Energy 169 (2019) 508e514

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Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Fuel consumption model optimization based on transient correction

Hao Guang, Hui Jin*
School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, 100081 Beijing, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: With the growing desire for “lucid waters and lush mountains”, energy savings and emission reductions
Received 14 June 2018 of automobiles have received unprecedented attention. As a result, how to achieve economical driving is
Received in revised form also a focus of current research. The engine dynamic fuel consumption model is the basis for research on
8 November 2018
automobile fuel economy. To overcome the deficiency of the original transient fuel consumption models
Accepted 11 December 2018
based on “steady-state prediction plus transient correction”, a new model called BIT-TFCM-3 was
Available online 11 December 2018
developed. The new model was verified using measured fuel consumption data from Argonne National
Laboratory. The results show that, compared with the original models, the new model not only has a
Keywords:
Energy savings
higher computing speed but also a significantly improved prediction accuracy.
Emission reductions © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Economical driving
Fuel consumption model
Model optimization

1. Introduction microscopic fuel consumption model, which is also referred to as

According to the predictions of Organization of Petroleum
Exporting Countries (OPEC), transportation represent 66.7% of the
total global energy consumption between 2016 and 2040 [1]. The
development of the auto industry will not only lead to energy
shortages but also put tremendous pressure on the environment
[2]. Therefore, economical driving of gas-powered automobiles
requires further development.
The vehicle fuel consumption model is a powerful tool to esti-
mate real-time fuel consumption levels and to evaluate the fuel
economy. A precise fuel consumption model can provide accurate
fuel consumption data, which helps researchers to accurately
evaluate the economy of the vehicle. Therefore, the economic in-
dicators can be taken into account to design a more fuel-efficient
vehicle. In turn, the transportation energy consumption will be
reduced. It is important for reducing global energy consumption.
Existing fuel consumption models can be divided into microscopic,
mesoscopic, and macroscopic fuel consumption models based on
the size of their inputs [3]. For mesoscopic and macroscopic fuel
consumption models, practicality is not favoured because of the
complex calculations of fuel consumption factors and the feature of
quantifying the average fuel consumption according to the average
speed. Therefore, current research studies mainly focus on the
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: 510824665@qq.com (H. Guang), jinhui@bit.edu.cn (H. Jin).
the instantaneous fuel consumption model. The inputs into this
model are the vehicle's own running state parameters, such as the
engine speed and torque and the vehicle's instantaneous speed and
acceleration. The microscopic fuel consumption model can be
divided into a steady-state model and a transient model according
to the accuracy of the fuel consumption estimation under unsteady
conditions.
The steady-state fuel consumption model is based on steady-
state test data from the engine. The fuel consumption rate is
fitted as a function of the engine speed, torque or power. The
representative model is the power-based fuel consumption model
proposed by Post in 1984 [4], as shown in equation (1). This model
takes instantaneous engine power as the input and predicts the fuel
consumption based on the positive and negative power intervals.


l þ bP P0
m_ fm ¼ (1)
l P <0
where m_ fm (ml/min) is the fuel consumption rate; l(ml/min) and
b(ml/(min$kW)) are parameters related to the vehicle; and P(kW) is
the instantaneous engine power.
Subsequently, some fuel consumption models based on the
engine power or torque began to emerge, as shown in Table 1.
The modelling data of the transient fuel consumption model
include the fuel consumption parameters of the engine under
steady and unsteady conditions. The vehicle's fuel consumption
under transient conditions is approximately 6%~30% higher than

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2018.12.067
0360-5442/© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 H. Guang, H. Jin / Energy 169 (2019) 508e514 509

Table 1
Fuel consumption models based on the engine power or torque.

Source of the models Structure of the models Steady-state test data

Chang and Morlok [5] m_ f ¼ g1 P P

Ahn et al. [6] m_ f ¼ g0 ne þ g1 P ne ; P


ne ; P
m_ ¼ g0 þ g1 P þ g2 P
Rakha H. A et al. [7] 2 P0

g0
f P<0
m_ f ¼ g0 ne þ g1 P þ g2 P 2 P0
g0 nidle P <0
Bart Saerens et al. [8] m_ f ¼ g0 þ g1 ne þ g2 n2e þ g3 P þ g4 P 2 ne ; Te ; P
m_ f ¼ g0 ne þ g1 P þ g2 P 2
m_ f ¼ g0 ne þ g1 n2e þ g2 n3e þ g3 ne Te þ g4 n2e Te þ g5 ne T 2e
m_ f ¼ ðg0 þ g1 n2e Þðg0 þ g1 Te þ g2 T 2e Þ
Passenberg et al. [9] m_ f ¼ g0 þ g1 ne þ g2 n2e þ g3 ne Te þ g4 Te þ g5 T 2e ne ; Te

where m_ f (mg/s) is the fuel consumption rate; gi is the model regression coefficient, i ¼ 0; 1;/;5; P(kW) is the instantaneous engine power; and ne (rpm) and Te (Nm) are the
engine speed and torque, respectively.

that under steady-state conditions [10e15]. This is the reason why
the transient model can estimate the fuel consumption of the
vehicle more accurately under various operating conditions
compared with the steady-state model. The modelling method
includes transient-correction-based modelling and direct dynamic-
variables-based modelling. The steady-state module of the fuel
consumption model established by the first method is a steady-
state fuel consumption map of the engine that uses the engine
speed and torque as inputs. The inputs of the transient module are
the air-fuel ratio or the transients in the engine speed and torque;
such transients are difficult to measure. The second method is to fit
fuel consumption as a function of vehicle speed and acceleration.
The representative models of the two methods and transient var-
iables are shown in Table 2.
The VT-Micro model developed by Ahn and Pakha predicts
instantaneous fuel consumption based on the instantaneous speed
and acceleration [16]. The combination of speed and acceleration
with different powers is used to fit the vehicle's instantaneous fuel
consumption. The model takes the positive and negative intervals
of the acceleration into consideration and uses a logarithm function
to ensure that the output is positive. Wei Lei replaced the acceler-
ation in the VT-Micro model with a composite acceleration in 9 s to
develop the MEF model [17]. To date, many people, such as Tang T Q
[18] and Llopis-Castello D [19], still use the VT-Micro model.
The transient fuel consumption model developed in this paper
consists of the steady-state module and transient module. The in-
puts of the steady-state module are the engine speed and torque,
and the inputs of the transient module are the vehicle speed and
acceleration. The steady-state module is similar to the steady-state
model which can accurately predict the fuel consumption of the
vehicle under steady-state conditions. However, the prediction will
have a large deviation under unsteady conditions. Therefore, the
transient module is introduced to make the model accurately
predict the fuel consumption under various working conditions.
Since the engine torque is different when the vehicle is running at
the same speed and acceleration on a level road and a sloped road,
the steady-state module is indispensable. So the two modules
complement each other. It was verified that the developed model
can overcome the deficiency of the existing models.
2. Transient fuel consumption model
Based on our previous research, the new transient fuel con-
sumption model is developed based on BIT-TFCM-1 [20] and BIT-
TFCM-2 [21], whose basic structure is “steady-state estimation
plus transient correction”. The modelling data are derived from the
Downloadable Dynamometer Database (D3) in the Advanced
Powertrain Research Facility (APRF) at Argonne National Laboratory

Table 2
Transient models and dynamic variables.

Modelling methods Source of the models Transient models Dynamic variables

Transient-correction-based Chiara F et al. [13] Engine fuel Map þ start-up & fuel-to-air ratio limitation correction m_ air
Lindgren M. [14] Engine fuel Map þ engine speed and torque change correction DT; Du
Pelkmans L et al. [15] Engine fuel Map þ torque change correction DT
8
Direct Dynamic-variable-based Ahn K et al. [16] >
> X3 X 3 a
>
> ðLi;j vi aj Þ a0
>
<
i¼0 j¼0
lnðMOEe Þ ¼
>
> X3 X 3
>
> ðMi;j vi aj Þ a < 0
>
:
i¼0 j¼0
8
Lei W et al. [17] >
> X3 X 3 a
>
> ðLi;j vi aj Þ a0
>
<
i¼0 j¼0
lnðMOEe Þ ¼
>
> X3 X 3
>
> ðMi;j vi aj Þ a < 0
>
:
i¼0 j¼0
X
9
aðtÞ ¼ a,aðtÞ þ ð1  aÞ aðt  iÞ=9
i¼1

where “Engine fuel Map” represents the traditional engine fuel map; m_ air (g/s) is the transient air mass flow rate; DT(Nm/s) and Du(rad/s2) are the transients in engine torque
and speed, respectively; MOEe is the instantaneous fuel consumption rate (mg/s); Li;j and Mi;j are the model regression coefficients; v(km/h) and a(m/s2) are the vehicle
instantaneous speed and acceleration, respectively; aðtÞ(m/s2) is the composite acceleration at time t(s); and a is the acceleration impact factor.
510 H. Guang, H. Jin / Energy 169 (2019) 508e514

Fig. 1. Four driving cycles.

(ANL) [22]. The data are collected under the steady-state cycle, the
UDDS cycle, the Highway cycle and the US06 cycle, as shown in where m_ c (cc/s) is the transient fuel consumption correction; gi is
Fig. 1. As depicted in Fig. 1, the vehicles mainly run at medium and the model regression coefficient, i ¼ 1; 2; /; 9; and a(m/s2) and
low speeds under UDDS cycle condition and at high speed under v(km/h) are the vehicle acceleration and speed, respectively.
US06 cycle, and both of the two cycles have rapid acceleration and
rapid deceleration conditions. Therefore, combining the data from
2.2. BIT-TFCM-2 transient fuel consumption model
UDDS driving cycle and US06 driving cycle can take the fuel con-
sumption characteristics at high and low speed into account. And it
The steady-state module still uses steady-state cycle data. A
is helpful to reduce the prediction error. Then, all data were divided
polynomial is used to fit steady-state fuel consumption with the
into two groups: one for model development (UDDS&US06 cycles
engine speed and torque as the inputs. The transient module
(D)) and the other for model validation (UDDS&US06 cycles (V)).
modelling data are from the UDDS&US06 cycles (D). The final
structure is given by equation (3):
2.1. BIT-TFCM-1 transient fuel consumption model 8
>
> ms ¼ g0 þ g1 Te þ g2 ne þ g3 Te 2 þ g4 ne Te þ g5 Te 3 þ g6 ne T 2 e
>
>
< X3 X 1
The steady-state module is a traditional engine map based on mc ¼ bi;j ai vj
fuel consumption data from the steady-state cycle. As shown in >
>
>
> i¼1 j¼0
: _
Fig. 1, the vehicle steady speed of the steady-state cycle ranged from mf ¼ eðms þmc Þ
15 km/h to 130 km/h. The inputs of the module are the engine
speed and torque, and the vehicle's fuel consumption under steady- (3)
state working condition can be calculated using the method of 2D
where ms (cc/s) is steady-state fuel consumption; mc is the multiple
interpolation.
ratio of logarithmic fuel consumption; m_ f (cc/s) is the instantaneous
The inputs of the transient correction module are the instanta-
fuel consumption rate of vehicles.
neous speed and acceleration of the vehicle. This module can
further correct the predictions given by the steady-state module
based on the Vehicle Specific Power (VSP) partition. VSP was pro- 2.3. Verifications and shortcomings of the models
posed by Jime nez-Palacios to reflect the relationship between
vehicle output power and fuel consumption [23].The corrected The two models were verified under a variety of working con-
structure is shown in equation (2): ditions; the verification results under the US06 Driving cycle (V) are

8     
>
< g1 þ g2 v þ g3 v3 þ g4 þ g5 v þ g6 v3 a þ g7 þ g8 v þ g9 v3 a2 VSP  0
m_ c ¼ 0:3984 VSP < 0kW=t&v  50km=h (2)
>
:
0:0038 VSP < 0kW=t&v < 50km=h
 H. Guang, H. Jin / Energy 169 (2019) 508e514
Fig. 2. Comparison between BIT-TFCM-1 and BIT-TFCM-2 under the US06 cycle (V).
shown in Fig. 2. According to the Fig. 2, it is observed that the two
previous models can estimate the fuel consumption properly most
of the time. Compared with the BIT-TFCM-2 model, the BIT-TFCM-1
model better fits the measured fuel consumption and reflects the
instantaneous fuel consumption more accurately. However, the
BIT-TFCM-1 model is slower in terms of calculation speed than the
BIT-TFCM-2 model because of the adoption of the interpolation
method to obtain steady-state fuel consumption.
3. Model optimization
Based on the analysis of the two transient fuel consumption
models in the previous section, a new model was developed, as
described in this section; this new model takes both the accuracy
and calculation speed into account.
3.1. Calculation speed optimization
The BIT-TFCM-1 model used too much of the original data for
interpolation, which increased the amount of calculations and the
Fig. 3. Delaunay triangulation.
511
computation time. Therefore, the block interpolation method was
used to reduce the interpolation area and the original data to
reduce the calculation time.
The interpolation algorithm adopted is a scattered data inter-
polation. There are two types of methods of scattered data inter-
polation including distance-weighted interpolation and triangular
interpolation. Distance-weighted interpolation is suitable for
multivariate interpolation and is generally used in multidimen-
sional spaces. For two-dimensional space, triangular interpolation
has better continuity and higher speed, so triangular interpolation
is adopted. The interpolation method first divides the scattered
dataset via Delaunay triangulation. The characteristics of the
triangulation are that the triangle network has no intersecting
edges and that there are no other data points in the circumscribed
circle of any triangle. Another characteristic is that in the possible
triangulation of the scattered points, the minimum angle of the
triangle formed by Delaunay triangulation is the largest. In other
words, the Delaunay triangle network is the closest to the regu-
larized triangle network. Thus, the data are interpolated depending
on the triangle on which the data points falls. Delaunay triangu-
lation of original data are shown in Fig. 3.
According to Fig. 3, because of the uneven distribution of the
scattered points, the surrounding triangle span was very large,
thereby increasing the interpolation error. Blocking is a good
approach to avoid this problem and reduce error. In addition,
regionality is a very important feature of Delaunay triangulation
that provides a theoretical basis for block interpolation. The sig-
nificance of regionality is that whether you add, delete, or move
one of the data points, only the neighbouring triangles will be
affected.
It was discovered via experimentation that when the area di-
vision was not overlapping, a large error occurred in the interpo-
lation operation. The reason for this large error is the distortion of
the algorithm caused by the discontinuous boundaries of the
adjacent sub-intervals. Therefore, dividing the interpolation region
into overlapping regions to ensure the continuity of the boundary is
performed in this paper. According to the distribution of the orig-
inal data, it is found that the distribution of the engine speed is
dispersed relatively. Thus, the area is divided based on the engine
speed.
First, the minimum length lmin of the sub-intervals and overlap
ratio q of the adjacent sub-intervals were determined. The overlap
ratio is the ratio of the length that the sub-intervals has in common
in the total length, i.e., the degree of the overlapping intervals. Thus,
the scope is 0  q  1. Next, a binary tree method was used to block
all regions recursively. The length of the first floor is l1 , the point set
is S1 , and the total interval is I1 . Thus, the area was divided into two
overlapping sub-intervals, I2;1 and I2;2 , with an overlapping length
of q,l1 . The sub-areas were partitioned sequentially one by one. The
length of a node in the floor i is li , the point sets are Si;1 and Si;2 , and
the corresponding intervals are Ii;1 and Ii;2 with an overlapping
length of q,li1 . Finally, blocking stopped when li < lmin . lmin ¼ 500
and q ¼ 0:3 were selected and adjusted slightly based on the
experimental results.
3.2. Calculation accuracy optimization
In the above two models, the inputs of the steady-state module
are the engine speed and torque at a constant speed. To predict all
of the working conditions accurately, including vehicle acceleration
and deceleration, a transient correction module with the inputs of
instantaneous speed and acceleration is introduced. The accuracy
of the model is determined according to the precision of the tran-
sient correction module directly. Therefore, the purpose of
improving the model can be achieved by analysing the influences of
512 H. Guang, H. Jin / Energy 169 (2019) 508e514
Fig. 4. Error distribution.
the vehicle speed and acceleration on the model error. Fig. 4 shows
the relationship between speed and acceleration when using the
BIT-TFCM-2 model to predict the fuel consumption and error dis-
tribution of different data points.
The Fig. 4 reveals that when using the BIT-TFCM-2 model to
predict fuel consumption, the points with larger error appear in the
upper right part of the figure, i.e., in areas where the speed and
acceleration are relatively large. Large error points are found when
v  45km=h. To determine the boundary conditions for the points,
the area was divided into several sub-ranges from 45 km/h to
130 km/h, which had an average length of 5 km/h. Next, the mini-
mum acceleration amin and its corresponding speed vmin in each
sub-range was determined to constitute an ordinal pair ½vmin ; amin .
The acceleration of the ordinal pairs was fitted as a function of
speed, as shown by the envelope line in Fig. 5. The expression for
acceleration is given by:
amin ¼ 0:0003063vmin 2  0:06206vmin þ 3:44
Each point on the line represents the minimum acceleration of
large error points. When the input acceleration is larger than its
defined boundary value, the fuel consumption prediction of the
Fig. 5. Comparison between the measured and predicted fuel consumption.
Table 3
Operation time under the US06 cycle and Highway cycle.
BIT-TFCM-1 BIT-TFCM-2 BIT-TFCM-3
US06 cycle 36.4319s 0.3913s 1.2348s
Highway cycle 43.6222s 0.3867s 1.0965s
optimized BIT-TFCM-1 is used to replace the prediction of BIT-
TFCM-2. The area is given by:


v  45
(5)
a  0:0003063v2  0:06206v þ 3:44
Finally, the structure of the new model named BIT-TFCM-3 was
completely determined.
4. Validation of the BIT-TFCM-3 model
4.1. Verification of the calculation speed
It can be known from Equation (5) that the points with larger
error appear in the intervals where the speed and acceleration are
relatively large. When verifying the calculation speed, it is neces-
sary to select the driving cycles with a large proportion of these
areas. So the US06 cycle and the Highway cycle were selected.
The computer used was a DELL Inspiron 14R-7420, with an Intel
Core i5-3230M CPU. The calculations of the US06 cycle and High-
way cycle were performed in this environment. The operation time
is shown in Table 3 by using the average calculation time.
Compared with the BIT-TFCM-1 model, the calculation time of the
BIT-TFCM-3 model was reduced by 96.61% and 97.49% under the
US06 cycle and Highway cycle, respectively. Although slower than
the BIT-TFCM-2 model, the BIT-TFCM-3 model was already able to
meet the computational requirements.
4.2. Verification of the calculation accuracy
Because the modelling data are from the UDDS&US06 cycles (D),
the validity of the BIT-TFCM-3 model under the UDDS&US06 cycles
(V) and Highway cycle was simultaneously verified, also the uni-
(4)
versality of the model was proved.
A comparison of the three models under the UDDS&US06 cycles
(V) and Highway cycle between the measured and predicted fuel
consumption values is shown in Fig. 5. The solid lines show the
 H. Guang, H. Jin / Energy 169 (2019) 508e514 513

fitting relationship between the measured and predicted values.

The figure shows that under the UDDS&US06 cycles (V), the slope
of 0.9892 for the BIT-TFCM-3 model was closer to 1 than the slopes
of 0.9706 and 0.9111 for the BIT-TFCM-1 model and BIT-TFCM-2
model, respectively. The slope of 1.011 for the BIT-TFCM-3 model
under the Highway cycle was closer to 1 than the slopes of 0.9292
and 1.087 for the BIT-TFCM-1 model and BIT-TFCM-2 model,
respectively.
To evaluate the performance of the models more accurately, two
evaluation indicators, the Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE)
and Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) were introduced.
 
Snv m_ p ðiÞ  m_ m ðiÞ
MAPE ¼  100% (6)
Snv m_ m ðiÞ

rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi
Xnv   .
RMSE ¼ m _ p ðiÞ  m_ m ðiÞ 2 nv (7)
i¼1

where m_ m ðiÞ(cc/s) is the ith measured fuel consumption; m_ p ðiÞ(cc/

s) is the ith predicted fuel consumption; and nv is the total number
of samples used for model validation.
The quantitative verification results of the three models under
the UDDS&US06 cycles (V) and Highway cycle are shown in Table 4.
Fig. 6. Comparison of the BIT-TFCM-3 model under the US06 cycle (V).
The table indicates that under the UDDS&US06 cycle (V), the MAPE
of the BIT-TFCM-3 model is slightly higher than that of the BIT-
TFCM-1 model, but is significantly lower than that of the BIT-
TFCM-2 model. The RMSE of the BIT-TFCM-3 model is the lowest.
Moreover, under the Highway cycle, the MAPE and RMSE of the BIT-
TFCM-3 model are much lower than those of the BIT-TFCM-1 model
and BIT-TFCM-2 model.
A comparison of the measured and predicted fuel consumption
in the BIT-TFCM-3 model under the US06 cycle (V) is shown in
Fig. 6. It is observed that compared with Fig. 2, the BIT-TFCM-3
model successfully overcomes the inaccuracy in most intervals of
the BIT-TFCM-2 model and better fits the measured fuel con-
sumption compared to the previous models.
A comparison of the measured and predicted fuel consumption
in the BIT-TFCM-3 model under the Highway cycle is shown in
Fig. 7. The BIT-TFCM-3 model better reflects the instantaneous fuel
consumption change trend of the vehicle under the Highway cycle
compared to the previous models, and the prediction error is less
than 0.5 cc/s most of the time.

5. Conclusion

The BIT-TFCM-1 model was found to have a high prediction

Fig. 7. Comparison of the BIT-TFCM-3 model under Highway cycle.
accuracy but slow calculation speed. The BIT-TFCM-2 model can
predict fuel consumption most of the time, but does so inaccurately
over individual intervals. Therefore, a new fuel consumption model
named BIT-TFCM-3 was developed to improve the performance of
96.61% under the US06 cycle and by 97.49% under the Highway
the models. The new model was verified according to measured
cycle. Although slower than the BIT-TFCM-2 model, the new model
fuel consumption data from Argonne National Laboratory.
can already meet the computational requirements. In terms of
The results show that the operation time of the new model is
computational accuracy, the slope of the new model is closest to 1
significantly shorter than that of BIT-TFCM-1, with a reduction by
in the comparison between the measured and predicted fuel con-
sumption and its MAPE and RMSE are improved compared to the
previous models. It can be concluded that the new model not only
Table 4 has a higher computing speed but also a significantly improved
Comparison of MAPE and RMSE.
prediction accuracy compared to the BIT-TFCM-1 model and BIT-
UDDS&US06 cycles (V) Highway cycle TFCM-2 model.
MAPE (%) RMSE (cc/s) MAPE (%) RMSE (cc/s) Vehicles should make a breakthrough from functional re-
quirements to performance requirements. It means that vehicles
BIT-TFCM-1 24.3057 0.4765 23.4557 0.3357
BIT-TFCM-2 30.0591 0.6557 25.3549 0.4513 must not only improve the reliability and safety, but also improve
BIT-TFCM-3 24.5770 0.4549 15.4089 0.2601 the economy. Therefore, this new model can be used to develop
514 H. Guang, H. Jin / Energy 169 (2019) 508e514

new vehicle control strategy, such as minimum-energy speed VSP Vehicle Specific Power
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Abbreviations
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