due to non-homogeneous combustion charac-
after-combustion through the quantitative analysis of spray water
teristics. Thermodynamic calculation provided more consistent heat information on seems reasonable.
teristics. Thermodynamic calculation provided more consistent heat information on
Energies 2022, 15, 5507 13 of 15

3. The installation of the additional heat transfer unit in the convection pass inlet (second
evaporator) based on the spray water at the de-superheater amount and the heat
balance calculation controlled the S/H 2 upstream temperature below 800 ◦ C; thus, it
was more effective to control after-combustion. The installation of the larger wingwall
was relatively ineffective since it could only extract the remaining evaporator portion
of spray water of around 0.9 MWth at 76% load.
4. This suggests that it is appropriate to establish an after-combustion and a heat transfer
area caused by the physical characteristics of the SRF fuel used. In addition, the
quantitative change of the spray water supplied from the de-superheater can be
used as a major calculation data to calculate the heat transfer area according to the
load of the boiler. In the power generation equipment of all fuels in which the after-
combustion generated, the problem resolution is possible in all facilities in which the
de-superheater is installed and operating in the same method.

Author Contributions: Data curation, Y.C. and D.-H.B.; Writing—original draft, J.-S.S.;
Writing—review & editing, D.S. and C.-H.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the National Research Council of Science & Technology (NST)
grant by the Korea government (MSIP) (No. CRC-15-07-KIER).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature

AB heat transfer area [m2 ]

A EVA heat transfer area of evaporator [m]
C p, air heat capacity of air [kJ/(kmol · K)]
Cg heat capacity of gas [kJ/(kmol · K)]
Cp heat capacity of particle [kJ/(kmol · K)]
C pmix heat capacity of flue gas and fly ash mixture [kJ/(kmol · K)]
dp diameter of particle inside combustor [m]
eb emissivity of combustor [-]
es emissivity of surface of water wall tube [-]
g gravitational acceleration [m/s2 ]
HEC0 enthalpy of feed water at economizer outlet [kJ/kg]
HSH enthalpy of superheated steam [kJ/kg]
Hsat enthalpy of saturated steam at drum pressure [kJ/kg]
Hw enthalpy of boiler feed water [kJ/kg]
hc combustor overall heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2 ·K)]
hconv convective heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2 ·K)]
hd dispersed phase heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2 ·K)]
hr radiative heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2 ·K)]
Kg thermal conductivity of gas [W/(m2 ·K)]
m0w mass flow rate of feed water with after-combustion [kg/s]
mdes mass flow rate of spray water at de-superheater [kg/s]
m air mole flow rate of air [kg·mol/s]
mmix mass flow rate of flue gas and fly ash mixture [kg/s]
mw mass flow rate of feed water [kg/s]
Pr Prandtl number [-]
Q air heat input to the combustor by heated air through air heater [kW]
Energies 2022, 15, 5507 14 of 15

Q air,A heat gain of air through air heater [kW]

QB heat load of boiler unit in convection pass [W]
Q BA heat loss by bottom ash discharge [kW]
Q ECO heat input from flue gas to economizer [kW]
Q EVA evaporator heat load [W]
Q f uel heat input to the combustor by fuel combustion [kW]
Q f lue,A heat input from flue gas and fly ash mixture to super heater [kW]
QSH heat input from flue gas and fly ash mixture to super heater [kW]
Tb temperature of combustor [K]
Tcomb temperature of flue gas at combustor exit or super heater upstream [K]
TECO flue gas temperature at economizer upstream [K]
Tin, air inlet temperature at air heater [K]
Tout, air outlet temperature at air heater [K]
Tre f reference temperature [K]
Tw temperature of water wall tube [K]
T 0con measured convection pas inlet temperature [K]
h EVA overall heat transfer coefficient of evaporator [W/(m2 ·K)]
hB overall heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2 ·K)]
ut terminal velocity of particle [m/s]
ρdis density of particle [kg/m3 ]
ρp density of particle [kg/m3 ]
σ Stefan-Boltzman constant, 5.67 × 10−8 [W/(m2 ·K4 )]
∆Tl logarithmic mean temperature difference between the tube and the gas side inlet and outlet [K]

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