Notes

Introduction

Jian.Luo
jian.luo@nwpu.edu.cn
Phone : 18691809036
Office : D3-008, Aviation Building

School of Mechanical Engineering,

Northwestern Polytechnical University

Content
Notes

1. Curse overview

2. Field

3. Indicial notation

4. Fluid properties

1 / 38
Curse overview
Notes

Fundamentals of Fluid mechanics

Chapter I Physical properties of fluid mechanics
Field, Indicial notation, fluid properties.
Chapter II Fluid statics
Fluid is either at rest or moving without shearing stresses.
Chapter III Fluid kinematics
The description and visualization of its motion.
Chapter IV Fluid dynamics
The analysis of the specific forces necessary to produce the motion:
Idea flow and viscous flow.
Chapter V Dimensional analysis (Option)
Buckingham Π theorem to conduct dimensional analysis.

2 / 38

Reference book
Notes

Reference book
Fundamentals of fluid mechanics, 7th Edition, Bruce R. Munson,
John Wiley and Sons, Inc, 2012.
Fluid Mechanics, 7th Edition, Frank White, Mcgraw-Hill series
in mechanical engineering, 2009
Fox and McDonald’s Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, 8th Edi-
tion, Philip J. Pritchard, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 2011.
Valuable websites
www.nasa.gov;
www.wikipedia.org;
www.wiley.com;
www.potto.org;
www.engapplets.vt.edu;
www.phys.virginia.edu;
www.phys.mne.psu.edu;
www.tech-domain.com;
www.dreamstime.com;
3 / 38
Credit
Notes

Total Credit
Attendance (10%)
Research report (10%)
Final examination (80%)
Research report
Write a research report about one topic after read some reference,
about(4-5 pages).
Final examination
More than 50% of problems in the final exam will be chosen from the
assignments.

4 / 38

The objects of study on fluid mechanics

Notes

Fluid mechanics is one of the important

braches of mechanics (theoretical mechan-
ics, material mechanics, fluid mechanics,
rheological mechanics).
The mechanics is built on the base of the
corresponding engineering problem, physi-
cal models, and mathematic models or al-
gorithms.
Deformation is also important in mechan-
ics.
Figure 1: Common flow to solve a
physical problem.

5 / 38
Field
Notes

A field is a physical quantity that has a value for each point in space
and time.
Scalar field, whose values are given by a single variable at each
point of space.(ϕ(r, t))
Vector field, which are specified by attaching a vector to each point
of space. (A(A, t))
Tensor field, specified by a tensor at each point of space. (T(r, t))

6 / 38

Expression of fields
Notes
Scalar fields:
Temperature field, (T = T (r, t)); Pressure field, (p = p(r, t)); Den-
sity field, (ρ = ρ(r, t))

Figure 2: A scalar field such as temperature or pressure, where intensity of the field is represented by different hues
of color.

7 / 38
Expression of fields
Notes

Vector fields: Velocity field, V = (V(r, t)) = (u(r, t), v(r, t)).
For a streamline, it satisfies dr × V = 0.

Figure 3: A velocity field where the direction of an arrow Figure 4: A streamline is a line that is everywhere tan-
represents the direction of velocity. gent to the velocity field.

8 / 38

Expression of fields
Notes
Tensor fields: The Stress tensor’s components, in a three-dimensional
Cartesian coordinate system, form the matrix.
 
σ1,1 σ1,2 σ1,3
σ = [Te1 , Te2 , Te2 ] =  σ2,1 σ2,2 σ2,3 
σ3,1 σ3,2 σ3,3

Figure 5: The stress tensor (forces per unit area) acting on the e1 , e2 , and e3 faces of the cube.

9 / 38
Gradient-scalar field
Notes
Directional derivative
∂ϕ ϕ(M 0 ) − ϕ(M )
= lim
∂s M M 0 →0 MM0

∂ϕ ϕ(M 00 ) − ϕ(M )
= lim
∂n M M 00 →0 M M 00

M M 00 = M M 0 cos(n, s)

∂ϕ ϕ(M 00 ) − ϕ(M )
= lim cos(n, s)
∂s M M 00 →0 M M 00

Gradient is the derivative of scalar function along the normal direction

∂ϕ
gradϕ = n
∂n
∂ϕ
= |gradϕ| cos(n, s)
∂s
10 / 38

Divergence-vector field
Notes

Give a vector a, the flux through an element on the surface, dS, is

a · ndS = (ax cos(n, x) + ay cos(n, y) + az cos(n, z)) dS

Then, the flux of vector a through the surface, S, could be integrated

as, Z Z
an dS = a · ndS
S S

11 / 38
Divergence-vector field
Notes

The divergence of a vector field a at a point M is defined as the

limit of the net flow of a across the smooth boundary of a 3D region
V divided by the volume
H of V as V shrinks to M .
an dS
diva = lim S
V →0 V
Apply the Gauss theorem
I I
an dS = a · ndS
S S
Z  
∂ax ∂ay ∂az
= + + dV
V ∂x ∂y ∂z

∂ax ∂ay ∂az

diva = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z

12 / 38

Circulation-vector field
Notes

Circulation is the line integral

around a closed curve of the ve-
locity field.
I
Γ= a · dl
L

The projection of the curl of vec-

tor a on the n direction
H
a · dl
rotn a = lim L
S→0 S

13 / 38
Stokes’ Theorem
Notes
It relates the surface integral of the curl of a vector field a over a surface
S in Euclidean three-space to the line integral of the vector field over its
boundary C.
I Z  
∂az ∂ay
a · dl = − cos(n, x)
L S ∂y ∂z
    
∂ax ∂az ∂ay ∂ax
+ − cos(n, y) + − cos(n, z) dS
∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y

H
a · dl
rotn a = lim L
S→0
 S   
∂az ∂ay ∂ax ∂az
= − cos(n, x) + − cos(n, y)
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x
 
   î ĵ k̂ 
∂ay ∂ax  ∂ ∂ ∂

+ − cos(n, z) = rota · n =  ∂x ∂y ∂z
 ·n
∂x ∂y  a

xa y a z


14 / 38

Hamilton operator
Notes
Del, or nabla , is an operator used in mathematics, in particular, in
vector calculus, as a vector differential operator, usually represented
by the nabla symbol ∇:
∂ ∂ ∂
∇= î + ĵ + k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
Gradient:
∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
∇ϕ = î + ĵ + k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
Divergence:
∂ax ∂ay ∂az
∇·a= + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
Curl:  
 î ĵ k̂ 
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
∇ × a =  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 a ay a 
x z

15 / 38
Introduction to indicial notation
Notes

Index
The key concept in indicial notation is that of an index. Con-
sider a vector in Cartesian coordinates,

V = Vx , Vy , Vz = V1 , V2 , V3

Free Index
Use a generic component instead of all components, i.e. Vi .
We do not specify which value i takes.

The name of free index must remain the same throughout a

calculation.
Vi 6= Vj

16 / 38

The Einstein summation convention

Notes

The Einstein summation convention is this: repeated Roman indices

are summed over.
X 3
a·b= ai bi
i=1

In the Einstein summation convention, we get rid of the summation

symbol. We take all possible values of i, substitute them into ai bi ,
and then sum the resulting terms.

a · b = ai bi

17 / 38
Dummy indices
Notes

Dummy indices is an index which does not appear in an equation

after a summation is carried out.

We can change its name to whatever is convenient, because a

dummy index dose not appear in the final result.
3
X 3
X
ai bi = aj bj
i=1 j=1

→ ai bi = aj bj

18 / 38

Necessary function
Notes

Delta function
The delta function is defined very simply

0 i 6= j
δij =
1 i=j

Notice that both i and j are free indices here. We can get

δij = δji

Please calculate δii =?

19 / 38
Necessary function
Notes

Epsilon function
The epsilon function has three indices, means there are 27 pos-
sible combination.

 0 any of i, j or k are same
εijk = 1 an even permutation of 123
−1 an odd permutation of 123


εijk = 1 if ijk is one of 123, 231 or 312

εijk = −1 if ijk is one of 321, 132 or 213

εijk = −εikj

20 / 38

Relating δ and ε
Notes

A very useful identity is

εijk εilm = δjl δkm − δjm δkl

There are 4 free index, so there are 81 possible combination of the

free indices j, k, l and m, each of which has three terms in the
implied sum over i.

21 / 38
Vector operation
Notes

Dot production
We can associate the dot production with the delta function as
follows:
X3 X 3
a·b= ai bj δij
i=1 j=1

we can apply the property of delta function, replace all j’s with
i’s. And apply the Einstein summation convention

a · b = ai bi

Magnitude
The magnitude of a vector is closely related to the dot product.
We can write

|a| = a = (a · a)1/2 = (ai ai )1/2

22 / 38

Vector operation
Notes

Cross production
We can associate the dot production with the epsilon function
as follows:
(a × b)i = εijk aj bk
give us the i components of the cross product a × b.
Determinants
 
 a1 a2 a3 
 
 b1 b2 b3  = ai εijk bj ck
 
 c1 c2 c3 

Scalar triple product

a · (b × c) = ai (b × c)i = ai εijk bj ck

23 / 38
Vector operation
Notes

Nabla operation
The notation of ∇i is short for take the partial derivative of
what follows with respect to the ith component of r.
∂
∇i =
ri
The familiar gradient, divergence and curl are written as

∇f = ∇i f

∇ · a = ∇i ai
∇ × a = εijk ∇j ak

24 / 38

Examples
Notes

Examples 1: Please prove the flowing vector identity

(a × b) × c = (a · c)b − (b · c)a

We only check one component,

[(a × b) × c]i = εijk (a × b)j ck

= εijk εjlm al bm ck
= εjki εjlm al bm ck
= (δkl δim − δkm δil )al bm ck
= ak bi ck − ai bk ck
= [(a · c)b − (b · c)a]i

25 / 38
Examples
Notes

Examples 2: Please prove the flowing vector identity

∇ · (ϕA) = ∇ϕ · A + ϕ(∇ · A)

Proof:

∇ · (ϕA) = ∇i (ϕA)i
= ∇i ϕAi + ϕ∇i Ai
= ∇ϕ · A + ϕ(∇ · A)

26 / 38

Examples
Notes

Examples 3: Please prove the flowing vector identity

∇ · (f × g) = (∇ × f ) · g − f · (∇ × g)

Proof:

∇ · (f × g) = ∇i (εijk fj gk )
= εijk (∇i fj gk )
= εijk (∇i fj )gk + εijk fj (∇i gk )
= (εkij ∇i fj )gk − fj (εjik ∇i gk )
= (∇ × f )k gk − fj (∇ × g)j
= (∇ × f ) · g − f · (∇ × g)

27 / 38
Fluid
Notes

A Fluid is defined as a substance that deforms continuously

when acted on by a shearing stress of any magnitude.
A Liquid consists of relatively close-packed molecules with strong
cohesive forces.
The molecules of a Gas are widely spaced with negligible co-
hesive forces.

Figure 6: The difference of solid and fluid.

28 / 38

The Fluid as a continuum

Notes
The density of fluid is best defined as
δm
ρ = lim ∗
δυ→δ δυ

The limiting volume δυ ∗ is about 10−9 mm3 for all liquids and for
gases at atmospheric pressure.

Note:
Differential
Rarefied gas
Discontinuous

Figure 7: The limit definition of continuum fluid density:(a) an elemental volume

in a fluid region of variable continuum density;(b) calculated density versus size
of the elemental volume.

29 / 38
Viscosity
Notes
Viscosity is used to characterize the fluidity of a fluid.
Consider a experiment where a solid is placed between the two plates.
The shear stress can be calculated by
p
τ=
A

Figure 8: Definition of shear stress:(a) Deformation of material placed between two parallel plates. (b) Forces acting
on upper plate.

30 / 38

Viscosity
Notes
Replace the solid with a fluid such as water. It would generate a
velocity profile with constant gradient.

du U
=
dy b
The rotation angle δβ can
be calculated by
U δt
δβ =
b

The rate of shearing strain

is defined as
Figure 9: Behavior of a fluid placed between two parallel plates.
δβ U
γ = lim =
δ→0 δt b

31 / 38
Viscosity
Notes

We can also find that, the shear stress is proportional to the rate of
shearing strain,
du
τ ∝ γ, τ ∝
dy

For the common fluids, it results in

du
τ =µ
dy
Here the µ is the viscosity of the fluid.

32 / 38

Viscosity
Notes

Newtonian fluid and non-Newtonian fluid

Figure 10: Linear variation of shearing stress with rate of Figure 11: Variation of shearing stress with rate of
shearing strain for common fluids. shearing strain for several types of fluids.

33 / 38
Compressibility of fluid
Notes
Bulk modulus is used to characterized compressibility of a particular
fluid
dp dp
Ev = − =
dv/v dρ/ρ
At atmospheric pressure and a temperature of 15o Cit would require
a pressure of 3120 psi to compress a unit volume of water 1%.

Figure 12: The differential change in pressure needed to create a differential change in volume.

34 / 38

Compressibility of fluid
Notes

Compression and Expansion of Gases

For isothermal process, we can get the equation,

p
= Constant, Ev = p
ρ

For isentropic process, we can get

p Cp
k
= Constant, k = , Ev = kp
ρ Cv
For air under standard atmospheric conditions, the isentropic bulk
modulus is 140kP a. And the for the water bulk modulus is 2.19GP a.

35 / 38
Compressibility of fluid
Notes

Speed of sound

The velocity at which these small disturbances propagate is called

the speed of sound. It is related to changes in pressure and density
of the fluid medium through the equation,
s s
dp Ev
c= =
dρ ρ

For isentropic process, Ev = kp,

s
kp
c=
ρ

36 / 38

Surface tension
Notes
The intensity of the molecular attraction per unit length along any
line in the surface is called the surface tension and is designated
by σ.
Consider one-half of a liquid drop.
2σ
2πRσ = ∆pπR2 → p =
R

Figure 13: Forces acting on one-half of a liquid drop.

37 / 38
Compressibility of fluid
Notes
Liquid in a capillary tube
The height, h, is governed by the value of the surface tension, the
tube radius, R, the weight of the liquid, and the angle of contact,
between the fluid and tube.
2σ cos θ
2πRσ cos θ = ρgπR2 h → h =
ρgR

Figure 14: Effect of capillary action in small tubes. (a) Rise of column for a liquid that wets the tube. (b) Free-body
diagram for calculating column height. (c) Depression of column for a nonwetting liquid.

38 / 38

Notes