TOPIC 1:- CAMERA OPERATION/WORK

What is a camera
•A camera is a device used to capture images, either as still photographs or as sequences of
moving images (movies or videos). The term comes from the camera obscura (Latin word for
"dark chamber"), an early mechanism of projecting images where an entire room functioned as a
real-time imaging system; the modern camera evolved from the camera obscura.
•Cameras may work with the light of the visible spectrum or with other portions of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
A camera generally consists of an enclosed hollow with an opening (aperture) at one end for light
to enter, and a recording or viewing surface for capturing the light at the other end. A majority of
cameras have a lens positioned in front of the camera's opening to gather the incoming light and
focus all or part of the image on the recording surface. The diameter of the aperture is often
controlled by a diaphragm mechanism, but some cameras have a fixed-size aperture.
Image formation in a video camera
•The three main/basic parts of a video camera include; the video components of the camera itself
including lens, viewfinder and tube or CCD (A charge-coupled device or CMOS (
Complementally Metal Oxide Semi-conductor).
(Although CCDs are not the only technology to allow for light detection, CCDs are widely used
in professional, medical, and scientific applications where high-quality image data is required).
•The lens selects a certain field of view and produces a small optical image (light energy) of it.
The CCD converts the optical image as delivered by the lens into electrical signals. The
Viewfinder shows a small video image of what the lens is seeing. Some cameras have a small
fold-out screen (LCD-Liquid Crystal Display) that does not require you to look through an eye-
piece to see the camera picture.

Last modified: Monday, 23 March 2020, 8:22 AM

From light to video signal
•All Television cameras, whether digital or analog, big or small, work on the same basic
principle: The conversion of an optical image into electrical signals that are reconverted by a
television set into visible screen images.

TOPIC 2:- VIDEO COMPOSITION

•Shots are all about composition. Rather than pointing the camera at the subject, you need to
compose an image. As mentioned previously,
Framing & Composition: Framing is the process of creating composition.
•The frame is the picture you see in the viewfinder (or on a monitor). Composition refers to the
layout of everything within a picture frame — what the subject is, where it is in the frame, which
way it's facing/looking, the background, the foreground, lighting, etc.
•When you "frame" a shot, you adjust the camera position and zoom lens/focal length until your
shot has the desired composition.
Field of view
•It’s the shot desired. It refers to how wide or how close the object appears relative to camera, i.e.
how close it will appear to the viewer.
•The camera operator should be familiar with various terms designating the size of the shot
desired-which is field of view.
•Generally most television shots can be related to three basic categories (Lon Shot(LS), Medium
Shot(MS) and Close-Up sot (CU).
The area covered in the shot determines what and how much the audience should see. It fixes the
size of the subject shown in the picture, their relative distance to the viewer, their relation to the
overall picture frame.
The size of the subject in relation to the whole picture area is determined by:-

· Number of subjects to covered in a shot

· The distance of the camera to the subject.

· The focal length of the lens used to make the shot. Focal length is the distance from the
optical center of the lens to the point where a sharply focused image of an object placed
at infinity is formed. This is the distance between the camera lenses to the sensor with
the lens focused on infinity.
The closer the camera, the larger the image and the longer the focal length, the larger the image
size.
The further away the camera and the shorter the focal length the smaller the image size.
•The subject size may vary in different shots by altering the position of either the camera or
players/characters or by employing different lenses. (Standard lens, Wide-angle lens and
Telephoto lens.)
•The type of the shot filmed is defined with regard to the subject matter and it’s image size in
relation to the overall picture area.
NB/ Short focal length has wider field of view while longer focal length has a narrow field of
view. Prime lenses had focal lengths that are not adjustable. If you are planning to use prime
lenses you need to have several lenses of different focal length in order to get the shots you
need. Zoom lenses have variable focal length

•The light reflected off the object is gathered by the lens and focused on the beam splitter, which
splits the white light of the image into red, green, and blue pictures. These beams are directed
toward their respective CCDs, which transform the RGB light into electrical signals; these are
amplified, processed, and then converted by the view finder into video pictures.
Note
•A camera is a device that works as a transducer by converting light energy to electric
energy(images) and a transducer is any device that converts energy from one form to another.
Usually a transducer converts a signal in one form of energy to a signal in another form.
•The process of converting one form of energy to another is known as transduction.
•Examples: camera CCD, Bulb, TV tube/TV screen, Sola panel, speaker, microphone
BASIC CAMERA SHOTS
They are mainly divided into three basic categories:-
•Long Shot/wide shot (LS)
•Medium Shot (MS)
•Close-up Shot (CU)
The shots are further subdivided into;

· Extreme Long shots (ELS)

· Medium Long Shot (MLS)

· Medium close up (MCU)

· Big close up (BCU)

· Very Big close up (VBCU)

· Extreme close up (ECU)

The terms are usually used in relation to human figures. In all cases what is crucial is the amount
of subject matter in the frame. They narrow an audience’s attention from the overall scene
through a group of people to the single individual. - (Overall scene – group of people – single
individual).
Thus, Long shot (LS)–Medium Shot (MS)-Close-Up (CU).
Other ways of describing conventional shots are:-
•Bust shot – which frames the subject from the upper torso to the top of the head.
•Knee-shot – which frames the subject just above or bellow the knees.
Single shot
•Two-shot – a shot which frames/includes two people or objects taken side by side.
•Three-shot – which includes three people or objects in the frame.
Four shot
Group shot
Two additional shots include;
•Over-the-shoulder shot (O/S) – it’s the most interesting two shot. The camera looks at someone
over the shoulder of the camera near person.
•Cross shot (XS) – The camera looks alternatively at one or the person, with the camera-near
person completely out the shot.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CAMERA SHOTS
Long Shot

· Most basic of all movies shots.

· It includes subject feet.

· It includes everything of importance in the scene and can be used purely as an established
shot. (Master shot) when used in the nature (setting) and circumstances of that program.

· Used creatively to draw a dramatic contrast to surround medium shot and close up.

· It can be as a closing shot to signal a pulling back from the action – out of the drama as it
comes to a close.

· The wide shot (LS) communicates an objective view of scene or situation.

NB/ in a wide shot (LS) often-facial features of a performer are not exactly distinguishable.
•A wide shot includes the entire subject and important objects in the immediate surroundings. It's
used to show where he is and his environment. If it's used at the beginning of a scene it's often
called an "establishing shot"
Medium Shot (MS)

· What is a long shot for one dramatic segment could be considered a medium shot in
another situation. For the most part however, a medium shot of a person include most of
the body perhaps even two people.

· A medium shot depicts the players from above the knees or from just below the waist to
the head.

· It is a prime shot size shot for establishing the inter play of a character, (have many
narrative uses, as one or more of the players can be followed by the camera, and also
enough of the location is shown, so that the viewer knows what is happening and where it
is happening.)

· It reveals enough details of characters’ faces for the viewer to be involved in what they
are saying.

· Two or more people can be shot in this shot.

· All the gestures, facial expressions, reactions and movements can be perfectly visible to
the viewer and therefore you inter-cut into a close up.

· It extends to the waist and therefore includes hands.

· A medium shot shows most of the subject, including all parts of the subject that are
important to understanding what the subject is doing. A medium shot of a person sitting
still might show his body from the waist up, letting hands and the lower half of his body
fall outside the frame.
Close-up Shot (CU)

· Concentrates exclusively on one persons face or one detail of scene.

· Most compelling shot since it takes an audience attention onto one single person or
performer.

· Close up usually consists of the subjects head and top of shoulders.

· Close-up present detailed part of person or subject on a larger scale. It involves the
viewer “close” into the scene

· A close-up is used to isolate the most important part of the subject. For a speaker, this is
generally the head. For an entire football team, a close-up might be a shot of the
quarterback only.
Two types of close-ups (reaction) shots include;
•The Cut-in close-up
•The Cut-away close-up.
Cut-in close up

· It is always part of the main action.

· It isolates significant subject matter and eliminates all the non-essential material from the
view.

· It is also used to present a time lapse. Thus a lengthy or repetitious action need not to be
shown in its entirety, e.g. if the audience sees a person beginning to write a letter, then a
close-up of the player and / or close up of his fingers striking the type writer keys and
finally pulling out the finished letter, it will accept and image that they have seen the
entire event and will not miss the missing section.

· Cut-in close-ups can also substitute a hidden action, which can not be shown out of
technical or other reasons. For example, a close-up of the machine operator handling the
switches and/or the control panel, can bridge a shot of filling in raw material and a shot of
the emerging finished parts.

· A cut-in close-up can also be inserted between a long shot and a medium shot which may
not match together because of differences in players’ positions, looks and movements.
Cut away close up

· Is related to but not part of the previous scene.

· It depicts secondary action happening simultaneously elsewhere.

· May be used to present reaction of off-screen players to the events, or to comment the
principal event by showing corresponding action.

· It is also used to cue its audience on how they should react.

· It can also be used to replace scenes which are too gruesome/horrible or too expensive to
shoot. So the horrified face of a bystander accompanied by a crashing sound makes quite
clear for the audience what has happened after it has seen several shots of two cars
approaching each other.

· Cut away close-up can also be used to distract the audience.

Inserts

· Full screen close-ups of letters, photographs, newspapers, signs or any written or printed
material, are called Inserts.

· Generally, inserts are filmed so that they overlap the frame slightly, thus eliminating
background.
 · If they do not fill the horizontal frame, so that portions of the background is visible, it is
best to film/shoot them during regular production, and not, as is usually done out of
economic reasons, after the principal is completed. If parts of hands or fingers which
hold the material are seen in the shot, they should match the positions in the bracketing
shots.
Framing

· The scope of a shot is described in terms of what portion of the body is to be cut off by
the bottom edge of the picture frame. Thus, full shot, thigh shot, knee shot or chest shot
quickly communicates the desired framing of a person or persons in the picture.

· Equally useful are terms; single shot, two or three shot and a group shot, which describes
the number of people to be included in the shot.

· Ideally, every shot in a television program should be composed as carefully as a still

photograph. While this is not often possible, some general rules of composition should be
kept in mind.

· The face of the typical television screen has been surrounded by a frame called a shadow
mask, which hides about five per cent of the picture.. The composition of the same image
will be different with and without the shadow mask.

· The red border around the frame represents the shadow mask. It is unlikely the viewer
will see anything in this area. The gold and green areas combined are referred to as the
safe action area. Anything that takes place here is likely to be visible to the viewer. The
green area is known as the safe title area. It is virtually certain that any text in the green
area will be visible to the viewer.
Head room

· Refers to the distance or space between top of the head of the subject and the top of the
frame.

· Camera operators and directors, due to several factors, carefully observe head room
distance. Most home TV sets loose up to 10-15% of the picture area at the outer edge
frame of the studio monitor. This actually results into cropping heads on the home
receiver/TV.
Side room
It’s the space left on the right and left side of the subject when the camera is head on/square on.
The space should be properly balanced to have your subject properly centered on the screen.
Lead room

· It is the added space between a subject in a closer shot and the frame edge when speaking
to another with head turned towards that person. If a person is moving laterally across the
screen, it’s important to allow lead space in front of the person.

· Therefore, lead the talents, do not follow. Thus, the camera operator should visually allow
the viewer to see where the subject is going. It’s also known as talking, walking, or
looking room (Action room) or nose room.
NB/ Nose room applies not only to people, but to anyone or anything pointing or moving. There
should be relatively more empty space in the direction of the pointing or movement.
Last modified: Tuesday, 31 March 2020, 12:24 PM
Camera movements
Camera movements are classified into two:
1.Camera head movement: - Here only the head (lens) of the camera moves. Thus the camera
does not change positioning.
2. Camera mount movement:- where the camera changes positioning. Thus the camera moves
plus its mount.
There is a specific term to indicate every type of camera movement possible. Being familiar with
these terms is important to effectively communicate within the industry. In relation to camera
movement, camera directions are always given in respect to the camera operator ’s point of
view, not the talent’s point of view.
Camera head movements
•In camera head movement, the camera does not change positioning, thus only the head (lens)
moves. The camera moves from a fixed position
•Camera head movements include:-
1. Panning
•It is the horizontal movement of the camera either to the left or right. Thus, we pan from left to
right or from right to left. •To pan the camera in a given direction the panning handle must be
moved in the opposite direction.
Pan left (PL) is when the camera scans the scene to the camera operator ’s left, and pan right
(PR) is when the camera scans the scene to the camera operator ’s right.

2. Tilting
•Camera doesn’t change its position.
It is the up and down movement of the camera head. The (head) lens of the camera is moved up
or down to view elements at different elevations of the set. Thus we tilt up to down or down to
up.
Tilt up (TU) by pointing the lens up toward the ceiling and tilt down (TD) by pointing the lens of
the camera down toward the ground.
3. Zooming
•It is possible to tighten up a shot going smoothly from a wide shot (long shot) to a medium shot
to a close up shot at a variable speeds. The best zoom usually goes unnoticed because it does not
call attention to itself.
•The movement of a zoom produces a visual effect that is similar to what was seen through a
fixed focal length lens when the camera was moved towards and away from a subject during a
shot. Thus, we zoom in or out.
•The zoom is an alteration into the focal length of the lens. We change the focal length of a lens
from short to long-when zooming in and long to short-when zooming out.
NB/ (Focal length of a lens is the distance from the optical center of the lens to the point
where a sharply focused image of a subject/object placed at infinity is formed).

Camera angles/Heights
•Camera angles and movements combine to create a sequence of images, just as words, word
order and punctuation combine to make the meaning of a sentence. You need a straightforward
set of key terms to describe them.
Essential Camera Angle (heights) Categories
•Camera angles in motion pictures provide more than varieties of viewpoint.

· they may convey emotion and tone,

 · draw the eye of the viewer to significant details or

· advance the storyline.

•Use of innovative camera angles is often the trademark of a particular director.
•Though their purpose and execution vary among individual directors and films, motion picture
camera angles fall into five basic categories.

· Eye Level

· Low Angle

· High Angle

· Birds Eye View

· Dutch/Canted Angle
1. Level angle
•They are defined by the height of the depicted object itself.
•Level angle basically means that the camera is positioned at the same height as the object filmed
•The predominant angle in motion pictures, this is considered a "neutral" shot as far as impact
and emotion.
•The camera is set at the eye level of a person of average height, and the scene is viewed as it
would normally appear to the naked eye.
•Shot at eye level...the subject of the shot meets the camera, and thus the viewer;

· eye to eye", or

· on "equal terms".
•This view can be used to make the subject appear to be “honest” and “straightforward

2. Low Angle
•A low angle shot is any shot in which a camera is titled upwards to view the subject.
•A low camera angle the camera looks up at a character to create a feeling of superiority.
•The low-angle shot looks upwards from 2 to 3 feet off the floor.
•Because it is often only a ceiling or the sky in the background, background and setting reduce in
importance.
•A very slight, low-angle camera position may be used to enhance the height of shorter actors.
Therefore it may be useful in filming important characters or to give one player dominance over
the other.
•This effect can be further increased in these shots, if the important player steps forward as the
action is at a significant point.
•Low angle shots are also employed when one player looks up to another one who is saturated
higher or actually taller.
•Low angle shots separate players or objects and can be used to eliminate unwanted foreground.
3. High Angle
•A high angle shot is any shot in which a camera is titled downwards to view the subject.
•A high camera angle looks down at a character to create a feeling of inferiority.
•The high-angle shot looks down on the scene from an angled, overhead vantage point.
•High-angle shots emphasize the setting or scenery and diminish the importance of the actors.
•Looking down does not only reduce the height of the filmed object, but also diminishes its
importance, so that the audience may feel superior over both, the player and the situation.
•High angle shots also acquaint the audience with the geography of a setting, important when
filming an industrial complex or a construction site.
•They also show better a subject matter laid out in a pattern upon the ground like a football
game, a garden, a production line or an animal migration.
4. Bird's-Eye View
•The bird's-eye angle is the straight-down, "12 o'clock" view from a camera directly overhead.
•It is an inherently unnatural perspective, as few people ever view a scene from that vantage in
reality.
•Everyday objects and settings appear alien.
•The bird's-eye places the viewer in the role of an all-seeing supreme being, looking down on the
action from a superior position.
•Individual characters in a bird's-eye shot appear to be less significant and secondary in
importance to a larger story
Dutch
•In the Dutch/canted angle, also known as oblique angle, the camera is bent sideways so that the
vertical axis of camera is at an angle to the subject depicted. The result is a picture which slopes
diagonally off balance.
•In an Dutch angle, the camera is tilted or even inverted.
This is often used in a point-of-view shot in which the camera assumes the role of viewing the
action through the eyes of a particular character.
•Dutch angles may convey a sense of chaos or anxiety in a scene.
•They may also be used creatively to set a playful mood, as in music videos.
•Dutch angles are normally shot with a handheld camera.
•A Dutch angle may be used for example to mimic the movements of the horizon as seen from a
boat in heavy seas, or for instance show a player who has lost his equilibrium, is drunk, delirious
(restless/confused) or a highly emotional state.
•Dutch angles may also be employed in montage sequences, for creating an overall impression of
passage of time or space.

Low angle images

High angle shots
Level angle shots
Now draw this in your books to illustrate these angles
TOPIC 3: SHOOTING STEPS
1. Mount the camera
•Mount the camera properly as required i.e. on the tripod ensure the tripod is well balanced by
checking the spirit level and lock it tightly/properly.
2. Powering
•Power the camera using either A/c or DC power depending to where you are shooting from.
(A/C-Alternating Current, and D/C-Direct Current)
3. Black Balance
•Not all cameras have a provision for black balancing. If a camera has a provision/button for
black balancing. Black balance the camera in order to erase the previous memory of the camera,
(which is in a form of light intensity). Zoom in on a black object to the maximum, press the
black balancing button until the balancing is complete. Thus, the word complete flushes on your
view finder.
4. White Balance
•All types of cameras have provision/button for white balancing. White balancing is done to
adjust the camera to the light intensity to the scene you are about to shoot. Thus erasing the
previous memory of the camera and introducing the new memory.
•White balance means colour balance. It’s a function which tells the camera what each colour
should look like, by giving it a ‘’true white’’ reference. If the camera knows what white looks
like, then it will know what all other colours look like.
•To perform a white balance, switch on the camera, point the camera at something matt (non-
reflective) white in the same light as the subject, zoom in on the white subject to the maximum
so that 80% of the view finder is covered by the white object/subject/piece of paper, set the
camera focus and exposure, then press the “white balancing” button until its complete.
•There should be some indicator in the viewfinder which tells you when the white balancing has
completed. If it doesn’t work, try adjusting the iris, changing filters, or finding something else
white to balance on.
•Note: You should do white balancing regularly, especially when lighting conditions change.
5. Focusing
•Zoom in to the maximum on to the furthest subject on the scene and focus the camera using the
focusing ring on the camera lens. Compose and frame your shot and start recording.

TOPIC 4:- LIGHTING

•Light is fundamental to photography; it is even in the very name (Photo).
•Light is something your eyes are sensitive to just as your ears are related to sound and your
tongue to taste. It is the raw material of sight, communicating information about objects which
are out of range of other senses.
•Using light you can show up some chosen aspects of a subject in front of a camera and suppress
others.
Light channels visual information via the camera lens onto photographic material and enables
you to enjoy the final result.
•Light has four important features, which all occur at the same time:
1. Light behaves as if it moves in waves, like ripples crossing the surface of water.
Different wave lengths give our eyes the sensation of different colors.
2. Light travels in a straight line (within a common substance of uniform
composition).You can see this through light beams and shafts (rays) of sunlight.
3. Light moves at a great speed (300,000 km/s or 186,000 miles /sec through the vacuum
of space).It moves marginally slower in air and slightly slower still in denser
substances such as water in a glass.
4. Light behaves as if it consists of energy particles or photons. This cause chemical
changes in films, bleach dyes, etc. The more intense the light the more photons it
contains.
Objective of lighting
•To direct attention to as specific areas giving prominence to particular features and subduing
others
•Reveal shape and form giving an illusion of volume , contours , size and proportion (3 D
lighting)
•To establish environment displaying subjects surrounding and perspectives
•To characterize the subject and its surrounding , establishing mood, time and atmosphere
•To develop compositional relationship , developing and unifying tonal proportion (contrast)
•Maintain visual continuity of the above factor
•To satisfy the technical requirement of the system in brightness and contrast limit for most
professional systems
•Reveal details, texture or form empathetically
•Imply the subject exist e.g. window shadow where no window or wall exist
•Provide colour and Modify existing colour
•Influence our interpretation of size , scale, space or distance
•Falsely suggest contours where non exist e.g. by shading using shadows.

TOPIC 5:- COMMON LIGHTING TERMINLOGY

Artificial Light
Artificial light is the name given to any form of light that is man-made as opposed to natural
daylight. Artificial Light can be anything from table lamps in the home, florescent lighting in
hospitals, car headlights and of course film and TV studio lighting.
Ambient Light- The light already present in a scene, before any additional lighting is added.
Incident Light- Light seen directly from a light source (lamp, sun, etc).
Reflected Light- Light seen after having bounced off a surface.
Colour Temperature- A standard of measuring the characteristics of light, measured in kelvins.
Contrast Ratio- The difference in brightness between the brightest white and the darkest black
within an image.
Key Light- The main light on the subject, providing most of the illumination and contrast.
Fill Light- A light placed to the side of the subject to fill out shadows and balance the key light.
Back Light- A light placed at the rear of a subject to light from behind.
Hard Light- Light directly from a source such as the sun, traveling undisturbed onto the subject
being lit.
Soft Light- Light which appears to "wrap around" the subject to some degree. Produces less
shadows or softer shadows.
Spot light- A controlled, narrowly-focused beam of light. The lighting instruments used to emit
diffused light are called floodlights.
Flood light- A broad beam of light, less directional and intense than a spot.
Tungsten- Light from an ordinary light bulb containing a thin coiled tungsten wire that becomes
incandescent (emits light) when an electric current is passed along it. Tungsten colour
temperature is around 2800K to 3400K. Also known as incandescent light.
Halogen- Type of lamp in which a tungsten filament is sealed in a clear capsule filled with a
halogen gas.
Fresnel (fra-NELL)- A light which has a lens with raised circular ridges on its outer surface.
The fresnel lens is used to focus the light beam.
Incandescent- Incandescent lamps produce heat by heating a wire filament until it glows. The
glow is caused by the filament's resistance to the current and is called incandescence.
Base light- In order for the camera to work well, a certain amount of light must be present. This
amount of light is called base light
Last modified: Wednesday, 22 April 2020, 4:43 PM

TOPIC 6:- LIGHTING INSTRUMENTS

Types
Four principal types of lamps are commonly used in professional video production: tungsten
halogen lamps, light emitting diodes (LED), fluorescent lamps, and HMI (halogen metal iodide)
lamps. The type of lamp with which you are probably most familiar, household incandescent
light bulbs, is not used in professional production applications because they emit light at a color
temperature that is a bit too low, and consequently is too red, for use in professional video
production.
Tungsten halogen lamps, also called quartz halogen or quartz lights, were the industry standard
for many years and are still found in many professional video lighting instruments. The filament
in these lamps is tungsten, and the quartz glass bulb is filled with halogen gas.
The halogen prevents the tungsten filament from evaporating and coating the inside of the bulb
with particles of tungsten that would cause the color temperature of the light to decrease (and
become redder) over time. The tungsten halogen lamp maintains a constant color temperature of
3,200°K throughout its life.
Tungsten halogen lamps get extremely hot when they are in use. Care needs to be taken not to
place the instruments too close to flammable materials such as curtains in field production
applications. In addition, bare fingers must never touch the tungsten halogen lamp; if oil from the
skin is deposited on the glass, it may cause the bulb to explode when it gets hot.
For this reason, when changing a tungsten halogen lamp, always use cotton gloves or hold the
lamp in the foam packing material in which it is shipped.
Fluorescent lamps provide the standard illumination in the American workplace and in the
kitchens and bathrooms of many homes. However, the lamps that are designed for the consumer
market do not produce light at a color temperature that is acceptable for video production.
Professional fluorescent instruments designed specifically for video production are available
with lamps that produce light either at 3,200°K (to match the color temperature of tungsten
halogen instruments) or at 5,600°K for use outdoors in daylight. In addition, some manufacturers
provide lamps at color temperatures slightly lower than 3,200°K (e.g., 2,900°K and 3,000°K) for
use when a warmer lighting effect is desired.
Fluorescent lamps consist of a small or large gas-filled tube. The inside of the tube is coated with
a fluorescent material that glows when electrical energy is applied to the gas within the tube.
Fluorescent instruments have become popular in video production in recent years because they
consume very little power and generate very little heat in comparison to tungsten halogen
instruments. They are very widely used to light newscast sets, and video production facilities that
have converted to fluorescent lighting report significant savings over tungsten halogen because
of decreased energy and air-conditioning costs.
Light emitting diodes (LED)The most recently developed type of lighting instruments used in
television and video production utilize light emitting diodes (LED) to create light. Unlike
traditional tungsten halogen bulbs, LEDs do not have a filament. In essence they are tiny devices
composed of semiconductor material that produce light when an electrical current passes through
it. LED instruments for television and video may use hundreds of these tiny LED light bulbs to
produce light that is sufficiently bright to illuminate the subject
Hydragyrum Medium Arc-Length Iodide (HMI) lamps produce light that matches the color
temperature of daylight. For this reason they are used for daytime outdoor shooting.
These instruments are twice as efficient in terms of foot-candles per watt as tungsten halogen
instruments and four times as efficient as tungsten halogen instruments to which filters have been
attached to correct their color temperature for daylight. For example, a 2,500-watt HMI unit
produces the same amount of light as a 10,000-watt tungsten halogen source with a daylight
conversion filter.
Because HMI instruments are often used to add light to large outdoor areas, the instruments
themselves tend to be fairly large. In addition, each instrument contains its own ballast, which is
used to convert standard 120-volt electrical sources to the direct current the HMI lamps require