1/1/23, 4:08 PM Minute and second of arc - Wikipedia

Minute and second of arc

A minute of arc, arcminute (arcmin), arc minute, or
Arcminute
minute arc, denoted by the symbol ′ , is a unit of angular
1
measurement equal to 60 of one degree.[1] Since one degree is
1 1
360 of a turn (or complete rotation), one minute of arc is 21 600 of
a turn. The nautical mile (nmi) was originally defined as the arc
length of a minute of latitude on a spherical Earth, so the actual An illustration of the size of an
Earth circumference is very near 21 600  nmi. A minute of arc is arcminute (not to scale). A standard
π radian. association football (soccer) ball
10 800 of a
(with a diameter of 22 cm or 8.7 in)
A second of arc, arcsecond (arcsec), or arc second, denoted subtends an angle of 1 arcminute at
1 1 a distance of approximately 756 m
by the symbol ″ ,[2] is 60 of an arcminute, 3600 of a degree,[1]
(827 yd).
1 π 1
1 296 000 of a turn, and 648 000 (about 206 264.8 ) of a radian. General information

These units originated in Babylonian astronomy as sexagesimal Unit system Non-SI units
subdivisions of the degree; they are used in fields that involve mentioned in the SI
very small angles, such as astronomy, optometry, ophthalmology, Unit of Angle
optics, navigation, land surveying, and marksmanship.
Symbol ′ or arcmin
To express even smaller angles, standard SI prefixes can be In units Dimensionless with
employed; the milliarcsecond (mas) and microarcsecond an arc length of
(μas), for instance, are commonly used in astronomy. For a three- approx. ≈ 0.2909 of
1000
dimensional area such as on a sphere, square arcminutes or
the radius, i.e.
seconds may be used.
0.2909 mm
m
Conversions
Contents 1 ′ in ... ... is equal to ...
1
Symbols and abbreviations    degrees     60 ° = 0.016°

Common examples    arcseconds    60″

History    radians π ≈
    10800
Uses 0.000290888 rad
Astronomy    milliradians     π·1000 ≈
10800
Cartography
0.2909 mrad
Property cadastral surveying
9 g
Firearms    gons     600 = 0.015g
Human vision 1
   turns     21600
Materials
Manufacturing
See also

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Notes
References
External links

Symbols and abbreviations

The prime symbol ′ (U+2032) designates the arcminute,[2] though a single quote ' (U+0027) is
commonly used where only ASCII characters are permitted. One arcminute is thus written as 1′. It is
also abbreviated as arcmin or amin.

Similarly, double prime ″ (U+2033) designates the arcsecond,[2] though a double quote " (U+0022)
is commonly used where only ASCII characters are permitted. One arcsecond is thus written as 1″. It
is also abbreviated as arcsec or asec.

Sexagesimal system of angular measurement

In radians,
Unit Value Symbol Abbreviations
approx.
1
Degree 360 turn ° Degree deg 17.453 2925 mrad

1 arcmin, amin, am,

Arcminute 60
degree ′ Prime 290.888 2087 μrad
MOA

1 1 Double
Arcsecond 60
arcminute = 3600 degree ″ arcsec, asec, as 4.848 1368 μrad
prime
1
0.001 arcsecond = 3600000
Milliarcsecond mas 4.848 1368 nrad
degree

0.001 mas = 0.000 001

Microarcsecond μas 4.848 1368 prad
arcsecond

In celestial navigation, seconds of arc are rarely used in calculations, the preference usually being for
degrees, minutes, and decimals of a minute, for example, written as 42° 25.32′ or 42° 25.322′.[3][4]
This notation has been carried over into marine GPS receivers, which normally display latitude and
longitude in the latter format by default.[5]

Common examples
The average apparent diameter of the full Moon is about 31 arcminutes, or 0.52°.

One arcminute is the approximate resolution of the human eye.[6]

One arcsecond is the approximate angle subtended by a U.S. dime coin (18  mm) at a distance of 4
kilometres (about 2.5 mi).[7] An arcsecond is also the angle subtended by

an object of diameter 725.27 km at a distance of one astronomical unit,

an object of diameter 45 866 916 km at one light-year,
an object of diameter one astronomical unit (149 597 870.7 km) at a distance of one parsec, per
the definition of the latter.[8]

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One milliarcsecond is about the size of a half dollar, seen from a distance equal to that between the
Washington Monument and the Eiffel Tower.

One microarcsecond is about the size of a period at the end of a sentence in the Apollo mission
manuals left on the Moon as seen from Earth.

One nanoarcsecond is about the size of a penny on Neptune's moon Triton as observed from Earth.

Also notable examples of size in arcseconds are:

Hubble Space Telescope has calculational resolution of 0.05 arcseconds and actual resolution of
almost 0.1 arcseconds, which is close to the diffraction limit.[9]
At crescent phase, Venus measures between 60.2 and 66 seconds of arc.[9]

History
The concepts of degrees, minutes, and seconds—as they relate to the measure of both angles and time
—derive from Babylonian astronomy and time-keeping. Influenced by the Sumerians, the ancient
Babylonians divided the Sun's perceived motion across the sky over the course of one full day into 360
degrees.[10] Each degree was subdivided into 60 minutes and each minute into 60 seconds.[11][12]
Thus, one Babylonian degree was equal to four minutes in modern terminology, one Babylonian
1
minute to four modern seconds, and one Babylonian second to 15 (approximately 0.067) of a modern
second.

Uses

Astronomy

Since antiquity, the arcminute and arcsecond have been used in astronomy: in the ecliptic coordinate
system as latitude (β) and longitude (λ); in the horizon system as altitude (Alt) and azimuth (Az); and
in the equatorial coordinate system as declination (δ). All are measured in degrees, arcminutes, and
arcseconds. The principal exception is right ascension (RA) in equatorial coordinates, which is
measured in time units of hours, minutes, and seconds.

Contrary to what one might assume, minutes and seconds of arc do not directly relate to minutes and
seconds of time, in either the rotational frame of the Earth around its own axis (day), or the Earth's
rotational frame around the Sun (year). The Earth's rotational rate around its own axis is 15 minutes
of arc per minute of time (360 degrees / 24 hours in day); the Earth's rotational rate around the Sun
(not entirely constant) is roughly 24 minutes of time per minute of arc (from 24 hours in day), which
tracks the annual progression of the Zodiac. Both of these factor in what astronomical objects you can
see from surface telescopes (time of year) and when you can best see them (time of day), but neither
are in unit correspondence. For simplicity, the explanations given assume a degree/day in the Earth's
annual rotation around the Sun, which is off by roughly 1%. The same ratios hold for seconds, due to
the consistent factor of 60 on both sides.

The arcsecond is also often used to describe small astronomical angles such as the angular diameters
of planets (e.g. the angular diameter of Venus which varies between 10″ and 60″); the proper motion
of stars; the separation of components of binary star systems; and parallax, the small change of

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position of a star or solar system body as the Earth

revolves about the Sun. These small angles may
also be written in milliarcseconds (mas), or
thousandths of an arcsecond. The unit of distance
called the parsec, abbreviated from the parallax
angle of one arc second, was developed for such
parallax measurements. The distance from the Sun
to a celestial object is the reciprocal of the angle,
measured in arcseconds, of the object's apparent
movement caused by parallax.

The European Space Agency's astrometric satellite

Gaia, launched in 2013, can approximate star
positions to 7 microarcseconds (µas).[13]

Apart from the Sun, the star with the largest

angular diameter from Earth is R Doradus, a red
giant with a diameter of 0.05″. Because of the
effects of atmospheric blurring, ground-based Comparison of angular diameter of the Sun, Moon,
telescopes will smear the image of a star to an planets and the International Space Station. True
angular diameter of about 0.5″; in poor conditions represent­ation of the sizes is achieved when the image
this increases to 1.5″ or even more. The dwarf is viewed at a distance of 103 times the width of the
planet Pluto has proven difficult to resolve because "Moon: max." circle. For example, if the "Moon: max."
its angular diameter is about 0.1″.[14] circle is 10 cm wide on a computer display, viewing it
from 10.3 m (11.3 yards) away will show true
Space telescopes are not affected by the Earth's representation of the sizes.
atmosphere but are diffraction limited. For
example, the Hubble Space Telescope can reach an
angular size of stars down to about 0.1″. Techniques exist for improving seeing on the ground.
Adaptive optics, for example, can produce images around 0.05″ on a 10 m class telescope.

Cartography

Minutes (′) and seconds (″) of arc are also used in cartography and navigation. At sea level one
minute of arc along the equator equals exactly one geographical mile along the Earth's equator or
approximately one nautical mile (1,852 metres; 1.151 miles).[15] A second of arc, one sixtieth of this
amount, is roughly 30 metres (98 feet). The exact distance varies along meridian arcs or any other
great circle arcs because the figure of the Earth is slightly oblate (bulges a third of a percent at the
equator).

Positions are traditionally given using degrees, minutes, and seconds of arcs for latitude, the arc north
or south of the equator, and for longitude, the arc east or west of the Prime Meridian. Any position on
or above the Earth's reference ellipsoid can be precisely given with this method. However, when it is
inconvenient to use base-60 for minutes and seconds, positions are frequently expressed as decimal
1
fractional degrees to an equal amount of precision. Degrees given to three decimal places ( 1000 of a

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degree) have about 41 the precision of degrees-minutes-seconds ( 3600 1

of a degree) and specify
locations within about 120 metres (390 feet). For navigational purposes positions are given in degrees
and decimal minutes, for instance The Needles lighthouse is at 50º 39.734’N 001º 35.500’W.[16]

Property cadastral surveying

Related to cartography, property boundary surveying using the metes and bounds system and
cadastral surveying relies on fractions of a degree to describe property lines' angles in reference to
cardinal directions. A boundary "mete" is described with a beginning reference point, the cardinal
direction North or South followed by an angle less than 90 degrees and a second cardinal direction,
and a linear distance. The boundary runs the specified linear distance from the beginning point, the
direction of the distance being determined by rotating the first cardinal direction the specified angle
toward the second cardinal direction. For example, North 65° 39′ 18″ West 85.69 feet would describe
a line running from the starting point 85.69 feet in a direction 65° 39′ 18″ (or 65.655°) away from
north toward the west.

Firearms

The arcminute is commonly found in the firearms industry and

literature, particularly concerning the precision of rifles, though
the industry refers to it as minute of angle (MOA). It is
especially popular as a unit of measurement with shooters familiar
with the imperial measurement system because 1 MOA subtends a
circle with a diameter of 1.047 inches (which is often rounded to
just 1 inch) at 100 yards (2.66 cm at 91 m or 2.908 cm at 100 m), a
traditional distance on American target ranges. The subtension is
linear with the distance, for example, at 500 yards, 1  MOA
subtends 5.235 inches, and at 1000 yards 1  MOA subtends 10.47
inches. Since many modern telescopic sights are adjustable in half
( 21 ), quarter ( 41 ) or eighth ( 81 ) MOA increments, also known as
clicks, zeroing and adjustments are made by counting 2, 4 and 8
clicks per MOA respectively.
Example ballistic table for a given
For example, if the point of impact is 3 inches high and 1.5 inches 7.62×51mm NATO load. Bullet drop
left of the point of aim at 100 yards (which for instance could be and wind drift are shown both in
measured by using a spotting scope with a calibrated reticle), the mrad and minute of angle.
scope needs to be adjusted 3 MOA down, and 1.5 MOA right. Such
adjustments are trivial when the scope's adjustment dials have a
MOA scale printed on them, and even figuring the right number of clicks is relatively easy on scopes
that click in fractions of MOA. This makes zeroing and adjustments much easier:

To adjust a 1⁄2 MOA scope 3 MOA down and 1.5 MOA right, the scope needs to be adjusted 3 × 2
= 6 clicks down and 1.5 x 2 = 3 clicks right
To adjust a 1⁄4 MOA scope 3 MOA down and 1.5 MOA right, the scope needs to be adjusted 3 x 4
= 12 clicks down and 1.5 × 4 = 6 clicks right
To adjust a 1⁄8 MOA scope 3 MOA down and 1.5 MOA right, the scope needs to be adjusted 3 x 8
= 24 clicks down and 1.5 × 8 = 12 clicks right

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Another common system of measurement in firearm scopes is the milliradian (mrad). Zeroing an
mrad based scope is easy for users familiar with base ten systems. The most common adjustment
1
value in mrad based scopes is 10  mrad (which approximates 1⁄3 MOA).

1
To adjust a 10  mrad scope 0.9 mrad down and 0.4 mrad right, the scope needs to be adjusted 9
clicks down and 4 clicks right (which equals approximately 3 and 1.5 MOA respectively).

One thing to be aware of is that some MOA scopes, including some higher-end models, are calibrated
such that an adjustment of 1 MOA on the scope knobs corresponds to exactly 1 inch of impact
adjustment on a target at 100 yards, rather than the mathematically correct 1.047 inches. This is
commonly known as the Shooter's MOA (SMOA) or Inches Per Hundred Yards (IPHY). While the
difference between one true MOA and one SMOA is less than half of an inch even at 1000 yards,[17]
this error compounds significantly on longer range shots that may require adjustment upwards of 20–
30 MOA to compensate for the bullet drop. If a shot requires an adjustment of 20 MOA or more, the
difference between true MOA and SMOA will add up to 1 inch or more. In competitive target shooting,
this might mean the difference between a hit and a miss.

The physical group size equivalent to m minutes of arc can be calculated as follows: group size = tan(
m
60
) × distance. In the example previously given, for 1 minute of arc, and substituting 3,600 inches for
1
100 yards, 3,600 tan( 60 ) ≈ 1.047 inches. In metric units 1 MOA at 100 metres ≈ 2.908 centimetres.

Sometimes, a precision-oriented firearm's performance will be measured in MOA. This simply means
that under ideal conditions (i.e. no wind, high-grade ammo, clean barrel, and a stable mounting
platform such as a vise or a benchrest used to eliminate shooter error), the gun is capable of
producing a group of shots whose center points (center-to-center) fit into a circle, the average
diameter of circles in several groups can be subtended by that amount of arc. For example, a 1 MOA
rifle should be capable, under ideal conditions, of repeatably shooting 1-inch groups at 100 yards.
Most higher-end rifles are warrantied by their manufacturer to shoot under a given MOA threshold
(typically 1 MOA or better) with specific ammunition and no error on the shooter's part. For example,
Remington's M24 Sniper Weapon System is required to shoot 0.8 MOA or better, or be rejected from
sale by quality control.

Rifle manufacturers and gun magazines often refer to this capability as sub-MOA, meaning a gun
consistently shooting groups under 1 MOA. This means that a single group of 3 to 5 shots at 100
yards, or the average of several groups, will measure less than 1 MOA between the two furthest shots
in the group, i.e. all shots fall within 1 MOA. If larger samples are taken (i.e., more shots per group)
then group size typically increases, however this will ultimately average out. If a rifle was truly a 1
MOA rifle, it would be just as likely that two consecutive shots land exactly on top of each other as
that they land 1 MOA apart. For 5-shot groups, based on 95% confidence, a rifle that normally shoots
1 MOA can be expected to shoot groups between 0.58 MOA and 1.47 MOA, although the majority of
these groups will be under 1 MOA. What this means in practice is if a rifle that shoots 1-inch groups
on average at 100 yards shoots a group measuring 0.7 inches followed by a group that is 1.3 inches,
this is not statistically abnormal.[18][19]

The metric system counterpart of the MOA is the milliradian (mrad or 'mil'), being equal to 1⁄1000 of
the target range, laid out on a circle that has the observer as centre and the target range as radius. The
number of milliradians on a full such circle therefore always is equal to 2 × π × 1000, regardless the
target range. Therefore, 1 MOA ≈ 0.2909 mrad. This means that an object which spans 1 mrad on the
reticle is at a range that is in metres equal to the object's size in millimetres (e.g. an object of 100 mm

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subtending 1 mrad is 100 metres away). So there is no conversion factor required, contrary to the
MOA system. A reticle with markings (hashes or dots) spaced with a one mrad apart (or a fraction of a
mrad) are collectively called a mrad reticle. If the markings are round they are called mil-dots.

In the table below conversions from mrad to metric values are exact (e.g. 0.1  mrad equals exactly
10  mm at 100 metres), while conversions of minutes of arc to both metric and imperial values are
approximate.

Comparison of minute of arc (MOA)

and milliradian (mrad).

Conversion of various sight adjustment increment

Increment, (mins (milli- At 100 m At 100 yd

or click of arc) radians) (mm) (cm) (in) (in)
1
⁄12′ 0.083′ 0.024 mrad 2.42 mm 0.242 cm 0.0958 in 0.087 in
0.25
⁄10 mrad 0.086′ 0.025 mrad 2.5 mm 0.25 cm 0.0985 in 0.09 in
1
⁄8′ 0.125′ 0.036 mrad 3.64 mm 0.36 cm 0.144 in 0.131 in
1
⁄6′ 0.167′ 0.0485 mrad 4.85 mm 0.485 cm 0.192 in 0.175 in
0.5
⁄10 mrad 0.172′ 0.05 mrad 5 mm 0.5 cm 0.197 in 0.18 in
1
⁄4′ 0.25′ 0.073 mrad 7.27 mm 0.73 cm 0.29 in 0.26 in
1
⁄10 mrad 0.344′ 0.1 mrad 10 mm 1 cm 0.39 in 0.36 in
1
⁄2′ 0.5′ 0.145 mrad 14.54 mm 1.45 cm 0.57 in 0.52 in
1.5
⁄10 mrad 0.516′ 0.15 mrad 15 mm 1.5 cm 0.59 in 0.54 in
2
⁄10 mrad 0.688′ 0.2 mrad 20 mm 2 cm 0.79 in 0.72 in

1′ 1.0′ 0.291 mrad 29.1 mm 2.91 cm 1.15 in 1.047 in

1 mrad 3.438′ 1 mrad 100 mm 10 cm 3.9 in 3.6 in

1′ at 100 yards is about 1.047 inches[20]

1′ ≈ 0.291 mrad (or 29.1 mm at 100 m, approximately 30 mm at 100 m)
1
1 mrad ≈ 3.44′, so 10  mrad ≈ 13 ′
0.1 mrad equals exactly 1 cm at 100 m, or approximately 0.36 inches at 100 yards

Human vision

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In humans, 20/20 vision is the ability to resolve a spatial pattern separated by a visual angle of one
minute of arc. A 20/20 letter subtends 5 minutes of arc total.

Materials

The deviation from parallelism between two surfaces, for instance in optical engineering, is usually
measured in arcminutes or arcseconds. In addition, arcseconds are sometimes used in rocking curve
(ω-scan) x ray diffraction measurements of high-quality epitaxial thin films.

Manufacturing

Some measurement devices make use of arcminutes and arcseconds to measure angles when the
object being measured is too small for direct visual inspection. For instance, a toolmaker's optical
comparator will often include an option to measure in "minutes and seconds".

See also
Centesimal minute and second of arc
Degree (angle) § Subdivisions
Sexagesimal § Modern usage
Square minute
Square second
Steradian
Milliradian

Notes

References
1. Weisstein, Eric W. "Arc Second" (https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ArcSecond.html).
mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 31 August 2020.
2. "Minutes of Arc to Degree Conversion" (https://www.inchcalculator.com/convert/arcminute-to-degr
ee/). Inch Calculator. Retrieved 25 July 2021.
3. "CELESTIAL NAVIGATION COURSE" (http://www.learntonavigate.com/celestial.htm).
International Navigation School. Retrieved 4 November 2010. "It is a straightforward method [to
obtain a position at sea] and requires no mathematical calculation beyond addition and
subtraction of degrees and minutes and decimals of minutes"
4. "Astro Navigation Syllabus" (http://www.kumquat-data.com/Astro%20Navigation%20Syllabus.ht
m). Retrieved 4 November 2010. "[Sextant errors] are sometimes [given] in seconds of arc, which
will need to be converted to decimal minutes when you include them in your calculation."
5. "Shipmate GN30" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080124133039/http://norinco.co.in/NCMS/index.
php?option=com_content&task=view&id=53&Itemid=81). Norinco. Archived from the original (htt
p://norinco.co.in/NCMS/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=53&Itemid=81) on 24
January 2008. Retrieved 4 November 2010.
6. "Positions and Sizes of Cosmic Objects" (https://lco.global/spacebook/sky/using-angles-describe-
positions-and-apparent-sizes-objects/). lco.global. Retrieved 28 August 2022.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minute_and_second_of_arc 8/10
1/1/23, 4:08 PM Minute and second of arc - Wikipedia

7. Filippenko, Alex, Understanding the Universe (of The Great Courses, on DVD), Lecture 43, time
12:05, The Teaching Company, Chantilly, VA, USA, 2007.
8. "Cosmic Distance Scales - The Milky Way" (https://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/cosmic/milkyway_i
nfo.html).
9. "The Diffraction Limit of a Telescope" (http://www.astro.cornell.edu/academics/courses/astro201/di
ff_limit.htm).
10. "Why is a minute divided into 60 seconds, an hour into 60 minutes, yet there are only 24 hours in
a day?" (https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/experts-time-division-days-hours-minutes/).
Scientific American. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, a Division of Springer Nature America, Inc. 5 March
2008. Retrieved 25 July 2021.
11. Correll, Malcolm (November 1977). "Early Time Measurements". The Physics Teacher. 15 (8):
476–479. doi:10.1119/1.2339739 (https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.2339739).
12. F. Richard Stephenson; Louay J. Fatoohi (May 1994). "The Babylonian Unit of Time". Journal for
the History of Astronomy. doi:10.1177/002182869402500203 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0021828
69402500203).
13. Amos, Jonathan (14 September 2016). "Celestial mapper plots a billion stars" (https://www.bbc.co
m/news/science-environment-37355154). BBC News. Retrieved 31 March 2018.
14. "Pluto Fact Sheet" (https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/plutofact.html).
nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
15. Kaplan, George H. (1 January 2003). "Nautical mile approximates an arcminute" (http://www.ocea
nnavigator.com/January-February-2003/Nautical-mile-approximates-an-arcminute/). Ocean
Navigator. Navigator Publishing. Retrieved 22 March 2017.
16. The Corporation of Trinity House (10 January 2020). "1/2020 Needles Lighthouse" (https://www.tri
nityhouse.co.uk/notice-to-mariners/1/2020-needles-lighthouse). Notices to Mariners. Retrieved
24 May 2020.
17. Mann, Richard (18 February 2011). "Mil, MOA or inches?" (https://web.archive.org/web/201311102
04817/http://www.shootingillustrated.com/index.php/6227/mil-moa-or-inches/). Shooting
Illustrated. Archived from the original (http://www.shootingillustrated.com/index.php/6227/mil-moa-
or-inches/) on 10 November 2013. Retrieved 13 April 2015.
18. Wheeler, Robert E. "Statistical notes on rifle group patterns" (https://web.archive.org/web/2006092
6154900/http://www.bobwheeler.com/guns/GroupStat.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the original (htt
p://www.bobwheeler.com/guns/GroupStat.pdf) (PDF) on 26 September 2006. Retrieved 21 May
2009.
19. Bramwell, Denton (January 2009). "Group Therapy The Problem: How accurate is your rifle?" (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20111007225056/http://www.longrangehunting.com/articles/accurate-rifl
e-groups-1.php). Varmint Hunter. 69. Archived from the original (http://www.longrangehunting.co
m/articles/accurate-rifle-groups-1.php) on 7 October 2011. Retrieved 21 May 2009.
20. Dexadine Ballistics Software – ballistic data for shooting and reloading (http://dexadine.com/What
MOA.htm). See Talk

External links
MOA/ mils (https://www.scribd.com/doc/251836084/Mils-MOA-and-the-Range-Estimation-Equatio
ns) By Robert Simeone
A Guide to calculate distance using MOA Scope (https://binoscopes.com/blog/how-to-range-a-targ
et-using-moa/) by Steve Coffman

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