KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN

DEHRADUN REGION

STUDENT SUPPORT
MATERIAL

PHYSICS
CLASS – XI
SESSION 2022-23

KVS RO DEHRADUN
 STUDENT SUPPORT MATERIAL
INSPIRATION
Ms. MEENAXI JAIN
(Deputy Commissioner, KVS RO DEHRADUN)

Dr. SUKRITI RAIWANI

Asstt. Commissioner, KVSRO DEHRADUN)

MENTOR
Shri C.S. BISHT
Principal, KV NO.1 BEG & C ROORKEE
RESOURCE PERSONS:-
1) Sh. Bhuwan Chandra Purohit PGT Physics K.V. Banbasa Cantt
2) Sh.Vikas Prabhakar PGT Physics K.V. No.1 Hathibarkala Dehradun

KVS RO DEHRADUN
 MATERIAL PREPARATION COMMITTEE

Name of the PGT

Name of the Vidyalaya CHAPTER
(PHYSICS)
S.No
1 Almora Deepti Joshi Chapter–2: Units and Measurements
2 Augustyamuni Sh Jai Kishan Chapter–3: Motion in a Straight Line
3 Dehradun, FRI Mr Sandeep Kumar Chapter–4: Motion in a Plane
Dehraddun, No.2
4
HBK Ms Ritu Yadav Chapter–5: Laws of Motion
5 Dehradun, IIP Mr. Ratul Bijalwan Chapter–6: Work, Energy and Power
Chapter–7: System of Particles and
6
Dehradun, IMA Mr Vikas Monaker Rotational Motion
Dehradun, ITBP (1st
7
Shfit) Sh. Shailesh Chamoli Chapter–8: Gravitation
8 Dehradun, ONGC Ms Poonam Sharma Chapter–9: Mechanical Properties of Solids
9 Dharchula, NHPC Mr Gulshan Kumar Chapter–10: Mechanical Properties of Fluids
Mr.Kuldeep
10
Gauchar, ITBP Daundiyal Chapter–11: Thermal Properties of Matter
11 Gwaldam Mr Hitendra Singh Chapter–12: Thermodynamics
12 Haldwani Ist Shift Mr Mohit Sharma Chapter–13: Kinetic Theory
13 Joshimath Ms. Suryakant Vats Chapter–14: Oscillations
14 Kashipur Mrs Meera Nitwal Chapter–15: Waves

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 CLASS XI (2022-23) PHYSICS (THEORY)

Time: 3 hrs. Max Marks: 70

UNIT CHAPTER No. of MARKS

Periods
Unit–I Physical World and Measurement 08 23
Chapter–2: Units and Measurements
Unit-II Kinematics 24
Chapter–3: Motion in a Straight Line
Chapter–4: Motion in a Plane
Unit–III Laws of Motion 14
Chapter–5: Laws of Motion
Unit–IV Work, Energy and Power 14 17
Chapter–6: Work, Energy and Power
Unit–V Motion of System of Particles and Rigid Body 18
Chapter–7: System of Particles and Rotational Motion
Unit-VI Gravitation 12
Chapter–8: Gravitation
Unit–VII Properties of Bulk Matter 24 20
Chapter–9: Mechanical Properties of Solids
Chapter–10: Mechanical Properties of Fluids
Chapter–11: Thermal Properties of Matter
Unit–VIII Thermodynamics 12
Chapter–12: Thermodynamics
Unit–IX Behaviour of Perfect Gases and Kinetic Theory of Gases 08
Chapter–13: Kinetic Theory
Unit–X Oscillations and Waves 26 10
Chapter–14: Oscillations
Chapter–15: Waves
TOTAL 160 70

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Unit I: Physical World and Measurement 08 Periods

Chapter–2: Units and Measurements

Need for measurement: Units of measurement; systems of units; SI units, fundamental

and derived units. significant figures. Dimensions of physical quantities, dimensional
analysis and its applications.

Unit II: Kinematics 24 Periods

Chapter–3: Motion in a Straight Line

Frame of reference, Motion in a straight line, Elementary concepts of differentiation and

integration for describing motion, uniform and non- uniform motion, and instantaneous
velocity, uniformly accelerated motion, velocity - time and position-time graphs. Relations
for uniformly accelerated motion (graphical treatment).

Chapter–4: Motion in a Plane

Scalar and vector quantities; position and displacement vectors, general vectors and their
notations; equality of vectors, multiplication of vectors by a real number; addition and
subtraction of vectors, Unit vector; resolution of a vector in a plane, rectangular
components, Scalar and Vector product of vectors.

Motion in a plane, cases of uniform velocity and uniform acceleration- projectile motion,
uniform circular motion.

Unit III: Laws of Motion 14 Periods

Chapter–5: Laws of Motion

Intuitive concept of force, Inertia, Newton's first law of motion; momentum and Newton's
second law of motion; impulse; Newton's third law of motion.

Law of conservation of linear momentum and its applications.

Equilibrium of concurrent forces, Static and kinetic friction, laws of friction, rolling friction,
lubrication.

Dynamics of uniform circular motion: Centripetal force, examples of circular motion

(vehicle on a level circular road, vehicle on a banked road).

Unit IV: Work, Energy and Power 14 Periods

Chapter–6: Work, Energy and Power

Work done by a constant force and a variable force; kinetic energy, work- energy
theorem, power.

Notion of potential energy, potential energy of a spring, conservative forces: non-

conservative forces, motion in a vertical circle; elastic and inelastic collisions in one and
two dimensions.

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Unit V: Motion of System of Particles and Rigid Body 18Periods

Chapter–7: System of Particles and Rotational Motion

Centre of mass of a two-particle system, momentum conservation and Centre of mass

motion. Centre of mass of a rigid body; centre of mass of a uniform rod.

Moment of a force, torque, angular momentum, law of conservation of angular

momentum and its applications.

Equilibrium of rigid bodies, rigid body rotation and equations of rotational motion,
comparison of linear and rotational motions.

Moment of inertia, radius of gyration, values of moments of inertia for simple geometrical
objects (no derivation).

Unit VI: Gravitation 12 Periods

Chapter–8: Gravitation

Kepler's laws of planetary motion, universal law of gravitation. Acceleration due to gravity
and its variation with altitude and depth.

Gravitational potential energy and gravitational potential, escape velocity, orbital velocity
of a satellite.

Unit VII: Properties of Bulk Matter 24 Periods

Chapter–9: Mechanical Properties of Solids

Elasticity, Stress-strain relationship, Hooke's law, Young’s modulus, bulk modulus, shear
modulus of rigidity (qualitative idea only), Poisson's ratio; elastic energy.

Chapter–10: Mechanical Properties of Fluids

Pressure due to a fluid column; Pascal's law and its applications (hydraulic lift and
hydraulic brakes), effect of gravity on fluid pressure.

Viscosity, Stokes' law, terminal velocity, streamline and turbulent flow, critical velocity,
Bernoulli's theorem and its simple applications.

Surface energy and surface tension, angle of contact, excess of pressure across a
curved surface, application of surface tension ideas to drops, bubbles and capillary rise.

Chapter–11: Thermal Properties of Matter

Heat, temperature, thermal expansion; thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases,
anomalous expansion of water; specific heat capacity; Cp, Cv - calorimetry; change of
state - latent heat capacity.

Heat transfer-conduction, convection and radiation, thermal conductivity, qualitative

ideas of Blackbody radiation, Wein's displacement Law, Stefan's law .
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Unit VIII: Thermodynamics 12 Periods

Chapter–12: Thermodynamics

Thermal equilibrium and definition of temperature zeroth law of thermodynamics, heat,

work and internal energy. First law of thermodynamics,

Second law of thermodynamics: gaseous state of matter, change of condition of gaseous

state -isothermal, adiabatic, reversible, irreversible, and cyclic processes.

Unit IX:Behavior of Perfect Gases and Kinetic Theory of Gases 08Periods Chapter–13:
Kinetic Theory

Equation of state of a perfect gas, work done in compressing a gas.

Kinetic theory of gases - assumptions, concept of pressure. Kinetic interpretation of

temperature; rms speed of gas molecules; degrees of freedom, law of equi-partition of
energy (statement only) and application to specific heat capacities of gases; concept of
mean free path, Avogadro's number.

Unit X: Oscillations and Waves 26 Periods

Chapter–14: Oscillations

Periodic motion - time period, frequency, displacement as a function of time, periodic

functions and their application.

Simple harmonic motion (S.H.M) and its equations of motion; phase; oscillations of a
loaded spring- restoring force and force constant; energy in S.H.M. Kinetic and potential
energies; simple pendulum derivation of expression for its time period.

Chapter–15: Waves

Wave motion: Transverse and longitudinal waves, speed of travelling wave,

displacement relation for a progressive wave, principle of superposition of waves,
reflection of waves, standing waves in strings and organ pipes, fundamental mode and
harmonics, Beats.

PRACTICALS
Total Periods 60
The record to be submitted by the students at the time of their annual examination has to
include:
Record of at least 8 Experiments [with 4 from each section], to be performed by the students.

Record of at least 6 Activities [with 3 each from section A and section B], to be performed by
the students.

The Report of the project carried out by the students.

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 SECTION–A
Experiments
1. To measure diameter of a small spherical/cylindrical body and to measure internal
diameter and depth of a given beaker/calorimeter using Vernier Callipers and hence
find its volume.
2. To measure diameter of a given wire and thickness of a given sheet using screw
gauge.
3. To determine volume of an irregular lamina using screw gauge.
4. To determine radius of curvature of a given spherical surface by a spherometer.
5. To determine the mass of two different objects using a beam balance.
6. To find the weight of a given body using parallelogram law of vectors.
7. Using a simple pendulum, plot its L-T2 graph and use it to find the effective length of
second's pendulum.
8. To study variation of time period of a simple pendulum of a given length by taking
bobs of same size but different masses and interpret the result.
9. To study the relationship between force of limiting friction and normal reaction and to
find the co- efficient of friction between a block and a horizontal surface.
10. To find the downward force, along an inclined plane, acting on a roller due to
gravitational pull of the earth and study its relationship with the angle of inclination θ by
plotting graph between force and Sinθ.
Activities
1. To make a paper scale of given least count, e.g., 0.2cm, 0.5 cm.
2. To determine mass of a given body using a metre scale by principle of moments.
3. To plot a graph for a given set of data, with proper choice of scales and error bars.
4. To measure the force of limiting friction for rolling of a roller on a horizontal plane.
5. To study the variation in range of a projectile with angle of projection.
6. To study the conservation of energy of a ball rolling down on an inclined plane (using
a double inclined plane).

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 7. To study dissipation of energy of a simple pendulum by plotting a graph between
square of amplitude and time.
SECTION–B
Experiments
1. To determine Young's modulus of elasticity of the material of a given wire.

2. To find the force constant of a helical spring by plotting a graph between load and
extension.

3. To study the variation in volume with pressure for a sample of air at constant
temperature by plotting graphs between P and V, and between P and 1/V.

4. To determine the surface tension of water by capillary rise method.

5. To determine the coefficient of viscosity of a given viscous liquid by measuring

terminal velocity of a given spherical body.

6. To study the relationship between the temperature of a hot body and time by plotting
a cooling curve.

7. To determine specific heat capacity of a given solid by method of mixtures.

8. To study the relation between frequency and length of a given wire under constant
tension using sonometer.

9. To study the relation between the length of a given wire and tension for constant
frequency using sonometer.

10. To find the speed of sound in air at room temperature using a resonance tube by
two resonance positions.

Activities
1. To observe change of state and plot a cooling curve for molten wax.
2. To observe and explain the effect of heating on a bi-metallic strip.
3. To note the change in level of liquid in a container on heating and interpret the
observations.
4. To study the effect of detergent on surface tension of water by observing capillary
rise.
5. To study the factors affecting the rate of loss of heat of a liquid.
6. To study the effect of load on depression of a suitably clamped metre scale loaded at
(i) its end (ii) in the middle.

7. To observe the decrease in pressure with increase in velocity of a fluid.

KVS RO DEHRADUN
 UNITS AND MEASUREMENT

NEED OF MEASUREMENT

We need standard unit for measurement to make our judgment more reliable and accurate. For proper
dealing, measurement should be same for everybody. Thus there should be uniformity in measurement. For
the sake of uniformity we need a common set of units of measurement, which are called standard units.

Physical Quantities
Those quantities which can describe the laws of physics are called the physical quantity. A physical quantity
is one that can be measured. Thus, length, mass, time, pressure, temperature, current and resistance are the
physical quantities.
Classification of physical quantities
The physical quantities are classified into
(i) Fundamental quantities or base quantities
(ii) Derived quantities
The physical quantities that are independent of each other are called fundamental quantities. All the other
quantities which can be expressed in terms of the fundamental quantities are called the derived quantities.

1. Fundamental Physical Quantity

It is an elementary physical quantity, which does not require any other physical quantity to express it.
It means it cannot be resolved further in terms of any other physical quantity. It is also known as basic
physical quantity.

2. Derived Physical Quantity

All those physical quantities, which can be derived from the combination of two or more fundamental
quantities or can be expressed in terms of basic physical quantities, are called derived physical
quantities.

Units

The reference standard used to measure the physical quantities is called the unit.
Properties of Unit

1. The unit should be of some suitable size

2. The unit must be well-defined
3. The unit should be easily reproducible at all places
4. The unit must not change with time
5. The unit should not change with physical conditions like temperature, pressure etc.
6. The unit must be easily comparable experimentally with similar physical quantities.

Types of Units
(i) Fundamental Units
The units defined for the fundamental quantities are called fundamental units. For example, in M. K. S.
system, Mass, Length and Time expressed in kilogram, metre and second respectively are fundamental units.
(ii) Derived Units
The units of all other physical quantities which are derived from the fundamental units are called the derived
units. For example, units of velocity, density and force are m/s, kg/m3, kg m/s2 respectively and they are
examples of derived units.

1. Systems of Units
Earlier three different units systems were used in different countries. These were CGS, FPS and MKS
systems. Now-a-days internationally SI system of units is followed. In SI unit system, seven
quantities are taken as the base quantities.

(1) FPS System: In this system, the unit of length is foot, unit of mass is pound and the unit of time is
second.

(2) CGS System: In this system, the units of length, mass and time are centimetre, gram and second,
respectively.
(3) MKS System: In this system, the unit of length, mass and time are meters, kilogram and second,
respectively.
(4) SI System: This system is widely used in all measurements throughout the world. The system is based
on seven basic units and two supplementary units.

Basic Units

Quantity Unit Symbol of the unit

Length metre M

Mass kilogram Kg

Time second S

Temperature kelvin K

Electric current ampere A

Number of particles mole Mol

Luminous intensity candela Cd

Supplementary Units

Plane angle radian Rad

Solid angle Steradian Sr

Definition of Basic and Supplementary Units

Basic Units
1. Metre (m): One metre is the distance travelled by light in the vacuum during a time interval of
(1/299792458) seconds.
2. Kilogram (kg): It is the mass of a platinum-iridium cylinder kept at the National Bureau of weights and
measurements, Paris.
3. Second (s): The second is the time taken by the light of a specified wavelength emitted by a cesium-133
atom to execute 9192631770 vibrations.
4. Ampere (A): One ampere is that current which when passed through two straight parallel conductors of
infinite length and of negligible cross-section kept at a distance of 1 metre apart in the vacuum produces
between them a force equal to 2 x 10-7 newton per metre length.
5. Kelvin (K): It is the fraction 1/273.6 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.
6. Candela (cd): A candela is defined as 1/60 th of luminous intensity of 1 square centimetre of a perfect
black body maintained at the freezing temperature of platinum (1773 0C).
7. Mole (md): One mole is the amount of substance that contains elementary units equal to the number of
atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon-12.
Supplementary Units
1. Radian (rad): The radian is the angle subtended at the centre of the circle by the arc whose length is
equal to the radius of the circle.
2. Steradian (Sr): The steradian is the solid angle subtended at the centre of a sphere by a spherical surface
of an area equal to the square of its radius.

Dimensions
The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which the fundamental units of mass, length and
time must be raised to represent the given physical quantity.

Dimensional Formula
The dimensional formula of a physical quantity is an expression telling us how and which of the
fundamental quantities enter into the unit of that quantity.
It is customary to express the fundamental quantities by a capital letter, e.g., length (L), mass (AT), time (T),
electric current (I), temperature (K) and luminous intensity (C). We write appropriate powers of these capital
letters within square brackets to get the dimensional formula of any given physical quantity.

Applications of Dimensions
The concept of dimensions and dimensional formulae are put to the following uses:
(i) Checking the results obtained
(ii) Conversion from one system of units to another
(iii) Deriving relationships between physical quantities
(iv) Scaling and studying of models.
The underlying principle for these uses is the principle of homogeneity of dimensions. According to this
principle, the ‘net’ dimensions of the various physical quantities on both sides of a permissible physical
relation must be the same; also only dimensionally similar quantities can be added to or subtracted from
each other.

Limitations of Dimensional Analysis

The method of dimensions has the following limitations:
(i) by this method the value of dimensionless constant cannot be calculated.
(ii) by this method the equation containing trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic terms cannot be
analyzed.
(iii) if a physical quantity in mechanics depends on more than three factors, then relation among them cannot
be established because we can have only three equations by equalizing the powers of M, L and T.
(iv) it doesn’t tell whether the quantity is vector or scalar.

Characteristics of Dimensions
(1) Dimensions do not depend on the system of units.
(2) Quantities with similar dimensions can be added or subtracted from each other.
(3) Dimensions can be obtained from the units of the physical quantities and vice versa.
(4) Two different quantities can have the same dimension.
(5) When two dimensions are multiplied or divided it will form the dimension of the third quantity.

Dimensional Analysis
The dimensional formula can be used to
(1) To check the correctness of the equation.
(2) Convert the unit of the physical quantity from one system to another.
(3) Deduce the relation connecting the physical quantities.

Units and Dimensions Of A Few Derived Quantities

Physical Quantity Unit Dimensional Formula

Displacement m M0L1T0

Area m2 M0L2T0

Volume m3 M0L3T0

Velocity ms-1 M0L1T-1

Acceleration ms-2 M0L1T-2

Density Kg m-3 M1L-3T0

Momentum Kg ms-1 M1L1T-1

Work/Energy/Heat Joule (or) Kg m2/sec2 M1L2T-2

Power Watt (W) (or) Joule/sec M1L2T-3

Angular velocity rad s-1 M0L0T-1

Angular acceleration rad s-2 M0L0T-2

Moment of Inertia Kg m2 M1L2T0

Force Newton (or) Kg m/sec2 M1L1T-2

Pressure Newton/m (or) Kg m-1/sec2 M1L-1T-2

Impulse Newton sec (or) Kg m/sec M1L1T-1

Inertia Kg m2 M1L2T0
 Electric Current Ampere (or) C/sec QT-1

Resistance/Impedance Ohm (or) Kg m2/sec C2 ML2T-1Q-2

EMF/Voltage/Potential Volt (or) Kg m2/sec2 C ML2T-2Q-1

Permeability henry/m (or) Kg m/C2 MLQ-2

Permittivity Farad/m (or) sec2C2/Kgm3 T2Q2M-1L-3

Frequency Hertz (or) sec-1 T-1

Wavelength m L1

1. Significant Figures
The significant figures are a measure of accuracy of a particular measurement of a physical quantity.
Significant figures in a measurement are those digits in a physical quantity that are known reliably
plus the first digit which is uncertain.
2. The Rules for Determining the Number of Significant Figures
(i) All non-zero digits are significant.
(ii) All zeroes between non-zero digits are significant.
(iii) All zeroes to the right of the last non-zero digit are not significant in numbers without decimal
point.
(iv) All zeroes to the right of a decimal point and to the left of a non-zero digit are not significant.
(v) All zeroes to the right of a decimal point and to the right of a non-zero digit are significant.
(vi) In addition and subtraction, we should retain the least decimal place among the values operated,
in the result.
(vii) In multiplication and division, we should express the result with the least number of significant
figures as associated with the least precise number in operation.
(viii) If scientific notation is not used:
(a) For a number greater than 1, without any decimal, the trailing zeroes are not significant.
(b) For a number with a decimal, the trailing zeros are significant.

Principle of Homogeneity
According to the principle of homogeneity of dimensions, all the terms in a given physical equation must be
the same.
Ex. s = ut + (½) at2
Dimensionally
[L] = [LT-1.T] + [LT-2. T2] [L] = [L] + [L]

Defects of Dimensional Analysis

1. While deriving the formula the proportionality constant cannot be found.

2. The equation of a physical quantity that depends on more than three independent physical quantities
cannot be deduced.
3. This method cannot be used if the physical quantity depends on more parameters than the number of
fundamental quantities.
4. The equations containing trigonometric functions and exponential functions cannot be derived
 Chapter–2: Units and Measurements

 Need for measurement

 Units of measurement
 Systems of units
 SI units
 Fundamental and derived units
 Significant figures
 Dimensions of physical quantities
 Dimensional analysis and its applications.

UNITS AND MEASUREMENT

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

(1) The unit of thermal conductivity is

(a) W m–1 K–1 (b) J m K–1 (c) J m–1 K–1
(d) W m K–1

ANS (a)

(2) The damping force on an oscillator is directly proportional to the velocity. The units of the constant of
proportionality are
(a) kg m s–1 (b) kg m s–2 (c) kg s–1
(d) kg s

ANS (c)

(3) The unit of permittivity of free space, ε0, is

(a) coulomb/newton-metre (b) newton-metre2 /coulomb2 (c) coulomb2 /newton-metre2
(d) coulomb2 /(newton-metre)2

ANS (c)

(4) A screw gauge has least count of 0.01 mm and there are 50 divisions in its circular scale. The pitch of the
screw gauge is
(a) 0.01 mm (b) 0.25 mm (c) 0.5 mm
(d) 1.0 mm

ANS (c )

(5) The ratio of the dimensions of Planck’s constant and that of moment of inertia is the dimensions of
(a) time (b) frequency (c) angular momentum
(d) velocity.

ANS (b)
(6) The dimension of universal gravitational constant is
(a) [M–1L3 T–2] (b) [ML2 T–1] (c) [M–2L3 T–2]
(d) [M–2L2 T–1]

ANS (a)

(7) The dimensions of Planck’s constant equals to that of

(a) energy (b) momentum (c) angular momentum
(d) power.

ANS (c)

(8) Which of the following is a dimensional constant?

(a) Relative density (b) Gravitational constant (c) Refractive index
(d) Poisson’s ratio.

ANS (b)

(9) If x = at + bt2 , where x is the distance travelled by the body in kilometers while t is the time in seconds,
then the units of b is
(a) km/s (b) km s (c) km/s2
(d) km s2

ANS (C)

(10) The atmospheric pressure is 106 dyne/cm². What is its value in SI unit?
(a) 105 newton/m² (b) 106 newton/m² (c) 104 newton/m² (d) 103 newton/m²

ANS (a)

(11) In a system of units if force (F), acceleration (A) and time (T) are taken as fundamentals units then the
dimensional formula of energy is
(a) FA2T (b) FAT2 (c) FA2T (d) FAT

ANS (b)

(12) Light year is a unit of

(a) time (b) distance (c) sunlight intensity (d) mass

ANS (b)

(13) Which among the following is the Supplementary Unit——–

(a) Mass (b) Time (c) Solid angle (d)

Luminosity

ANS (C )

(14) Joule second is the unit of

(a) Force (b) Angular momentum (c) Energy (d) Power

ANS (b)

(15) The smallest value which is measured using an instrument is known as ________
(a) Absolute count (b) Least count (c) Round off value (d) Minimum
count

ANS (b)

(16) Dimensional analysis can be applied to

a) check the dimensional consistency of equations b) to convert from one

system of units to another

c) deduce relations among the physical quantities d) All of these

ANS (d)

Assertion and Reason questions

Directions: Each of these questions contain two statements, Assertion and Reason. Each of these questions
also has four alternative choices, only one of which is the correct answer. You have to select one of the
codes (a), (b), (c) and (d) given below.
(a) Assertion is correct, reason is correct; reason is a correct explanation for assertion.
(b) Assertion is correct, reason is correct; reason is not a correct explanation for assertion
(c) Assertion is correct, reason is incorrect
(d) Assertion is incorrect, reason is correct.

Q.1. Assertion : Dimensional constants are the quantities whose values are constant.
Reason : Dimensional constants are dimensionless.

Answer: (c) Dimensional constants are not dimensionless.

Q.2. Assertion : When we change the unit of measurement of a quantity, its numerical value changes.
Reason : Smaller the unit of measurement smaller is its numerical value.

Answer (c)

Q.3. Assertion : Parallax method cannot be used for measuring distances of stars more than 100 light years
away.
Reason : Because parallax angle reduces so much that it cannot be measured accurately.

Answer: (a) As the distance of star increases, the parallax angle decreases, and great degree of accuracy is
required for its measurement. Keeping in view the practical limitation in measuring the parallax angle, the
maximum distance of a star we can measure is limited to 100 light year.

Q.4. Assertion : A.U. is much bigger than Å.

Reason : A.U. stands for astronomical unit and A stands for Angstrom.

Answer: (b)

Q.5. Assertion : The cesium atomic clocks are very accurate

Reason : The vibration of cesium atom regulate the rate of cesium atomic clock.

Answer: (b)
Q.6. Assertion: In the measurement of physical quantities direct and indirect methods are used.
Reason : The accuracy and precision of measuring instruments along with errors in measurements should be
taken into account, while expressing the result.

Answer: (a)

Q.7. Assertion : Now a days a standard metre is defined in terms of the wavelength of light.
Reason : Light has no relation with length.

Answer: (c) Light has well defined relation with length.

Q.8. Assertion : The error in the measurement of radius of the sphere is 0.3%.The permissible error in its
surface area is 0.6%.
Reason : The permissible error is calculated by the formula ΔA/A=4Δr/r

Answer: (c)

Q.9. Assertion : The number of significant figures depends on the least count of measuring instrument.
Reason : Significant figures define the accuracy of measuring instrument.

Answer: (b)

Q.10. Assertion : Out of three measurements I = 0.7 m; I = 0.70 m and I = 0.700 m, the last one is most
accurate.
Reason : In every measurement, only the last significant digit is not accurately known.

Answer: (b) The last number is most accurate because it has greatest significant figure (3).

Q.11. Assertion : Number of significant figures in 0.005 is one and that in 0.500 is three
Reason : This is because zeros are not significant.

Answer: (c) Since zeros placed to the left of the number are never significant, but zeros placed to right of the
number are significant

Q.12. Assertion : Energy cannot be divided by volume.

Reason : Dimensions for energy and volume are different.

Answer: (d)

Q.13. Assertion: ‘Light year’ and ‘Wavelength’ both measure distance.

Reason : Both have dimension of time.

Answer: (c) Light year and wavelength both represent the distance, so both have dimension of length not of
time.

TWO MARKS QUESTIONS

Q.1. The mass of a body as measured by two students is given as 1.2 kg and 1.23 kg. Which of the two is
more accurate and why?
Answer:
The second measurement is more accurate as it has been made to the second decimal point.

Q.2. Are S.I. units Coherent? Why?

Answer:
Yes, because all the derived units in this system can be obtained by multiplying or dividing a certain set of
basic units.

Q.3. If x = a + bt + ct2 where x is in meter and t in seconds, what is the unit of c?

Answer:
The unit on the left-hand side is a meter so the units of ct2 should also be a meter. Since t2 has units of s2, so
the unit of c is ms-2

Q.4. What do you mean by the term measurement?

Answer:
Measurement means the comparison of a physical quantity with its unit to find out how many times the unit
is contained in the given physical quantity.

Q.5. Define light year.

Answer:
It is defined as the distance traveled by light in one year.
1 L.Y. (ly) = 3 × 108 ms-1 × 365 × 24 × 60 × 60s ≈ 9.46 × 1015 m.

Q.6. Define Astronomical distance.

Answer:
It is defined as the distance between the Earth and Sun.
1 A.U. = 1.496 × 1011 m~ 1.5 × 1011 m.

Q.7.
Define dimensions of a physical quantity.
Answer:
They are defined as the powers to which the fundamental units of mass, length, and time have to be raised to
obtain its units, e.g. derived unit of area is [M0 L2 T0]. Thus its dimensions are 1 zero in mass, 2 in length,
and zero in time.

Q.8. Define the dimensional formula of a physical quantity.

Answer:
It is defined as an expression that shows which of the fundamental units and with what powers appear into
the derived unit of a physical quantity.
e.g. dimensional formula of force is [M1 L1 T2].

Q.9. Define radian.

Answer:
It is defined as the angle made at the center of a circle by an arc of length equal to the radius of the circle.

Q.10. Define steradian.

Answer:
It is defined as the solid angle made at the center of a sphere by an area cut from its surface whose area is
equal to the square of the radius of the sphere.

Q.11. Why it is not possible to establish a physical relation involving more than three variables using the
method of dimensions?
Answer:
The dimensional analysis fails to derive a relation involving more than three unknown variables. The reason
is that there will be more than three unknown factors in that case whose values cannot be determined from
the three relations which we get by comparing the powers of M, L, and T.

Q.12. What arè the characteristics of a standard unit?

Answer:
The characteristics of a standard unit are as follows:

1. It should be well defined.

2. It should be of the proper size.
3. It should be easily accessible.
4. It should be reproducible in all places.
5. It should not change with time, place, and physical conditions such as pressure, temperature, etc.
6. It should be widely accepted.

Q.13. Explain the importance of reference frames in measurements.

Answer:
(a) All measurements are made with reference to a point or portion i.e., a frame of reference.
(b) The number of time units contained in a physical quantity gets changed with a change in the reference
frame.
(c) The same physical quantity may have different values in different reference frames.

Q.14.Is it possible for an equation to be dimensionally corrects still to be wrong? If so indicate the number
of ways in which this might happen.
Answer:
It is possible that an equation may be dimensionally correct but physically it is wrong. For example the
displacement of a particle moving with velocity u and acceleration ‘a’ after time t is given by
s = ut + 1/2at2

However, s = 1/2at2 is dimensionally correct, as [L] = [LT2][T2]2 shows dimensions on LHS = dimensions
on RHS. Therefore, in certain circumstances, an equation may be dimensionally correct but actually, it is not
physically correct.

Q.15. Explain this statement clearly:

“To call a dimensional quantity ‘large’ or ‘small’ is meaningless without specifying a standard for
comparison”. In view of this, reframe the following statements wherever necessary :
(a) atoms are very small objects
(b) a jet plane moves with great speed
(c) the mass of Jupiter is very large
(d) the air inside this room contains a large number of molecules

Answer:(a) In comparison with a soccer ball, atoms are very small

(b) When compared with a bicycle, jet plane travels at high speed.
(c) When compared with the mass of a cricket ball, the mass of Jupiter is very large.
(d) As compared with the air inside a lunch box, the air inside the room has a large number of molecules.

Q.16. State the number of significant figures in the following :

(a) 0.007 m2
(b) 2.64 × 1024 kg
Answer:
(a) 0.007 m2
The given value is 0.007 m2.
Only one significant digit. It is 7
(b) 2.64 × 1024 kg
Answer:
The value is 2.64 × 1024 kg
For the determination of significant values, the power of 10 is irrelevant. The digits 2, 6, and 4 are
significant figures. The number of significant digits is 3.
Q.17. The length, breadth and thickness of a rectangular sheet of metal are 4.234 m, 1.005 m, and 2.01
cm respectively. Give the area and volume of the sheet to correct significant figures.
Answer
Area of the rectangular sheet = length x breadth
= 4.234 x 1.005 = 4.255 m2= 4.3 m2
Volume of the rectangular sheet = length x breadth x thickness = 4.234 x 1.005 x 2.01 x 10-2 = 8.55 x 10-
2
m3.

THREE MARKS QUESTIONS

Q.1. What are the advantages of the S.I. system?

Answer:
Following are the main advantages of the S.I. system over other systems of units i.e. (C.G.S, FPS, and
MKS).
1. It is a coherent system of units i.e. a system based on a certain set of fundamental units from which all
derived units are obtained by multiplication or division without introducing numerical factors i.e. units of a
given quantity are related to one another by the power of 10. So the conversions are easy.

2. S.I. is a rational system of units as it assigns only one unit to a particular physical quantity e.g. Joule is the
S.I. unit for all types of energies while MKS units of mechanical energy, heat energy, and electrical energy
are Joule, calorie, and watt-hour respectively.

3. It is an absolute system of units: There are no gravitational units on the system. The use of factor ‘g’ is
thus eliminated.

4. It is a metric system i.e. the multiples and submultiples of units are expressed as powers of 10.

Q.2. Classify the physical quantities on basis of their dimensional formula.

Answer:
They are divided into the following four categories:
1. Dimensional variables: They are defined as the physical quantities which possess dimensions and have
variable values e.g. Area, velocity, force, etc.

2. Non-dimensional variables: They are defined as the physical quantities which have no dimensions but
have variable values, e.g. Angle, specific gravity, strain, sin0, cos0 (i.e. trigonometric functions).
3. Dimensional constants: They are defined as the physical quantities which have both dimensions and
constant values, e.g. Plank’s constant, speed of light in vacuum, gravitational constant.

4. Dimensionless constants: They are defined as the physical quantities which do not have dimensions but
have constant values, e.g. n, e, pure numbers 1, 2, 3, …… etc.

Q.3. What are the limitations of dimensional analysis?

Answer:
Following are the limitations of dimensional analysis:

1. Dimensionless constants involved in the physical relationship can not be determined.

2. It fails to derive the relations involving plus or minus signs like s = ut + 12at2,
v = u + at,
v2 — u2 = 2as etc.
3. It fails to derive a relation involving more than three physical quantities.
4. This method does not help to derive the relations containing exponential and trigonometrical
functions.
5. This method gives no information on whether a quantity is a scalar or vector.
6. It does not tell about the physical correctness of a relation.

Q.4. Define significant figures. State the rules for determining the number of significant figures in a given
measurement.
Answer:
They are defined as the number of digits up to which we are sure about their accuracy. In other words, they
are defined as those digits that are known correctly in an experimental observation plus one more digit that
is uncertain.

Following are the rules for determining significant figures:

1. All non-zero digits are significant.

2. All zeros occurring between non-zero digits are significant.
3. All zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit are not significant.
4. All zeros to the right of a decimal point and to the left of a non¬ zero digit are not significant, e.g.
0.000879 has (3) significant figures.
5. All zeros to the right of a decimal point and to the right of a non- zero digit are significant, e.g. 0.2370
contains (4) sig-fig.
6. All zeros to the right of a non-zero digit and to the left of an expressed decimal are significant, e.g.
21900 has (5) sig-fig.

Q.5. Explain the rules for finding significant figures in the sum, difference, product, and quotients of true
numbers.
Answer:
The rules for counting significant figures in algebraic operations are given below:
1. Addition and Subtraction: The sum or the difference of two numbers has significant figures only in those
places where these are in the least precise amongst the given number. For example, if we subtract 45.7 from
46.9267 the result is 1.2267. But it should be written only 1.2 because the least precise of the two numbers is
45.7 and there is only one digit after the decimal.

Similarly in the sum of numbers 4205, 112.39, 77.93, and 213.2532, the correct result is 824.0 to the
significant figures. So, in addition, or subtraction the same number of the decimal. places are retained in the
result as are present in the number with the minimum amount of decimal places.
2. Multiplication and Division: The product or quotient of two numbers does not have more significant
figures than are present in the least precise of the given numbers. e.g. in the product of two quantities 0.025
with 40, we get 1.000 but the answer is to be written as 1.0 because there are two significant figures in 40
the least of the two numbers. Similarly in a quotient when we divide 16.775 by 2.5, we get 6.71. The result
of the significant figure will be 6.7.

Q.6. Show that bigger is the unit smaller is the numerical value of physical quantity and vice-versa.
Answer:
In any system of unit, the following relations hold good
n1u1 = n2u2

Where n1 and n2 are the numerical values, u1 and u2 represent the unit of a physical quantity. This relation is
based on the simple thing that the magnitude of a physical quantity remains the same in different systems of
units.
Thus nu = constant or n ∝ 1u
If larger the n smaller will be the unit (u) and smaller the numerical value (n) Larger will be u. E.g. if the
length of a rod l be 1 m in the S.I. system. Then it is 100 cm in the C.G.S. system i.e.

1 m = 100 cm. Here clearly 1 < 100 and m > cm. Hence proved.

Q.7. Convert 1N into dyne using dimensional analysis.

Answer:
Newton (N) and dyne are the S.I. and C.G.S. units of force having dimensional formula [MLT-2]
∴ a = 1, b = 1, c = – 2

1. S.I. system
n1 = 10
M1 = 1 kg
L1 = 1 m
T1 = 1 s

2. C.G.S. system.
n2 = ?
m2 = 1 g
L2= 1 cm
T2 = 1 s
Q.8. Check the dimensional correctness of the relation.
V = 2√GM/R
Answer:
It is done using the principle of homogeneity of dimensions i.e. if the dimensions of each term of both sides
of the equation are the same, Then it is dimensionally correct.
Now dimensions of V = [LT-1].
G = [M-1 L3 T2]
M = [M]
R = [L]
∴ Dimensions of L.H.S. = [V] = [LT-1] …(f)
Dimensions of R.H.S = 2√GM/R

Now from equations (i) and (ii), it is clear that the dimensions of L.H.S = R.H.S, so the given relation is
dimensionally correct.

Q.9. State the rules for writing the units of physical quantities in the S.I. system.
Answer :
While writing the units of physical quantities following rules are followed with S.L units:
(1) The S.I. units are written in the form of symbols after the number i.e., number of time, the unit is
contained in the physical quantity so that physical quantity = nu

With symbols, certain rules are laid down:

 Units in symbols are never written in plural i.e., meters is only m and not ms, years is y.
 The units based on the name of the scientists are written beginning with small letters and with capital
letters in symbolic form as weber (Wb), newton (N), etc.
 No full stop is used at the end of the symbol.
 Symbols of units not based on the name of scientists are written as small letters viz. kilogram (kg),
second (s), etc.
(2) Bigger and smaller number of units are represented with symbols corresponding to the power of 10 viz.
106 is mega (M), 1012 is Tera (T), 10-3 is milli (m), 10-9 is nano (n), etc.

(3) All units are written in numerator viz. kg/m3 is kg m, Nm2c2.

(4) The units are written within parenthesis in graphs below the corresponding taxes viz. (ms-1) and (s) in the
velocity-time graph.

(5) Units of a similar physical quantity can be added or subtracted.

Q.10. A new unit of length is chosen such that the speed of light in vacuum is unity. What is the
distance between the Sun and the Earth in terms of the new unit if light takes 8 min and 20 s to cover
this distance?
 Answer:
 Distance between them = Speed of light x Time taken by light to cover the distance
 Speed of light = 1 unit
 Time taken = 8 x 60 + 20 = 480 + 20 = 500s
 The distance between Sun and Earth = 1 x 500 = 500 units.

Q.11. The mass of a box measured by a grocer’s balance is 2.30 kg. Two gold pieces of masses 20.15 g
and 20.17 g are added to the box. What is
(a) The total mass of the box,
(b) The difference in the masses of the pieces to correct significant figures?
Answer:
The mass of the box = 2.30 kg
and the mass of the first gold piece = 20.15 g
The mass of the second gold piece = 20.17 g
The total mass = 2.300 + 0.2015 + 0.2017 = 2.7032 kg
Since 1 is the least number of decimal places, the total mass = 2.7 kg.
The mass difference = 20.17 – 20.15 = 0.02 g
Since 2 is the least number of decimal places, the total mass = 0.02 g.

FIVE MARKS QUESTIONS

Q.1. What are the uses of dimensional analysis? Explain each of them.
Answer:
Dimensional analysis is used for:
(a) checking the dimensional correctness of the given physical equation or relation.
(b) converting one system of units to another system.
(c) deriving the relationship between various physical quantities.
(a) checking of the dimensional correctness of a physical relationship is done by using the principle of
homogeneity of dimensions. If the dimensions of M, L, T of each term on R.H.S. are equal to the
dimensions of M, L, T of each term on L.H.S., then the given- physical relation is dimensionally correct,
otherwise wrong.

(b) conversion: It is based on the fact that the magnitude of a physical quantity remains the same whatever
may be the system of units, i.e. n1u1 = n2u2.

are the units of M, L, T in the first and second system of units of a physical quantity having dimensions of
M, L, T, and a, b, c respectively.

Thus if fundamental units of both systems, dimensions of the quantity, and its numerical value n1 in one
system, are known then we can easily calculate n2 in another system.

(c) Derivation of a relationship between various physical quantities is based on the principle of homogeneity
of dimensions.

Following are the steps used:

3. We must Know the physical quantities (say p, q, r) upon which a physical quantity say x depends.
4. We must know the dimensions of p, q, r say a, b, c respectively.
5.

6. Now, write the dimensions of each physical quantity on both sides of the equation
7. and compare the powers of M, L, T to find a, b, c. Putting values of a, b, c in the equation
8. we get the required relation.

Q.2.
Suppose that the oscillatións of a simple pendulum depend on
(i) mass of the bob (m),
(ii) length of the string (1),
(iii) acceleration due to gravity (g) and (iv) angular displacement
(iv) Dimensionally show which of the above factors here an influence upon the period and in what way?
Answer:
Let t ∝ ma lb gc θd
or t = k’ ma lb gc qd ….(i)
here k’ is a dimensionless constant.
Since q is dimensionless, hence equation (i) reduces to
t = K ma lb gc …(ii)

where K. = k1.θd is another dimensionless constant.

Now writing the dimensional formula of each physical quantity on both sides of equation (ii), we get
[M0 L0 T-1] = [M]a [L]b [LT2]c = [Ma Lb-c T-2c]

Comparing dimensions of

Thus from equation (vii), we see that the period of the pendulum is directly proportional to the square root of
the length of string, and inversely proportional to the square root of acceleration due to gravity and is
independent of the mass of the bob.

Q.3. Given that the period T of oscillation of a gas bubble from an explosion underwater depends on P, d,
and E, where the symbols are pressure, density, and total energy of the explosion. Find dimensionally a
relation for T.
Answer:
Let T ∝pa db Ec
or
T = k pa db Ec …(i)
where k is a dimensionless constant.
Writing dimensional formula of each physical quantity on both sides of equation (i), we get

Q.4. The unit of length convenient on the nuclear scale is a fermi: 1 f = 10–15 m. Nuclear sizes obey roughly
the following empirical relation :
r = r0 A1/3
where r is the radius of the nucleus, A its mass number, and r0 is a constant equal to
about, 1.2 f. Show that the rule implies that nuclear mass density is nearly constant
for different nuclei.
Answer:
Radius of the nucleus
r = r0 A1/3
ro = 1.2 f = 1.2 x 10-15 m
 Considering the nucleus is spherical. Volume of nucleus
= 4/3 πr3 = 4/3 π [r0 A1/3]3 = 4/3 πr03A
Mass of nucleus = mA
m is the average mass of the nucleon
A is the number of nucleons
Nuclear mass density = Mass of nucleus/Volume of nucleus
= mA/(4/3πr3) = 3mA/4πr3 = 3mA/4πr03A
= 3m/4πr03
Using m = 1.66 x 10-27 kg and ro = 1.2 f = 1.2 x 10-15 m in the above equation
= 3 x 1.66 x 10-27 /4 x 3.14 x ( 1.2 x 10-15)3= 4.98 x 10-27/21. 703 x 10-45= 2.29 x 1017 kg/m3

CASE BASED STUDY QUESTIONS

CASE 1
(a) Every measurement involves errors. Thus, the result of measurement should be reported in a way that
indicates the precision of measurement. Normally, the reported result of measurement is a number that
includes all digits in the number that are known reliably plus the first digit that is uncertain. The reliable
digits plus the first uncertain digit are known as significant digits or significant figures. If we say the period
of oscillation of a simple pendulum is 1.62 s, the digits 1 and 6 are reliable and certain, while the digit 2 is
uncertain. Thus, the measured value has three significant figures. A choice of change of different units does
not change the number of significant digits or figures in a measurement. This important remark makes most
of the following observations clear,
 All the non-zero digits are significant.
 All the zeros between two non-zero digits are significant, no matter where the decimal point is, if at all.
 If the number is less than 1, the zero(s) on the right of decimal point but to the left of the first non-zero
digit are not significant.
 The terminal or trailing zero(s) in a number without a decimal point are not significant.[Thus 123 m =
12300 cm = 123000 mm has three significant figures, the trailing zero(s) being not significant.
 The trailing zero(s) in a number with a decimal point are significant. [The numbers 3.500 or 0.06900 have
four significant figures each]
 For a number greater than 1, without any decimal, the trailing zero(s) are not significant.
 For a number with a decimal, the trailing zero(s) are significant
(b) The digit 0 conventionally put on the left of a decimal for a number less than 1 (like 0.1250) is never
significant. However, the zeroes at the end of such number are significant in a measurement.
(c)The multiplying or dividing factors which are neither rounded numbers nor numbers representing
measured values are exact and have infinite number of significant digits.
(d)In multiplication or division, the final result should retain as many significant figures as are there in the
original number with the least significant figures. In addition or subtraction, the final result should retain as
many decimal places as are there in the number with the least decimal places. For example, the sum of the
numbers 436.32 g, 227.2 g and 0.301 g by mere arithmetic addition, is 663.821 g. But the least precise
measurement (227.2 g) is correct to only one decimal place. The final result should, therefore, be rounded
off to 663.8 g.
(1) Significant figures in 12300 cm are
(a) 5
(b) 4
(c) 3
(d) None of these
(2) All the non-zero digits are
(a) Significant
(b) Non significant
(c) None of these
(3) Give rules for addition and subtraction operations with significant figure
(4) Give rules for multiplication and division operations with significant figure
(1) c
(2) a
(3) In addition or subtraction, the final result after the operation should have as many decimal places as are
there in the number with the least decimal places.
(4) In multiplication or division, the final result after operation should have as many significant figures as
are there in the original number with the least significant figures. if the speed of light is given as 3 × 108 m s-
1
(one significant figure) and one year (1y = 365.25 d) has 3.1557 × 107 s (five significant figures), the light
year is 9.47 × 1015 m (three significant figures
CASE 2
The rules for determining the uncertainty or error in the measured quantity in arithmetic operations can be
understood from the following examples.
a.) If the length and breadth of a thin rectangular sheet are measured, using a metre scale as 16.2 cm and,
10.1 cm respectively, there are three significant figures in each measurement. It means that the length L may
be written as L = 16.2 ± 0.1 cm = 16.2 cm ± 0.6 %.
Similarly, the breadth b may be written as b = 10.1 ± 0.1 cm = 10.1 cm ± 1 %
Then, the error of the product of two (or more) experimental values, using the combination of errors rule,
will be Lxb = 163.62 cm2 + 1.6% = 163.62 + 2.6 cm2
This leads us to quote the final result as Lxb = 164 + 3 cm2. Here 3 cm2 is the uncertainty or error in the
estimation of area of rectangular sheet.
b.) If a set of experimental data is specified to n significant figures a result obtained by combining the data
will also be valid to n significant figures. However, if data are subtracted, the number of significant figures
can be reduced. For example, 12.9 g – 7.06 g, both specified to three significant figures, cannot properly be
evaluated as 5.84 g but only as 5.8 g, as uncertainties in subtraction or addition combine in a different
fashion (smallest number of decimal places rather than the number of significant figures in any of the
number added or subtracted).
c.) The relative error of a value of number specified to significant figures depends not only on n but also on
the number itself. For example, the accuracy in measurement of mass 1.02 g is ± 0.01 g whereas another
measurement 9.89 g is also accurate to ± 0.01 g. The relative error in 1.02 g is
= (± 0.01/1.02) × 100 % = ± 1%
Similarly, the relative error in 9.89 g is = (± 0.01/9.89) × 100 % = ± 0.1 %
Finally, remember that intermediate results in a multi-step computation should be calculated to one more
significant figure in every measurement than the number of digits in the least precise measurement.
d.) The nature of a physical quantity is described by its dimensions. All the physical quantities represented
by derived units can be expressed in terms of some combination of seven fundamental or base quantities.
We shall call these base quantities as the seven dimensions of the physical world, which are denoted with
square brackets [ ]. Thus, length has the dimension [L], mass [M], time [T], electric current [A],
thermodynamic temperature [K], luminous intensity [cd], and amount of substance [mol]. The dimensions of
a physical quantity are the powers (or exponents) to which the base quantities are raised to represent that
quantity. Note that using the square brackets [ ] round a quantity means that we are dealing with ‘the
dimensions of’ the quantity. In mechanics, all the physical quantities can be written in terms of the
dimensions [L], [M] and [T]. For example, the volume occupied by an object is expressed as the product of
length, breadth and height, or three lengths. Hence the dimensions of volume are [L] × [L] × [L] = [L3].
(1) Dimensions of area is
(a) [L2]
(b) [L3]
(c) [M2]
(d) None of these
(2) Dimensions of volume are
(a) [L2]
(b) [L]
(c) [L3]
(d) None of these
(3) What is uncertainty in physics? Explain with one example
(4) Define dimensions of a physical quantity
(5) Give list for 7 base quantities with dimensions
Answer key-
(1) a
(2) c
(3) Uncertainty means the range of possible values within which true values of the measurement lies. For
example. If the length and breadth of a thin rectangular sheet are measured, using a metre scale as 16.2 cm
and, 10.1 cm respectively, there are three significant figures in each measurement. It means that the length L
may be written as L = 16.2 ± 0.1 cm = 16.2 cm ± 0.6 %.
Similarly, the breadth b may be written as b = 10.1 ± 0.1 cm = 10.1 cm ± 1 % Then, the error of the product
of two (or more) experimental values, using the combination of errors rule, will be L*b = 163.62 cm2 +
1.6% = 163.62 + 2.6 cm2
This leads us to quote the final result as L*b = 164 + 3 cm2. Here 3 cm2 is the uncertainty or error in the
estimation of area of rectangular sheet.
(3) The dimensions of a physical quantity are defined as the powers to which the base quantities must be
raised to represent that quantity.
(4) All the physical quantities represented by derived units can be expressed in terms of some combination
of seven fundamental or base quantities. These quantities are
(5) Length has the dimension [L]
Mass [M]
Time [T]
Electric current [A]
Thermodynamic temperature [K]
Luminous intensity [cd]
CASE3

Measurement of Physical Quantity

All engineering phenomena deal with definite and measured quantities and so depend on the making of the
measurement. We must be clear and precise in making these measurements. To make a measurement,
magnitude of the physical quantity (unknown) is compared.
The record of a measurement consists of three parts, i.e. the dimension of the quantity, the unit which
represents a standard quantity and a number which is the ratio of the measured quantity to the standard
quantity.

(i) A device which is used for measurement of length to an accuracy of about 10-5m, is
(a) screw gauge
(b) spherometer
(c) vernier calipers
(d) Either (a) or (b)

(ii) Which of the technique is not used for measuring time intervals?
(a) Electrical oscillator
(b) Atomic clock
(c) Spring oscillator
(d) Decay of elementary particles

(iii) The mean length of an object is 5 cm. Which of the following measurements is most accurate?
(a) 4.9 cm
(b) 4.805 cm
(c) 5.25 cm
(d) 5.4 cm

(iv) If the length of rectangle l = 10.5 cm, breadth b = 2.1 cm and minimum possible measurement by
scale = 0.1 cm, then the area is
(a) 22.0 cm2
(b) 21.0 cm2
(c) 22.5 cm2
(d) 21.5 cm2

(v) Age of the universe is about 1010 yr, whereas the mankind has existed for 106 yr. For how many
seconds would the man have existed, if age of universe were 1 day?
(a) 9.2 s
(b) 10.2 s
(c) 8.6 s
(d) 10.5 s
Answer:
(i) d
(ii) c
(iii) a
(iv) a
(v) c
 CHAPTER-3: MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE
GIST
1.Motion:
An object is said to be in motion if it changes its position w.r.t. its surroundings with the
passage of time .e.g. A train is moving on rails
2. Rest:
If an object does not change its position with respect to its surroundings with time, then it is
called at rest.
[Rest and motion are relative states. It means an object which is at rest in one frame of
reference can be in motion in another frame of reference at the same time.]
3. Point Mass Object
An object can be considered as a point mass object, if the distance travelled by it in motion is
very large in comparison to its dimensions.
4. Types of Motion
1. One Dimensional Motion (Linear Motion or Rectilinear Motion)

If only one out of three coordinates specifying the position of the object changes with respect
to time, then the motion is called one dimensional motion
Ex. motion of a block in a straight line, motion of a train along a straight track, a man
walking on a level and narrow road and object falling under gravity etc.
2. Two-Dimensional Motion:(Motion in a Plane)

If only two out of three coordinates specifying the position of the object changes with respect
to time, then the motion is called two- dimensional motion.
A circular motion is an instance of two-dimensional motion
3. Three-Dimensional Motion:(Motion in space)
If all the three coordinates specifying the position of the object changes with respect to
time,then the motion is called three-dimensional motion.
A few instances of three dimension are flying bird, a flying kite, a flying aero plane, the
random motion of gas molecule etc.
Types of Linear Motion
The two types of linear motion can be stated as follows:
1. Uniform linear motion
2. Non-Uniform linear motion

A body is known to be in uniform motion if it covers equal distance in equal motion time-
span. Here, the motion is with zero acceleration and constant velocity.
Whereas, a body is known as non-uniform if it covers unequal distance in equal time-span. It
comprises with non-zero acceleration and variable velocity
5. Distance:
The length of the actual path traversed by an object is called the distance
It is a scalar quantity and it can never be zero or negative during the motion of an object. Its
SI unit is meter.
6.Displacement:
The shortest distance between the initial and final positions of any object during motion is
called displacement. The displacement of an object in a given time can be positive, zero or
negative. It is a vector quantity. Its unit is meter
Displacement = (Final position -Initial position)
ΔX = (X2-X1)
7. Speed:
The time rate of change of position of the object in any direction is called speed of the object.
Speed (v) = Distance travelled (s) / Time taken (t), v =s/t
Its unit is m/s. It is a scalar quantity. Its dimensional formula is [M 0 L1T-1].
Types of speed:
(a) Uniform Speed

If an object covers equal distances in equal intervals of time, then its speed is called uniform
speed.
(b) Non-uniform or Variable Speed

If an object covers unequal distances in equal intervals of time, then its speed is called
nonuniform or variable speed.
(c) Average Speed

The ratio of the total distance travelled by the object to the total time taken is called average
speed of the object.
Average speed = Total distanced travelled / Total time taken
If a particle travels distances s1, s2, s3 , … with speeds v1, v2, v3, …, then
Average speed = s1 + s2 + s3 + ….. / (s1 / v1 + s2 / v2 + s3 / v3 + …..)
If particle travels equal distances (s1 = s2 = s) with velocities v1 and v2, then
Average speed = 2 v1 v2 / (v1 + v2)
If a particle travels with speeds v1, v2, v3, …, during time intervals t1, t2, t3,…, then
Average speed = v1t1 + v2t2 + v3t3 +… / t1 + t2 + t3 +….
If particle travels with speeds v1, and v2 for equal time intervals, i.e., t1 = t2 = t3, then
Average speed = (v1 + v2) / 2
When a body travels equal distance with speeds V1 and V2, the average speed (v) is the
harmonic mean of two speeds. 5
2 / v = 1 / v1 + 1 / v2
(d) Instantaneous Speed
When an object is travelling with variable speed, then its speed at a given instant of time is
called its instantaneous speed.
Instantaneous speed = lim Δt-0 Δs/Δt=ds/dt

Velocity
The rate of change of displacement of an object in a particular direction is called its velocity.
Velocity =Displacement / Time taken
Its unit is m/s.
Its dimensional formula is [Mo LT-1].
It is a vector quantity, as it has both, the magnitude and direction.
The velocity of an object can be positive, zero and negative.
Types of velocity:
(a) Uniform Velocity

If an object undergoes equal displacements in equal intervals of time, then it is said to be

moving with a uniform velocity.
(b) Non-uniform or Variable Velocity

If an object undergoes unequal displacements in equal intervals of time, then it is said to be

moving with a non-uniform or variable velocity.
(c) Relative Velocity

Relative velocity of one object with respect to another object is the time rate of change of
relative position of one object with respect to another object.
Relative velocity of object A with respect to object B
VAB = VA – VB
(i)When two objects are moving in the same direction, then
(ii) When two objects are moving in opposite direction, then
(iii) When two objects are moving at an angle, then
and tan β = VB sin θ /(VA – VB cos θ)
(d) Average Velocity

The ratio of the total displacement to the total time taken is called average velocity.
Average velocity = Total displacement / Total time taken
9.Acceleration:
The time rate of change of velocity is called acceleration.
Acceleration (a) = Change in velocity (Δv) / Time interval (Δt)
Its unit is m/s2
Its dimensional formula is [MoLT-2]
It is a vector quantity.
Acceleration can be positive, zero or negative. Positive acceleration means velocity
increasing
with time, zero acceleration means velocity is uniform while negative acceleration
(retardation)
means velocity is decreasing with time.
If a particle is accelerated for a time t1 with acceleration a1 and for a time t2 with acceleration
a2, then average acceleration
aav = (a1t1 + a2t2)/( t1 + t2)
10. Equations of Uniformly Accelerated Motion :
If a body starts with initial velocity (u) and after time t its velocity changes to v, if the
uniform
acceleration is ‘a’ and the distance travelled in time t is‘s’ then the following relations are
obtained, which are called equations of uniformly accelerated motion
(i) v = u + at
(ii) s = ut + (1/2) at2
(iii) v2 = u2 + 2as
(iv) Distance travelled in nth second.
Sn = u + (a / 2) (2n – 1)
If a body moves with uniform acceleration and velocity changes from u to v in a time
interval,
then the velocity at the midpoint of its path
(Vm)2 = (u2+v2)/2
11. Equations of Motion Under Gravity:
If an object is falling freely (u = 0) under gravity, then equations of motion
(i) v = u + gt
(ii) h = ut +(1/2) gt2
(iii) v2 = u2 + 2gh
(iv) Distance travelled in nth second.
Sn = u + (g / 2) (2n – 1)
Note If an object is thrown upward then g is replaced by – g in above three equations.
It thus follows that
(i) Time taken to reach maximum height
tA= u / g = √2h / g
(ii) Maximum height reached by the body
hmax = u2 / 2g
(iii) A ball is dropped from a building of height h and it reaches after t seconds on earth.
From the same building if two ball are thrown (one upwards and other downwards) with the
same velocity u and they reach the earth surface after t1 and t2 seconds respectively, then
t = √t1t2
(iv) When a body is dropped freely from the top of the tower and another body is projected
horizontally from the same point, both will reach the ground at the same time
(v) When a body is thrown from the top of a tower of height H with velocity u in upward
direction and body reaches to the ground in time t
Then H= -u t +(1/2) gt2
12. Different Graphs of Motion :
(i) Displacement – Time Graph

Note: Slope of displacement-time graph gives average velocity

(ii) Velocity – Time Graph :

Note: Slope of displacement-time graph gives average velocity
(ii) Velocity – Time Graph :
Note Slope of velocity-time graph gives average acceleration.
(iii) Acceleration – Time:

Important Formulas
1. Displacement (ΔX ) = (Final position -Initial position)
ΔX = (X2-X1 )
2. Speed (v) = Distance travelled (s) / Time taken (t), v =s/t
3. Average speed = Total distanced travelled / Total time taken
4. Average speed = (s1 + s2 + s3 + …..sn ) / (s1 / v1 + s2 / v2 + s3 / v3 + …..sn/tn)
5. If particle travels equal distances (s1 = s2 = s) with velocities v1 and v2, then
Average speed = 2 v1 v2 / (v1 + v2)
6. If a particle travels with speeds v1, v2, v3, …, during time intervals t1, t2, t3,…, then
Average speed = ( v1t1 + v2t2 + v3t3 +… )/ (t1 + t2 + t3 +….)
7. If particle travels with speeds v1, and v2 for equal time intervals, i.e., t1 = t2 = t, then
Average speed = (v1 + v2) / 2
8. Instantaneous speed = lim Δt-0 Δs/Δt=ds/dt
9. Velocity = Displacement / Time taken = Δx/Δt
10. Relative Velocity = VAB = VA – VB
11. Average Velocity = Total displacement / Total time taken
12. Acceleration (a) = Change in velocity (Δv) / Time interval (Δt)
13. Equations of Uniformly Accelerated Motion:
(i) v = u + at
(ii) s = ut + at2/2
(iii) v2 = u2 + 2as
(iv) Distance travelled in nth second (Sn) = u + (a / 2)(2n – 1)
14. Equations of Motion Under Gravity
(i) v = u + gt
(ii) h = ut+ (1/2)gt2
(iii) v2 = u2 + 2gh
15. (i) Time taken to reach maximum height
tA= u / g = √2h / g
(ii) Maximum height reached by the body
hmax = u2 / 2g
16. A ball is dropped from a building of height h and it reaches after t seconds on earth. From
the same building if two ball are thrown (one upwards and other downwards) with the same
velocity u and they reach the earth surface after t1 and t2 seconds respectively, then
t = √t1t2
17. When a body is thrown from the top of a tower of height H with initial velocity u in
upward direction and body reaches to the ground in time t
Then H= -u t +(1/2) gt2

SECTION-A
Competency Based Questions(CBQs)
1.The displacement in metres of a body varies with time t in second as y = t2 – t – 2.
The displacement is zero for a positive of t equal to
(a) 1 s
(b) 2 s
(c) 3 s
(d) 4 s
Answer: (b) 2 s
2.A body starts from rest and travels with an acceleration of 2 m/s². After t seconds
its velocity is 10 m/s . Then t is
(a) 10 s
(b) 5 s
(c) 20 s
(d) 6 s
Answer: (b) 5 s
3.Which of the following is a one dimensional motion
(A) Landing of an aircraft
(B) Earth revolving around the sun
(C) Motion of wheels of a moving train
(D) Train running on a straight track
Answer: (d) Train running on a straight track
Q.4. Two balls A and B of same mass are thrown from the top of the building. A thrown
upward with velocity v and B, thrown down with velocity v, then
(a) velocity A is more than B at the ground
(b) velocity of B is more than A at the ground
(c) both A &B strike the ground with same velocity
(d) None of these
Answer: (c)
Q.5 The velocity of a body depends on time according to the equation v = 20 + 0.1t2 . The
body is undergoing
(A) Uniform acceleration (B) Uniform retardation
(C) Non-uniform acceleration (D) Zero acceleration
Answer: (c)
Q.6 A body starts from rest and travels for t second with uniform acceleration of 2
m/s². If the displacement made by it is 16 m, the time of travel t is
(a) 4 s
(b) 3 s
(c) 6 s
(d) 8 s
Answer: (a) 4 s
Q.7 A boy moves on a circular distance of radius R. Starting from a point A he
moves to a point B which is on the other end of the diameter AB. The ratio of the
distance travelled to the displacement made by him is
(a) ∏/2
(b) ∏
(c) 2∏
(d) 4∏
Answer: (a) ∏/2
Q.8. A truck and a car are travelling at the same speed. When you press the brakes,
both of the vehicles will come to a complete stop after a set distance. Then,
(a) Before stopping, the truck will travel a shorter distance.
(b) car will cover distance before rest
(c) Both will cover an equal distance
(d) None of these
Answer: (c)
Q.9. In a particular time, the total distance travelled by the body is equal to
(a) the area which v vs t graph encloses with displacement axis
(b) the area which x vs t graph encloses with the time axis
(c) the area which v vs t graph encloses with time axis
(d) the area which a vs t graph encloses with axis
Answer: (c)
Q10. A body begins at rest and moves for t seconds at 2 m/s2 uniform acceleration.
If it causes a displacement of 16 m, the time of t is
(a) 4 s
(b) 3 s
(c) 6 s
(d) 8 s
Answer: (a) 4 s
Q.11. Which of the following can be zero, when a particle is in motion for some time?
(a) Distance
(b) Displacement
(c) Speed
(d) None of these
Answer: (b)
Q.12. If distance covered by a particle is zero, what can you say about its
displacement?
(a) It may or may not be zero
(b) It cannot be zero
(c) It is negative
(d) It must be zero
Answer: (d) Distance covered by a particle is zero only when it is at rest. Therefore,
its displacement must be zero.
Q.13. An object accelerated downward under the influence of force of gravity. The
motion of object is said to be
(a) uniform motion
(b) free fall
(c) non uniformly accelerated motion
(d) None of these
Answer: (b)
Q.14. A man throws balls with same speed vertically upwards one after the other at
an interval of 2 sec. What should be the speed of throw so that more than two balls
are in air at any time ?
(a) Only with speed 19.6 m/s
(b) More than 19.6 m/s
(c) At least 9.8 m/s
(d) Any speed less then 19.6 m/s.
Answer: (b)
Q.15. The incorrect statement(s) from the following is/are
I. A body having zero velocity will not necessarily have zero acceleration
II. A body having zero velocity will necessarily have zero acceleration
III. A body having uniform speed can have only uniform acceleration
IV. A body having non-uniform velocity will have zero acceleration
(a) II, III and IV
(b) I and II
(c) II and III
(d) IV only
Answer: (a) When the body is projected vertically upward then at the highest point
its velocity is zero but acceleration is not equal to zero (g = 9.8m/s2).
Q.16. When a body is dropped from a tower, then there is an increase in its
(a) mass (b) velocity (c) acceleration (d) potential energy
Ans: (b) velocity
Q17. The dimensional formula for acceleration is
(a) [LT2] (b) [LT-2] (c) [L2T] (d) [L2T2]
Ans: (b) [LT-2]
Q18. Which one of the following is the unit of velocity?
(a) kilogram (b) meter (c) m/s (d) second
Ans: (c) m/s
Q19. The ratio of the numerical values of the average velocity and average speed of a body is
(a) unity or less (b) less than unity (c) unity (d) unity or more
Ans: (a) unity or less
Q20. A particle is moving with a constant speed along straight line path. A force is not
required to
(a) change its direction (b) increase its speed (c) decrease its momentum (d) keep it moving
with uniform velocity
Ans: (d) keep it moving with uniform velocity

SECTION-B
Short answer/Long answer questions

Q1. What causes variation in the velocity of a particle?

Ans: Variation in velocity of a particle happens when:
(1) magnitude of velocity changes
(2) direction of motion changes.
Q2.Define displacement. What are its characteristics?
Ans: It is defined as the change in the position of an object in a particular direction.
Characteristics of displacement:
1.It is a vector quantity.
2.It has units of length.
3.The magnitude of displacement is called distance.

Q.3.A monkey sitting on top of a man cycling smoothly on a circular track.

Ans: As the size of a monkey is very small as compared to the size of a circular
track, the monkey can be considered as a point-sized object on the track.

Q4.What are the important points about the uniform motion?

Ans:The following are some important points about the uniform motion:

1. The velocity in uniform motion does not depend upon the time interval (t2 – 1,).
2. The velocity in uniform motion is independent of the choice of origin.
3. The average and the instantaneous velocities have the same value in uniform
motion.
4. No force acts on the object having uniform motion.
 5. Velocity is taken to be positive when the object moves toward the right of the
origin and it is taken -ve if an object moves toward the left of the origin.

Question 5. Figure shows the x-t plot of one-dimensional motion of a particle.

Is it correct to say from the graph that the particle moves in a straight line for t < 0
and on a parabolic path for t > 0? If not, suggest a suitable physical context for this
graph.

Answer: It is not correct to say that the particle moves in a straight line for t < 0 (i.e.,
-ve) and on a parabolic path for t > 0 (i.e., + ve)
because the x-t graph can not show the path of the particle.
For the graph, a suitable physical context can be the particle thrown from the top of a
tower at the instant t =0.
Q6.State whether the following two graphs in Fig. here represent the same type of motion or
not. Name the motion of the particle.

Answer:
Yes. Both of these graphs represent the same type of motion. The motion of the particle
represented by these graphs is non-uniform motion i.e. the particle is moving with variable
velocity.
Q 7.“It is the velocity and not the acceleration which decides the direction of motion of a
body.” Justify this statement with the help of a suitable example.
Ans.The direction of velocity is always in the direction of motion of the body whereas the
direction of acceleration may or may not be in the direction of motion of the body. Thus we
conclude that it is the velocity that decides the direction of motion of the body.
Example: When a ball is thrown vertically upwards, the direction of motion of the ball and
velocity is the same i.e. vertically upwards. On the other hand, the acceleration due to
gravity on the ball acts vertically downwards i.e. opposite to the direction of motion of the
ball.
Q8.Draw the position-time graphs for two objects initially occupying different positions but
having zero relative velocity.
Ans.The positive T time graphs for two objects initially occupying different positions but
having zero relative velocity are parallel to each other as shown in Fig.

Q.9. A stone tied at the end of string is whirled in a circle. If the string breaks, the stone flies
away tangentially. Why?
Ans. When a stone is moving around a circular path, its velocity acts tangent to the circle.
When the string breaks, the centripetal force will not act. Due to inertia, the stone continues
to move along the tangent to circular path, and flies off tangentially to the circular path.
Q.10 A stone is thrown vertically upwards and then it returns to the thrower. Is it a
projectile? Explain?
Ans. A stone cannot be considered as a projectile because a projectile must have two
perpendicular components of velocities but in this case a stone has velocity in one direction
while going up or coming downwards.
Q.11 Prove that the average velocity of a particle over an interval of time is either
smaller than or equal to the average speed of the particle over the same interval.
Answer:
Average velocity is defined as the ratio of the total displacement to the total time.
Average speed is defined as the ratio of the total distance to the total time. Since
displacement is less than or equal to the distance, therefore the average velocity is
less than or equal to the average speed.
Q.12.Can the speed of an object be negative? Justify.
Ans:The speed of an object can never be negative. This is because the distance is
also always positive.
Q.13.Write the characteristics of displacement?
Ans: (1) It is a vector quantity having both magnitude and direction. (2) Displacement of a
given body can be positive, negative or zero
Q.14.Draw displacement time graph for uniformly accelerated motion. What is its shape?
Ans: The graph is parabolic in shape
Q.15 The displacement of a body is proportional to t 3 , where t is time elapsed. What is the
nature of acceleration- time graph of the body?
Ans. As Sα t3 or S=kt3 velosity v=ds/dt=3kt2
Acceleration a=dv/dt=6kt i.e a α t
motion is uniform, accelerated motion, a - t graph is straight-line.
Q.16.Sameer went on his bike from Delhi to Gurgaon at a speed of 60km/hr and came back at
a speed of 40km/hr. what is his average speed for entire journey.
Ans:
 SECTION-C
(3 marks questions)

1. A ball is thrown vertically upward with a velocity of 20 ms-1. It takes 4 seconds

to return to its original position. Draw a velocity-time graph for the motion of
the ball and answer the following questions:
At which point P, Q, R, the stone has :
(a) reached its maximum height.
(b) stopped moving?

Ans.1. Let P represent the initial position at the time when the ball is thrown
vertically upward.
Q represents the highest point reached by the ball.
R represents the original position of the ball after 4 seconds.

Thus the velocity-time graph for the motion of the ball is as shown in Fig.

(a) We know that at the highest point, the velocity of the object is zero. So stone will
reach its maximum height corresponding to point Q.

(b) The stone has stopped moving at point Q because at Q, v = 0.

Q2. “It is the velocity and not the acceleration which decides the direction of motion
of a body.” Justify this statement with the help of a suitable example.

Ans.The direction of velocity is always in the direction of motion of the body whereas
the direction of acceleration may or may not be in the direction of motion of the body.
Thus we conclude that it is the velocity that decides the direction of motion of the
body.
Example: When a ball is thrown vertically upwards, the direction of motion of the ball
and velocity is the same i.e. vertically upwards. On the other hand, the acceleration
due to gravity on the ball acts vertically downwards i.e. opposite to the direction of
motion of the ball.
Q3. A draw velocity-time graph for a body which
(i) accelerates uniformly from rest,

Ans.3.The required velocity-time graph is shown in Fig. here

OA part of the graph represents the uniformly accelerated motion of the body.

(ii) then moves with a uniform velocity and

Answer:
AB part of the graph represents motion with uniform velocity.

(iii) finally retarded uniformly.

Answer:
BC part of the graph represents motion with uniform retardation of the body.

Q4. A ball thrown upward reaches a height and comes bad downward. Out of the
following statements, which one is true for displacement, velocity and acceleration.
(a) It varies continuously but never changes the sign.
(b) It varies continuously with the maximum, in the beginning, being zero at the top.
(c) It remains constant throughout the course of the journey.
(d) It only changes the sign when the ball is at the top.
Answer:

 Statement (a) is true for displacement as it varies from starting

 Statement (b) is true for velocity as it is maximum at the time o projecting the
ball and becomes zero at the highest point i.e. top.
 Statement (c) is true for acceleration as it is always constant throughout the
course of the journey and is equal to ‘g’.
Q5. Derive the expression for the time taken by a body dropped from a height h to
reach at Earth.

Ans.initial velocity, u = 0
acceleration, a = g
distance covered, S = h
Let t = time taken
Using the relation

Question 5. A car moving along a straight highway with speed of 126 km h-1 is
brought to a stop within a distance of 200 m. What is the retardation of the car
(assumed uniform), and how long does it take for the car to stop?

Ans.

Question 6. Look at the graphs (a) to (d) Fig. carefully and state, with reasons, which
of these cannot possibly represent one-dimensional motion of a particle.
Ans: None of the four graph represent a possible one-dimensional motion. In graphs
(a) and (b) motions are definitely two dimensional. Graph (a) represents two
positions at the same time which is not possible.
In graph (b) opposite motion is visible at the same time.
The graph (c) is not correct since it shows that the particle has negative speed at a
certain instant. Speed is always positive.
In graph (d) path length is shown as increasing as well as decreasing. Path length
never decreases.
Q.7. Draw position-time graphs of two objects moving along a straight line when their
relative velocity is (a) zero and (b) non-zero.

Ans. The motion of two objects moving along a straight line can be represented by
two parallel lines on the position-time graph.
In case of zero relative velocity the two vectors A⃗ and B⃗ will have the same
magnitude as shown in fig. (a) and when the relative velocity is non-zero, the length
of the two vectors i.e. the magnitude of vectors is different even though they are
parallel and is shown in fig.(b).

Question 8. A jet airplane travelling at the speed of 500 km h-1 ejects its products of
combustion at the speed of 1500 km h-1 relative to the jet plane. What is the speed of
the latter with respect to an observer on the ground?
Ans: Velocity of jet airplane w.r.t observer on ground = 500 km/h.
If Vj and v0 represent the velocities of jet and observer respectively, then vj – vo =
500km h-1
Similarly, if vc represents the velocity of the combustion products w.r.t jet plane, then
vc – vg = -1500 km/h
The negative sign indicates that the combustion products move in a direction
opposite to that of jet.
Speed of combustion products w.r.t. observer
= vc – u0 = (vc – vj) + (vj – v0) = (-1500 + 500) km h-1 = -1000 km h-1.
Q.9. The displacement x of a particle moving in one dimension under the
action of the constant force is related to the time by the equation t=√x−3
where x is in meters and t is in seconds. Find the velocity of the particle at (1) t
= 3s (2) t = 6s.
Ans: The given equation for displacement of particle is
t=√x−3
⇒x=(t+3)2
Now, velocity is calculated as:
v=dx/dt=2(t+3)v=dx/dt=2(t+3)
Therefore,
5) v at t=3s will be:
v=2(3+3)=12m/s
And
ii) v at t=6st will be:
v=2(6+3)=18m/s

5-MARKS

Que 1Derive relations :

(i) v = u + at
Answer:
v = u + at:
Derivation: By def. of acceleration, we know that
where v1 and v2 are the velocities of an object at times t1 and t2 respectively.
If v1 = u (initial velocity of the object) at t1 = 0
v2 = v (final velocity of the object) at t2 = t
Then (1) reduces to v = u + at
Hence derived.

(ii) v2 – u2 = 2as
Answer:
Derivation : We know that acceleration is given by a =v2−v1t2−t1 , where v1 and v2,
t1 and t2 are as in (1).

(iii) s = ut + 12 at2.
Answer:
Derivation:
Let x1, V1 = position and velocity of the object at time t1.
x2, v2 = position and velocity of the object at time t2.
a = uniform acceleration of the object.
Also Let vav = average velocity in t2 – t1 interval
∴ By definition

Hence derived.

Q.2
Ans.

Question3.
A stone falls from the top of the tower in 8s. How much time will it take to cover the
first quarter of the distance starting from the top?
Answer:
Here u = initial speed oftcie = 0
h = height of tower
t = time taken in falling by h = 8s

Let t1 = time taken to cover first quarter i.e. h4 = ?

a = g = acce. due to gravity
using the relation, S = ut + 12at2

Q.3 (a) What is relative velocity?

(b) A motorcycle travelling on the highway at a velocity of 120 km/h passes a car
travelling at a velocity of 90 km/h. From the point of view of a passenger on the car,
what is the velocity of the motorcycle?
(c) A person in an enclosed train car, moving at a constant velocity, throws a ball
straight up into the air in her reference frame.

 At what point, does the ball land?

 Where does the ball land if the car slows down?
 Where does the ball land if the car speeds up?
 Where does it land if the car rounds a turn?

Ans:
a.Relative velocity is defined as the velocity of an object B in the rest frame of another object A.
b.Let us represent the velocity of the motorcycle as VA and the velocity of the car as VB.
Now, the velocity of the motorcycle relative to the point of view of a passenger is given as
VAB = VA – VB
Substituting the values in the above equation, we get
VAB = 120 km/h – 90 km/h = 30 km/h
Hence, the velocity of the motorcycle relative to the passenger of the car is 30 km/h.
c.

1. ball lands at the point from which it was thrown, i.e. back to the thrower’s hand.
2. It lands in front of the point from which it was thrown.
3. The It lands behind the point from which it was thrown.
4. The ball will land to the left of the point from which it was thrown if the car takes a right
turn and vice versa.
 ASSERTION & REASON QUESTIONS:
Directions: Question 1 to 11 contains two statements, Assertion and Reason. Each of these questions
also has four alternative choices, only one of which is the correct answer. You have to select one of the
codes (a), (b), (c) and (d) given below.
(a) Assertion is correct; reason is correct; reason is a correct explanation for assertion.
(b) Assertion is correct; reason is correct; reason is not a correct explanation for assertion
(c) Assertion is correct; reason is incorrect
(d) Assertion is incorrect, reason is correct

1. Assertion: The average velocity of the object over an interval of time is either smaller than or equal to
the average speed of the object over the same interval.
Reason: Velocity is a vector quantity and speed is a scalar quantity
Ans. A
2.Assertion: A particle starting from rest and moving with uniform acceleration travels a length of x and 3x
in first two and next two-seconds.
Reason: Displacement is directly proportional to velocity.
Ans. C
3. Assertion: The velocity-time graph of a uniformly accelerated motion in one dimension of a body can
have negative slope.
Reason: When the speed of body decreases with time, the position-time graph of the
moving body has negative slope.
Ans. C
Directions: Each of these questions contain two statements, Assertion and Reason. Each of these
questions also has four alternative choices, only one of which is the correct answer. You have to select
one of the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d) given below.
(a) Assertion is correct, reason is correct; reason is a correct explanation for assertion.
(b) Assertion is correct, reason is correct; reason is not a correct explanation for assertion
(c) Assertion is correct, reason is incorrect
(d) Assertion is incorrect, reason is correct.

Q.1. Assertion : A body may be accelerated even when it is moving uniformly.

Reason : When direction of motion of the body is changing, the body must have acceleration.
Answer: (a) In uniform circular motion, there is acceleration of constant magnitude.
Q.2. Assertion : Displacement of a body may be zero when distance travelled by it is not zero.
Reason : The displacement is the longest distance between initial and final p Answer: (c) The
displacement is the shortest distance between initial and final position. When final position of a body
coincides with its initial position, displacement is zero, but the distance travelled is not zero.osition.
Q.3. Assertion : For one dimensional motion the angle between acceleration and velocity must be zero.
Reason : One dimensional motion is always on a straight line.
Answer: (d) One dimensional motion is always along straight line. But acceleration may be opposite of
velocity and so angle between them will be 180°.
Q.4. Assertion : Displacement of a body is vector sum of the area under velocity– time graph.
Reason : Displacement is a vector quantity.

Answer: (a) According to definition, displacement = velocity × time. Since displacement is a vector
quantity so its value is equal to the vector sum of the area under velocity-time graph.

Q.5. Assertion : The position-time graph of a uniform motion, in one dimension of a body cannot have
negative slope.
Reason : In one – dimensional motion the position does not reverse, so it cannot have a negative slope.
Answer: (c)
Q.6. Assertion : Position-time graph of a stationary object is a straight line parallel to time axis.
Reason : For a stationary object, position does not change with time.
Answer: (a) Position-time graph for a stationary object is a straight line parallel to time axis showing that
not change in position with time.
Q.7. Assertion : Velocity-time graph for an object in uniform motion along a straight path is a straight
line parallel to the time axis.
Reason : In uniform motion of an object velocity increases as the square of time elapsed.
Ans: (c)
Q.8. Assertion : The average and instantaneous velocities have same value in a uniform motion.
Reason : In uniform motion, the velocity of an object increases uniformly.
Ans: (c) In uniform motion the speed is same at each instant of motion.
Q.9. Assertion: The average velocity of the object over an interval of time is either smaller than or equal
to the average speed of the object over the same interval.
Reason: Velocity is a vector quantity and speed is a scalar quantity.
Ans: (a) Because displacement ≤ distance and so average velocity ≤ average speed.
Q.10. Assertion : The speedometer of an automobile measure the average speed of the automobile.
Reason : Average velocity is equal to total displacement per total time taken.
Ans: (d) Speedometer measures instantaneous speed of automobile.

Case Study Based Questions

Following questions are case study-based questions. Each question has five sub parts of multiple-choice
questions. Attempt any four sub parts from each question. Each sub part of question carries 1 mark.
Q.1. In the absence of air resistance, all bodies falls with same same acceleration near the surface of the
earth. This motion of a body falling towards the earth from a small height is called free fall. The
acceleration with which a body falls is called acceleration due to gravity and it is denoted by g.
(i) For a freely falling body, which of the following equation is incorrect.
(a) h-ut =(1/2) gt2 (b) v2 – u2 =2gh
(c ) h = (1/2) ut +gt2 (d) (v-u)/g = t
Ans: (c)
(ii) The maximum height attained by a body thrown vertically upward with initial velocity u is
(a) h=u2/2g (b) h=u/2g
(c ) h=u2/g (d) h= 2u2/g
Ans: (a)
(iii) The time of ascent of a body thrown vertically upward with initial velocity u is
(a) t= u/2g (b) t= u/g
(c) t= u2/g (d) t= u/g2
Ans: (b)

(iv) The total time of flight to come back to the point of projection of a body thrown vertically upward
with initial velocity u is
(a) t= 2u/3g (b) t= u/2g
(c ) t= 2u/g (d) t= u2/2g
Ans: (c)
(v) Velocity of fall at the point of projection of a body thrown vertically upward with initial velocity u is
(a) v = u (b) v = 2u
(c ) v = 3u (d) v = 4u
Ans: (a)

2.An object released near the surface of the Earth is accelerated downward under the influence of the
force of gravity. The magnitude of acceleration due to gravity is represented by g. If air resistance is
neglected, the object is said to be in free fall. If the height through which the object falls is small
compared to the earth’s radius, g can be taken to be constant, equal to 9.8 m s–2. Free fall is thus a case
of motion with uniform acceleration. We assume that the motion is in y-direction, more correctly in –y
direction

because we choose upward direction as positive. Since the acceleration due to gravity is always
downward, it is in the negative direction and we have = – g = – 9.8 m/sec2
(i) A stone of mass 0.05kg is thrown vertically upwards. What is the direction and magnitude of net
force on the stone during its upward motion?
(A) 0.49 vertically downward
(B) 9.8 vertically downwards
(C) 0.49 N vertically upwards
(D) 0.98 N vertically downwards
Ans.(i)-A
(ii) Free fall of an object (in vacuum) is a case of motion with –
(A) Uniform Velocity
(B) Uniform acceleration
(C) Variable acceleration
(D) constant momentum
Ans. (ii)- B
(iii) Three different objects of masses m1, m2, m3 are allowed to fall from rest and from the same
point ‘O’ along three different frictionless paths. The speed of the three objects, on reaching the
ground, will be in the ratio of

(A) m1: m2 : m3 (B) m1 : 2m2 : 3m3

(C) 1:1: 1 (D) 1/m1: 1/m2: 1/m3
Ans. (iii)- C
(iv) A cricket ball is thrown up with a speed of 19.6 m/sec. The Maximum height it can reach is -
(A) 9.8 m (B) 19.6 m
(C) 29.4 m (D) 39.2 m
Ans. (iv)-B
(v) A ball thrown up under gravity (g=10 m/sec2). Find its velocity after 1 sec at a height of 10 m –
(A) 5 m/sec2 (B) 5 m/sec
(C) 10 m/sec (D) 15 m/sec
Ans. (v)- B
 Motion In A Plane
MCQ:-

1. Which is not a vector quantity

(a) Mass (b) Displacement (c) Velocity (d) Force

Ans- (a) Mass

2. When 𝐴⃗. 𝐵⃗⃗ =− |𝐴⃗|. |𝐵

⃗⃗|, then
(a) 𝐴⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵⃗⃗ Are perpendicular to each other
(b) 𝐴⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
⃗⃗ Act in same direction
(c) 𝐴⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
⃗⃗ Act in opposite direction
(d) 𝐴⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
⃗⃗ Act in any direction
Ans- ( c) 𝐴⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
⃗⃗ Act in opposite direction

3. A displacement vector is a
(a) Change in position
(b) Velocity
(c) Scalar
(d) Distance without direction

Ans- (a) Change in position

4. If the magnitudes of two vectors are 3 and 4 and their scalar product is 6, then the angle
between the two vectors is-
(a) 900 (b) 600 (c ) 1200 (d) 300

Ans- (b)

5. If |𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗ | = |𝐴⃗ − 𝐵
⃗⃗ |, then the angle between 𝐴⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
⃗⃗ .
(a) 900 (b) 600 (c ) 1200 (d) 300

Ans- (a)

6. A cricketer can through a ball to a maximum horizontal distance of 100m. how high
above the ground can the cricketer through the same ball
(a) 60m (b) 100m (c) 10m (d) 50m.

Ans- (d) 50m

7. Which of the following statement is not correct

(a) 𝑖̂. 𝑖̂ =𝑗̂ . 𝑗̂= 𝑘̂ . 𝑘̂= 1 (b) 𝑖̂X 𝑖̂ =𝑗̂ X 𝑗̂= 𝑘̂ X 𝑘̂= 1 (c) 𝑖̂ X 𝑖̂ =𝑗̂ X 𝑗̂= 𝑘̂ X 𝑘̂= 0 (d) 𝑖̂ x 𝑗̂ =𝑘̂
 Ans-(b)
8. Which is correct relation between linear velocity and angular velocity
(a) 𝑣 = 𝑟 𝜔 (b) 𝑣 = 𝑟 / 𝜔 (c) 𝜔 = 𝑟 𝑣 (d) 𝑣 = 𝑟 + 𝜔

Ans- (a)

9. Which is correct relation between linear velocity and angular velocity

(a) 𝑎 = 𝑟 /𝛼 (b) 𝑎 = 𝑟 𝛼 (c) 𝛼 = 𝑟 𝑎 (d) 𝑎 = 𝑟 + 𝛼

Ans- (b)

10. The magnitude of 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ is

(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) √2 (d) 3
11. A body executing uniform circular motion has at any instant its velocity vector and
acceleration vector
(a) Along the same direction
(b) In opposite direction
(c) Normal to each other
(d) Not related to each other

Ans – (c)

12. A body is tied with a string and is given a circular motion with velocity v in radius r. the
magnitude of the acceleration is.
𝑣 𝑣2
(a) (b) (c) v+ r (d) v – r
𝑟 𝑟

Ans – (b)

13. Two projectile of same mass and with same velocity are thrown at an angle 60 0 and 300
with the horizontal , then which will remain same
(a) Time of flight
(b) Range of projectile
(c) Maximum height acquired
(d) All of them

Ans- (b)

14. The angular speed of a flywheel making 120 revolution/ minute is

(a) 4π rad/s (b) 4π2rad/s (c) π rad/s (d) 2π rad/s

Ans- (a)

15. For vector 𝐴⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵

⃗⃗ making an angle ‘θ’, which one of the following relation is correct?
 (a) 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗⃗ = 𝐵
⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗ (b) 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ = AB sinθ (c) 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
(𝑑) 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗ = - 𝐵
⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗

Ans- (d)

Short Answer Question (2 – marks)

1. What are scalar and vector quantities? Give examples.
Ans Hints- Scalar :- those quantity which have only magnitude. Example – Distance,
mass, length, time work ,power
Vector:- quantity with magnitude and direction and obey law of vector addition.
Example; - displacement, velocity, acceleration force
2. Distinguish between position vector and displacement vector.
Ans :- Position vector:- position of an object with reference to the rigin of a
coordinate system
Displacement vector:- change in position vector of an object with respect to time
interval .
3. What is a zero or null vector? Give the important properties and physical example of
zero vector

ans:-any vector with zero magnitude and an arbitrary direction.

Properties-(i) 𝐴⃗ + 0 = 𝐴⃗

ii. λ. ⃗0⃗= ⃗0⃗

iii.0. 𝐴⃗ =𝐴⃗

Example- velocity vector of an stationary object is a zero vector

Acceleration vector of an object moving with uniform velocity

4. Is the working of sling based on the parallelogram law of vector addition? Explain.
Ans-

Yes, a sling consists of a Y- shaped wooden or metallic frme, to which a rubber band
is attached. Whn a stone held at the point O on the rubber band is pulled , the tensions
 T1 and T2 are produced along OA and OB in the two segments of the rubber band.
According to the parallelogram gram law of forces, the resultant t of the tension T1
and T2 act on stone along OC. As the stone is released, it moves under the action of
the resultant tension T in forward direction with high speed.
5. What is meant by resolution of a vector? can walk of a man be example of resolution
of vector? Explain
Ans- The process of splitting a vector into two or more component in such a way that
their combined effect is same as that of the given vector.

While walking.
a person presses the ground with his feet slightly slanted in the backward direction .
the ground exert upon him an equal and opposite reaction R. its horizontal
component H =R cosθ enables the person to move person forward direction while the
vertical component V = R sin θ balance his weight.
6. What do you mean by orthogonal traid unit vector or base vector? Show them in
diagram.
Ans- unit vectors 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂ along three mutually perpendicular direction in a cartisian
coordinate system is called traid unit vector .
7. Find the vector 𝐴⃗𝐵 and its magnitude if it has initial point A(1,2,-1) and the final
point B(3,2,2).
Ans- 𝑂𝐴⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ −𝑘̂ and 𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 3𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ +2𝑘̂
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴 = 3𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ +2𝑘̂ – (𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ −𝑘)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂= 2i+3k
𝐴𝐵 = √13
8. When any vector 𝑋⃗ is added with another vector𝐴⃗ = 2𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂ −𝑘̂ . It gives a unit
vector along Y-axis. Find the vector𝑋⃗?
Ans- 𝑋⃗ + 𝐴⃗ = 𝑗
𝑋⃗ = 𝑗 − 𝐴⃗
𝑋⃗ = −𝑖̂ + 5𝑗̂ +𝑘̂.
9. Show that there are two angle of projection for which range of projectile is same in
angular projectile motion
Ans- let two angle of projection are 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 90 − 𝛼
𝑅1 = 𝑢 2 sin 2𝜃/𝑔
For angle α= 90 – θ
𝑅2 = 𝑢 2 sin 2(90 − 𝜃)/𝑔
R2 = 𝑢 2 sin 2𝜃/𝑔
 10. If A = i +2j -3k and B = 4i+2j +5k ,Then find A+B and A-B.
Ans hints –
A+B= i +2j -3k + 4i+2j +5k = -2i +4j+2k
A-B = i +2j -3k - 4i-2j -5k = -5i-8k
11. Resultant of two equal force acting perpendicularly on body is 1000dyne, then find
magnitude of each of them
Ans- F = √𝑓 2 + 𝑓 2
1000= 2f
F= 500dyn
12. Find the angle between the vectors 𝐴⃗ = 2i -4j +6k and 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 3i+j +2k
𝐴.𝐵
Ans- cos 𝜃 =
𝐴𝐵
θ= 60
13. At what point in its trajectory does a projectile have its (i) minimum speed
(ii) Maximum speed?
Ans- (i) at the highest point of its trajectory
(ii) at point of projection and at the point where it returns to the horizontal plane of
projection.
14. Define angular acceleration. Deduce its relation with linear acceleration.
Ans –the time rate of change of angular velocity of a particle is called its angular
acceleration
∆𝜔
α= now ω = v/r
∆𝑡
∆𝑣/𝑟
α= = a/r
∆𝑡
a= rα
15. Calculate the angular speed of flywheel making 420 revolutions per minute.
Ans- ω = 2πƲ
ω = 2 x22/7 x 420/60 = 44rad/s

Short Answer Question (3 – marks)

1. The position of a particle is given by 𝑟⃗ = 3.0 𝑡 2 𝑖̂ − 2.0 𝑡 𝑗̂ −4.0 𝑘̂.m where t is in

second and the the coefficient have the proper units for r to be in meters.
(a) Find the 𝑣⃗ and 𝑎⃗ of the particle.
(b) What is the magnitude and direction of velocity of the particle at t =2 s ?
𝑑𝑟 3.0 𝑡 2 𝑖 𝑑2.0𝑡𝑗 4.0𝑘
Ans-𝑣⃗ = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑 𝑑𝑡
− 𝑑𝑡
− 𝑑𝑡
𝑣⃗ =6t i- 2 j
 𝑎⃗ = 𝑑6t/dt i- 2d/dt j
𝑎⃗ =6i
(𝑏) v= 6x2 i- 2 j
𝑣 = √122 + 4
𝑣 = √148 Direction tan θ= -2/12
a=6
2. State triangle law of vector addition. Show that resultant of two vectors 𝑃⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄⃗⃗
inclined at an angle θ is R = √𝑃2+Q2+2PQcosθ.
Ans- Triangle law of vector addition states that when two vectors are represented as
two sides of the triangle with the order of magnitude and direction, then the third side
of the triangle represents the magnitude and direction of the resultant vector.

Proof :-

Now, extend the side OA till point C such that BC is perpendicular to OC and the angle between
vectors P and Q is θ. Also, the direction of the resultant vector R is given by the angle ϕ. In right-
angled triangle OBC, we have

OB2 = OC2 + BC2

⇒ OB2 = (OA + AC)2 + BC2 --- (1)

In the right triangle ABC, we have

cos θ = AC/AB and sin θ = BC/AB

⇒ AC = AB cos θ and BC = AB sin θ

⇒ AC = Q cos θ and BC = Q sin θ --- (2)

Substituting values from (2) in (1), we have

R2 = (P + Q cos θ)2 + (Q sin θ)2

⇒ R2 = P2 + Q2cos2θ + 2PQ cos θ + Q2sin2θ

⇒ R2 = P2 + 2PQ cos θ + Q2(cos2θ + sin2θ)

⇒ R2 = P2 + 2PQ cos θ + Q2 [cos2θ + sin2θ = 1]

⇒ R = √(P2 + 2PQ cos θ + Q2) → Magnitude of the resultant vector R

Now, to find the direction of R, we have in right traingle OBC,

tan ϕ = BC/OC

⇒ tan ϕ = Q sin θ/(OA + AC) [From (2)]

⇒ tan ϕ = Q sin θ/(P + Q cos θ) [From (2)]

⇒ ϕ = tan-1[(Q sin θ)/(P + Q cos θ)] → Direction of the resultant vector R

3. Define scalar product of two vector. Give some example of physical quantities that
may be expressed as the scalar product of two vectors. Prove that𝑖̂. 𝑖̂ =𝑗̂ . 𝑗̂= 𝑘̂ . 𝑘̂= 1

Ans- The scalar product or two vector in vector be maybe define as the product of the
magnitude of vector N vector be and cosine of the angle between them.

A.B = AB cos θ

Example- Work = force. Displacement

W =F.S

Now i.i = 1. 1 cos0=1

4. Define vector product of two vectors. Give some example of physical quantities that
may be expressed as the scalar product of two vectors. Prove that 𝑖̂ X 𝑖̂ =𝑗̂ X 𝑗̂= 𝑘̂
X 𝑘̂= 0

Ans- The vector or cross product of two vectors is defined as the vector whose
magnitude is equal to the product of the magnitudes of two vectors and sine of the
angle between them and whose direction is perpendicular to the plane of the two
vectors and is given by right hand rule.

𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ABSin θ 𝑛̂

Example :- Torque = force × perpendicular distance

𝑖̂ X 𝑖̂ = 1 x1 sin0=0
5. A projectile is fired at an angle θ with the horizontal with velocity u. deduce the
expression for the maximum height reached by it.
Ans- By third equation of motion
𝑣 2 = 𝑢 2 + 2𝑎𝑠
For vertical motion
At maximum height
V=0 , u = usinθ , a= -g, s = H
0 = (𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2 + 2(−𝑔)𝐻

𝐻 = (𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2 / 2(𝑔)
H= 𝑢 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2 / 2𝑔
6. State parallelogram law of vector addition. Is the flying of a bird an example of
composition of vectors? Explain.
Ans- parallelogram law of vector addition - if two vectors can be represented both in
magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram drawn from a
common point then there resultant is completely represented both in magnitude and
direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from that point

Flying off bird is an example of parallelogram law of vector Addition, when a bird
flies it pushes the air with forces F1 and F2 in the downward direction with its wings
W1 and a W2 the lines of action of these two forces meet at 0 in accordance with
Newton’s third law of motion the air exerted equal and opposite reactions R1and R2.
According to the parallelogram law the resultant of the action R1 and R2 act on the
bird in upper direction and help the bird to fly upward

7. What is the angle between two vectors 𝑃⃗⃗ + 𝑄

⃗⃗ and 𝑃⃗⃗ − 𝑄
⃗⃗ whose resultant is
√3𝑃2 + 𝑄2
Ans by using
𝑅2 = 𝑝2 + 𝑄2 + 2𝑝𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
θ = 600

8. A projectile is fired at an angle θ with the horizontal with velocity u. show that path
followed by a projectile is parabolic.
Ans- Let t be the time taken by the projectile to reach the point C from the instant of
projection.
 Horizontal distance travelled by the projectile in time t1 is,
x = horizontal velocity x time
x = u cos θ x t (or) t = x / u cos θ ... (1)
Let the vertical distance travelled by the projectile in time t = s = y
At O, initial vertical velocity u1= u sin θ From the equation of motion
s = ut – ½ gt2
Substituting the known values,
y = (u sin θ) t - 1/2 gt2 ..(2)
Substituting equation (1) in equation (2),
𝑥 𝑥2
𝑦 = 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 × 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 - ½ g 𝑢2𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃
The above equation is of the form y = Ax + Bx2 and represents a parabola. Thus the path
of a projectile is a parabola.

9. Find a vector whose length is 7 and which is perpendicular to each of the vectors 𝐴⃗ =
2i -3j +6k and 𝐵⃗⃗ = i+j – k
Ans- by using ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐵 = ABsinθ 𝑛̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐵
𝑛̂ = 𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗/ |𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗|
𝑛̂ =−3𝑖̂ + 8𝑗̂ +5𝑘̂/7√2
Required vector 7 𝑛̂= −3𝑖̂ + 8𝑗̂ +5𝑘̂/√2
10. Define centripetal acceleration. Which is greater: the angular velocity of hour hand of
a watch or angular velocity of earth around its own axis? Give their ratio.
Ans- centripetal acceleration when a body age in uniform circular motion its speech
remained constant but its velocity changes continuously due to the chain in its
direction hence the motion is accelerated a body undergoing uniform circular motion
it’s acted upon by and acceleration which is directed along the radius towards the
centre of the circular path the acceleration is called centripetal acceleration
The hour hand completes one rotation about its axis in 24 hours. Its angular speed is
ω 1 = 2π/12= π/21600rad/s
the earth completes one rotation about its axis in 24 hr. its angular speed is
ω 2 = 2π/24= π/43200rad/s

ω 1 : ω 2 = 1:2

Long Answer Question ( 5 marks)

1. State the parallelogram law of vector addition and find the magnitude and direction of the
resultant of two vectors 𝑃⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄
⃗⃗ inclined at an angle θ with each other.
Ans:- If two vectors acting at a point are represented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent
sides of a parallelogram, then their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the
diagonal passing through the common tail of the two vectors.
Let us consider two vectors P and Q which are inclined to each other at an angle θ as shown in
Fig.. Let the vectors P and Q be represented in magnitude and direction by the two sides OA and
OB of a parallelogram OACB. The diagonal OC passing through the common tail O, gives the
magnitude and direction of the resultant Vec R.

CD is drawn perpendicular to the extended OA, from C. Let COD angle made by Vector R
with Vector P be α.
From right angled triangle OCD,
OC2 = OD 2 + CD2
= (OA + AD)2 + CD2
= OA2 + AD2 + 2.OA.AD + CD2 .....(1)
In Fig. Angle BOA = θ =Angle CAD
From right angled ∆ CAD,
AC2 = AD2 + CD2 ...(2)
Substituting (2) in (1)
OC2 = OA2+ AC2 + 2OA.AD ...(3)
From ∆ACD,
CD = AC sin θ ...(4)
AD = AC cos θ ...(5)
Substituting (5) in (3) OC2 = OA2 + AC2 + 2 OA.AC cos θ
Substituting OC = R, OA = P,
OB = AC = Q in the above equation
R2 = P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos θ
(or)
R = √P 2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos θ ...(6)
Equation (6) gives the magnitude of the resultant. From ∆ OCD,
tan α = CD / OD = CD/( OA +AD )
Substituting (4) and (5) in the above equation,
tan α = ( AC sin θ ) / (OA + AC cos θ )
(or) α = tan-1[Qsin θ / (P+Qcos θ)] ...(7)
Equation (7) gives the direction of the resultant
2. What is Projectile motion? A projectile is fired upward at an angle θ with the horizontal
with initial velocity ‘u’. Show that its trajectory is parabolic. and obtain expression for (a)
Time of flight (b) Horizontal Range (c) maximum height attain by projectile

Ans:- Definition of projectile :- a projectile is name given to a body which once thrown into
space with some initial velocity , moves under thereafter under the influence of gravity alone

without being propelled by any engine or fuel.

Path of projectile :- Let t be the time taken by the projectile to reach the point C from the
instant of projection.

Horizontal distance travelled by the projectile in time t1 is,

x = horizontal velocity x time
x = u cos θ x t (or) t = x / u cos θ ... (1)
Let the vertical distance travelled by the projectile in time t = s = y

At O, initial vertical velocity u1= u sin θ From the equation of motion

 s = ut - 1/2 gt2
Substituting the known values,
y = (u sin θ) t - 1/2 gt2 ..(2)

Substituting equation (1) in equation (2),

𝑥 𝑥2
𝑦 = 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 × 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 - ½ g 𝑢2𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃

The above equation is of the form y = Ax + Bx2 and represents a parabola. Thus the path of a
projectile is a parabola.
Time of flight:- total time for which the projectile remains in its flight.
By s =ut + ½ at2
For vertical motion
S = 0,a= -g, u = usinθ, t= T
T= 2usinθ/g
Horizontal Range- it is the horizontal distance travelled by the projectile during its time of
flight
R= ucosθ × 𝑇
R= u2 sin2θ/ g
Maximum Height- 𝑣 2 = 𝑢 2 + 2𝑎𝑠
For vertical motion
At maximum height
V=0 , u = usinθ , a= -g, s = H
0 = (𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2 + 2(−𝑔)𝐻

𝐻 = (𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2 / 2(𝑔)
H= 𝑢 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2 / 2𝑔

3. (i) What is projectile motion?

(ii) The maximum range of projectile is 2/√3 time’s actual range. What is the angle of
projection for actual range?
(iii) Two balls are thrown with the same initial velocity at angles α and (90 0 – α ) with the
horizontal. What will be the ratio of the maximum heights attained by them?

Ans:
 (i) Definition

(ii) R max = (2/√3) R

U2 /g = 2/√3 u2 sin 2θ / g
Sin 2 θ = √3 /2 = sin 600
θ = 300
(iii) H1 = u2 sin2 α /2g
H2 = u2 sin2 (900 – α) /2g = u2 cos2 α /2g

H1 / H2 = tan2 α :1
4. Define centripetal acceleration. Derive an expression for the centripetal acceleration of a
body moving with uniform speed v along a circular path of radius r.
Ans:- A body undergoing uniform circular motion is acted upon by an acceleration which
is directed along the radius towards the centre of the circular path . this acceleration is
called centripetal acceleration .

By triangle law of vector addition QR= Δv

In trianglr ABC and PQR
ΔABC ͠ and ΔPQR are congruent
BC/AB= QR/PQ
Δs/r=Δv/v
Δv= v Δs/r
Dividing both side by Δt
Δv/Δt = v Δs/Δt
a = v2/r
 Case study based

1. When an object follows a circular path at a constant speed, the motion of the object is
called uniform circular motion. The word “uniform” refers to the speed, which is uniform
(constant) throughout the motion. Suppose an object is moving with uniform speed v in a
circle of radius R Since the velocity of the object is changing continuously in direction,
the object undergoes acceleration. Let us find the magnitude and the direction of this
acceleration. Thus, the acceleration of an object moving with speed v in a circle of radius
R has a magnitude V2/R and is always directed towards the centre. This is why this
acceleration is called centripetal acceleration (a term proposed by Newton). A thorough
analysis of centripetal acceleration was first published in 1673 by the Dutch scientist
Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695) but it was probably known to Newton also some years
earlier. “Centripetal” comes from a Greek term which means ‘centre-seeking’. Since v
and R are constant, the magnitude of the centripetal acceleration is also constant.
However, the direction changes pointing always towards the centre. Therefore, a
centripetal acceleration is not a constant vector. We can express centripetal acceleration
ac in terms of angular speed as a = ω2R
The time taken by an object to make one revolution is known as its time period T and the number
of revolution made in one second is called its frequency v (=1/T). However, during this time the
distance moved by the object is s = 2πR. Therefore, v = 2πR/T =2πRv In terms of frequency n, we
have ω = 2πv, v = 2πRv , a = 4π2v2R
1) SI unit of angular velocity is
a) Rev/sec
b) m/s
c) m/s2
d) None of these
2) A centripetal acceleration is not a constant vector. True or false?
a) True
b) False
3) Define Uniform circular motion
4) What is meaning of word centripetal?
5) What is centripetal acceleration? Give its relation with angular velocity

Answer key-
1) a
2) a
3) When an object moves in a circular path with uniform speed, its motion is called uniform
circular motion.
4) “Centripetal” comes from a Greek term which means ‘centre-seeking’ i.e. always directed
towards centre of a circle.
5) Acceleration of particle performing uniform circular motion which is always directed towards
centre of a circle is called centripetal acceleration. We can express centripetal acceleration ac in
terms of angular speed as
ac = ω2R
However, during this time the distance moved by the object is s = 2πR. In terms of frequency V,
we have
ω = 2πv
v = 2πRv
ac = 4π2v2R

2. we consider the motion of a projectile. An object that is in flight after being thrown or
projected is called a projectile. Such a projectile might be a football, a cricket ball, a
baseball or any other object. The motion of a projectile may be thought of as the result of
two separate, simultaneously occurring components of motions. One component is along
a horizontal direction without any acceleration and the other along the vertical direction
with constant acceleration due to the force of gravity. It was Galileo who first stated this
independency of the horizontal and the vertical components of projectile motion in his
Dialogue on the great world systems.
Horizontal range of a projectile: The horizontal distance travelled by a projectile from its
initial position (x = y = 0) to the position where it passes y = 0 during its fall is called the
horizontal range, R. It is the distance travelled during the time of flight Tf . Therefore, the range
R is R = (v0 cos θ0) (T)
R = (v0 cos θ0) (2 v0 sin θ0)/g
R = (v02 sin 2 θ0)/g
This shows that for a given projection velocity, R is maximum when sin 2θ0 is maximum, i.e.,
when θ0 = 450. The maximum horizontal range is, therefore
R= v02/g
Maximum height of a projectile: Maximum height that can be achieved during projectile and it
is given by
Hm = (v0 sin θ0)2/2g

1) Range in projectile motion is maximum when θ 0

a) 450
b) 00
c) 900
d) None of these
2) Who was first stated this independency of the horizontal and the vertical components of
projectile motion in his Dialogue on the great world system?
a) Galileo
b) Newton
c) Einstein
d) None of these
3) What is projectile motion?
4) What is horizontal range of projectile? Give its formula
5) What is maximum height of projectile? Give its formula

Answer key-5
1) a
2) a
3) The motion of object under only gravity force in the air is called projectile motion.
4) The horizontal distance travelled by a projectile from its initial position to the position where
it passes same horizontal position during its fall is called the horizontal range, R. It is the
distance travelled during the time of flight T . Therefore, the range R is
R = (v0 cos θ0) (T)
R = (v0 cos θ0) (2 v0 sin θ0)/g
R = (v02 sin 2 θ0)/g
5) Maximum height of a projectile: Maximum height that can be achieved during projectile
and it is given by
Hm = (v0 sin θ0)2/2g
 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
Newton’ 1st law or Law of Inertia Every body continues to be in its state of rest or of uniform motion until and
unless and until it is compelled by an external force to change its state of rest or of uniform motion.
Inertia The property by virtue of which a body opposes any change in its state of rest or of uniform motion is known
as inertia. Greater the mass of the body greater is the inertia. That is mass is the measure of the inertia of the body
Physical Application
1. When a moving bus suddenly stops, passenger’s head gets jerked in the forward direction.
2. When a stationery bus suddenly starts moving passenger’s head gets jerked in the backward direction.
3. On hitting used mattress by a stick, dust particles come out of it.
4. In order to catch a moving bus safely we must run forward in the direction of motion of bus.
Newton’ 2 nd law Rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the applied force and this change always
takes place in the direction of the applied force.
F = ma
Newton’ 3 rd law or Law of Action and Reaction Every action is opposed by an equal and opposite reaction. or For
every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Force on the first body due to second body (F12) is equal and opposite to the force on the second body due to first
body (F21)
Physical Application
i) When we push any block in the forward direction then block pushes us in the backward direction with an equal and
opposite force.
ii) Horse pulls the rod attached to the cart in the forward direction and the tension of the rod pulls the cart in the
backward direction.
Linear Momentum It is defined as the quantity of motion contained in the body. Mathematically it is given by the
product of mass and velocity. It is a vector quantity represented by p. p = mv
Principle Of Conservation Of Linear Momentum It states that in the absence of any external applied force total
momentum of a system remains conserved.
Physical Application
i) Recoil of gun – when bullet is fired in the forward direction gun recoils in the backward direction.
ii) When a person jumps on the boat from the shore of river, boat along with the person on it moves in the forward
direction.
iii) When a person on the boat jumps forward on the shore of river, boat starts moving in the backward direction.
iv) In rocket propulsion fuel is ejected out in the downward direction due to which rocket is propelled up in vertically
upward direction.
Impulse and Impulsive Force
Impulsive Force The force which acts on a body for very short duration of time but is still capable of changing the
position, velocity and direction of motion of the body up to large extent is known as impulsive force.
Example - 1. Force applied by foot on hitting a football. 2. Force applied by boxer on a punching bag. 3. Force
applied by bat on a ball in hitting it to the boundary. 4. Force applied by a moving truck on a drum.
Note- Although impulsive force acts on a body for a very short duration of time yet its magnitude varies rapidly
during that small duration.
Impulse Impulse received by the body during an impact is defined as the product of average impulsive force and the
short time duration for which it acts. I = Favg x t
Graph Between Impulsive Force and Time
With the time on x axis and impulsive force on y axis the graph of the following nature is obtained

Area enclosed under the impulsive force and time graph from t1 to t2
gives the impulse imparted to the body from time t1 to t2.
Physical Application
i) While catching a ball a player lowers his hand to save himself from getting hurt.
ii) Vehicles are provided with the shock absorbers to avoid jerks.
iii) Buffers are provided between the bogies of the train to avoid jerks.
iv) A person falling on a cemented floor receive more jerk as compared to that falling on a sandy floor.
v) Glass wares are wrapped in a straw or paper before packing.
Equilibrium of Concurrent Forces If the number of forces act at the same point, they are called concurrent forces.
The condition or the given body to be in equilibrium under the number of forces acting on the body is that these
forces should produce zero resultant.
FRICTION
Friction - The property by virtue of which the relative motion between two surfaces in contact is opposed is known
as friction.
Frictional Forces - Tangential forces developed between the two surfaces in contact, so as to oppose their relative
motion are known as frictional forces or commonly friction.
Types of Frictional Forces - Frictional forces are of three types :-
1. Static frictional force 2. Kinetic frictional force 3. Rolling frictional force
Static Frictional Force - Frictional force acting between the two surfaces in contact which are relatively at rest, so as
to oppose their relative motion, when they tend to move relatively under the effect of any external force is known as
static frictional force. Static frictional force is a self adjusting force and its value lies between its minimum value up
to its maximum value.
Kinetic Frictional Force - Frictional force acting between the two surfaces in contact which are moving relatively, so
as to oppose their relative motion, is known as kinetic frictional force.
Limiting Frictional Force – The maximum value of static frictional force is the maximum frictional force which can
act between the two surfaces in contact and hence it is also known as limiting frictional force.
Laws of Limiting Frictional Force – 1. Static friction depends upon the nature of the surfaces in contact.
2. It comes into action only when any external force is applied to move the two bodies relatively, with their surfaces
in contact.
3. Static friction opposes the impending motion.
4. It is a self adjusting force.
5. The limiting frictional force is independent of the area of contact between the two surfaces.
Angle of Friction – The angle between the resultant contact force (of normal reaction and friction) and the normal
reaction is known as the angle of friction.
Angle of Repose – The angle of the inclined plane at which a body placed on it just begins to slide is known as angle
of repose.
Friction: A Necessary Evil – Although frictional force is a non-conservative force and causes lots of wastage of
energy in the form of heat yet it is very useful to us in many ways. That is why it is considered as a necessary evil.
Centripetal Force – Force responsible for producing centripetal acceleration is known as centripetal force. Since
centripetal acceleration is directed towards the center of the circular path the centripetal force is also directed towards
the center of the circular path.
Circular motion of vehicles on a horizontal road. Centripetal force is provided by the static frictional force
between the road and the tyre of the vehicle. Fc = mv 2/r = fs
Banking of Roads In case of horizontal road necessary centripetal force mv2 /r is provided by static frictional force.
When heavy vehicles move with high speed on a sharp turn (small radius) then all the factors contribute to huge
centripetal force which if provided by the static frictional force may result in the fatal accident. To prevent this roads
are banked by lifting their outer edge. Due to this, normal reaction of road on the vehicle gets tilted inwards such that
it’s vertical component balances the weight of the body and the horizontal component provides the necessary
centripetal force.

5 Marks Questions
1.a) A person of mass m is standing in a lift. Find his apparent weight when the lift is
i) Moving upward with uniform acceleration a
ii) moving downward with uniform acceleration a (<g)
iii) falls freely
b) Explain why is it easier to pull a lawn mover than to push it .
2. Define the term static friction, limiting friction and kinetic friction . Draw the graph between friction and applied
force on any object and show these friction in the graph. Using the graph show that friction is a self adjusting force .
3. a) Define angle of repose. Deduce its relation with coefficient of static friction .
b) Find the expression of work done against friction when a body is made to slide down by a line distance S on an
inclined plane .
4. What is meant by banking of roads ? What is the need of banking of roads? Obtain the expression for maximum
speed with which a vehicle can safely negotiate a curved road banked at an angle 𝜃 , the coefficient of friction
between wheels and road is 𝜇.
5. a) Why does a horse pull a cart harder during the first few steps of its motion .
b) Sudden motion of the blanket removes the dust particles from the blanket. Why?
c) Two objects having different masses have some momentum. Which one of them will move faster?

3 Marks questions
1. Show that Newton’s second law of motion is the real law of motion.
2. Why does a gun recoil on firing ? what is its recoil velocity ? find the expression for it .
3. State and prove Law of conservation of momentum .
4. Two masses of mass M and m are connected at the two ends of an inextensible string . The string passes over a
smooth frictionless pulley . Obtain the acceleration of the masses and the tension in the string , given M>m.
5. Define the term momentum and Impulse . Prove that impulse of a force is equal to change in momentum.
6. Define angle of friction and angle of repose . Show that both are numerically equal.
7. Obtain the expression for the angle which a cyclist will have to make with the vertical , while taking a circular turn.
8. The motion of a particle of mass m is described by 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 . Find the force acting on the particle.
9. State Newton’s second law of motion and deduce Newton’s first law from it.
10. Three blocks of masses 2 kg , 3 kg and 5 kg are connected to each other with light string and are then placed on a
frictionless surface as shown in figure

The system is pulled by a force F=10 N , then what is the tension T1.

2 Marks Questions
1. Action and Reaction are equal and opposite . Why can not they cancel each other?
2. A tennis ball of mass ‘m’ strikes the massive wall with velocity ‘v’ and traces the same path . Calculate the change
in momentum.
3. An athlete runs a certain distance before long jump. Why? Name the law that explains it.
4. Position time graph of a body of mass 1kg is shown in the figure. Calculate the net force acting on the body for the
time interval 0<t<4 sec.

.
5. How does the banking of roads reduce wear and tear of tyres?
6. Define Momentum. Is it a scalar or vector quantity ? Give its units and dimensions.
7. State Newton’s second law of motion . Hence derive the relation F=ma , where symbols have their usual meaning .
8.A bullet of mass m is fired from a gun of mass M with horizontal velocity V , calculate the recoil velocity v of the
gun .
9. What are concurrent forces ? Obtain a condition for equilibrium of three concurrent forces.
10. What is Limiting friction ? State the laws of limiting friction.
11. Friction is a necessary evil . Explain.
12. A block of mass m rests on a rough horizontal plane. The plane is gradually inclined at an angle 𝜃 with the
horizontal until the block just begins to slide . Find the coefficient of static friction between the block and the plane.
13. A bomb of mass 9 kg explodes into 2 pieces of mass 3kg and 6 kg . The velocity of mass 3 kg is 1.6 m/s , what is
the kinetic energy of mass 6 kg ?
14. A 30 g bullet travelling initially at 500 m/s penetrates 12 cm into wooden block , what will be the average force
exerted ?
15. Two racing cars of masses m1 and m2 are moving in circles of radii r1 and r2 respectively . There speeds are such
that each car makes a complete circle in same time T . What will be the ratio of angular speed of the first and the
second car .

Case study Based Questions

1. When we throw a ball on the floor, it starts moving with some velocity. But ideally, no force should be acting in
the direction of motion, and according to Newton’s first law, the ball should keep rolling, but this does not happen.
Instead, the ball stops after moving a certain distance, so a force must be acting on it. We call this force “friction”,
Friction between any two surfaces in contact is the force that opposes the relative motion between them. The force of
limiting friction (F) between any two surfaces in contact is directly proportional to the normal reaction (R) between
them i .e . , F ∝ R or F= 𝜇𝑅 , where 𝜇 is coefficient of limiting friction , then 𝜇 = tan𝜃.

i) Which of the following is NOT true about Frictional force?

(a) Rolling friction is much more than sliding friction, the use of ball bearings in a machine considerably reduces
friction.
(b) Friction in machines wastes energy and also causes wear and tear.
(c) The force of friction that acts when a body is moving (sliding) on a surface is called sliding friction.
(d) Friction is the force which opposes the relative motion of two surfaces in contact

ii) A force of 49N is just able to move a block of wood weighing 10kg on a rough horizontal surface. The coefficient
of friction is
(a) 0.5 (b) 4.9 (c) 10/49 (d) 49/9.8

iii) Which option is correct about the wheel of a car moving on the road?
(a)Rolling friction > Static friction > Kinetic friction
(b)Static friction > Kinetic friction > Rolling friction
(c)Static Friction > Rolling Friction > Kinetic Friction
(d)Rolling friction > Kinetic friction > Static friction

iv) We slip while walking on a path having pond scum or green algae because:
(a)The inertia of motion
(b)The friction between the feet and the path is increased.
(c) The friction between the feet and the path is reduced.
(d) The friction is zero.

v) Two blocks of different masses but with different surface areas slides down an inclined plane with friction
coefficient 𝜇. If the first block with surface area A experiences a friction force f , then the second block with
surface area 2A will experience a force?
(a) f/2 (b) f (c) 2f (d) 4f

2. According to Newton’s second law of motion ,F = m .a ,where F is the force required to produce an acceleration a
in a body of mass m .If a= 0 then F = 0 , i. e , no external force is required to move a body uniformly along a straight
line .If a force F acts on a body for t seconds , the effect of the force is given by impulse = F xΔt = change in linear
momentum of the body .
i) A cricket ball of mass 150g is moving with a velocity of 12m/s and is hit by a bat so that the ball is turned back
with a velocity of 20m/s. If duration of contact between the ball and the bat is 0.01 sec. The impulse of the force is
(a) 7.4Ns (c) 1.2Ns (b) 4.8Ns (d) 4.7Ns

ii) The force acting on the object whose linear momentum changes by 20 kg m/s in 10 sec-
(a) 2 N. (b) 20 N (c)200 N (d)0.2 N

iii) If two balls , each of mass 0.06 kg moving in opposite direction with speed 4m/s , collide and rebound with same
speed , then the impulse imparted to each ball due to other is ( in kg m/s )
(a) 0.48 (b) 0.81 (c) 0.53 (d) 0.92

iv) An impulsive force of 100 N acts on an object for 1 s. The change in its linear momentum is-
(a)10 Ns. (b)100 Ns. (c) 1000 Ns. (d)1 Ns

1 Mark question :
1. Angle of friction between any two surfaces in contact is the angle which the net force of limiting friction force and
………………..make with normal reaction.
2. If a man moves upward with acceleration “a” then the value of Normal Force is given by……..
3. Area under the F-t graph gives the magnitude of the………. Of the given force in given time .
4. The system of raising the outer edge of a curved road above the inner edge is called …….
5. Match the following
a. Newton’s first law of motion p. Isolated fore can not exist
b. Newton’s second law of motion q. Law of Inertia
c. Newton’s third law of motion r. Real law of motion
6. When a horse pulls a cart, the force to move forward is the force exerted by-
(A)the cart on the horse (B) the ground on the horse (C) the ground on the cart (D) the horse on the ground
7. The static force of friction –
(A)remains the same with increase in the applied force. (B) decrease with the increase in the applied force. (C)
increase with increase in the applied force. (D) increase with the decrease in the applied force.
8. A body of weight w1 is suspended from the ceiling of a room through a chain of weight w2. The ceiling pulls the
chain by a force-
(A)w1 (B) w2 (C) w1 + w2 (D)w1-w2
9. What provides the centripetal force in the following cases?
(i) Electron revolving around the nucleus.
(ii) Earth revolving around the sun.
(iii) Car taking a turn on a banked road.
Assertion-Reason Questions:Choose the correct option
(A) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(B) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(C) A is true but R is false.
(D) A is false and R is also false.

10. ASSERTION: On a rainy day, it is difficult a car or a bus at high speed.

REASON: The value of coefficient friction is lowered due to wetting of the surface
11. ASSERTION: On a banked curved track, without friction, horizontal component of normal reaction provides the
necessary centripetal force.
REASON: Centripetal force is not always required for turning
12. ASSERTION: A body can be at rest even when it is under the action of any number of external forces .
REASON: Vector sum of all the external forces is zero.
13. ASSERTION: It is difficult to move a cycle along the road with brakes on
REASON: Sliding friction is greater than rolling friction.
ANSWERS
1 Mark questions :
1. Normal reaction
2. R= m (g+a)
3. Impulse
4. Banking
5. a-q,b-r,c-p
6. (B) Horse pushes the earth. Earth acts reaction force on the horse.
7. (C) Static friction force is self-adjustable. So, it increases with increase of applied force until body doesn’t move.
8. (C) F.B.D.Net force zero (w1 + w2) – N = 0 ,N = w1 + w2
9. (i) It is provided by the electrostatic force of attraction between the electron and thenucleus.
(ii) The gravitational force of attraction between Earth and Sun.
(iii) A component of the reaction of the road.
10.(A)
11. (C)
12. (A)
13. (A)

Case Study Based questions:

1. i) a
ii) a
F=μR

⇒μ=F/R=F/mg

Given, F=49N,m=10kg,g=10m/s2

∴μ=49/100=0.49≈0.5
iii) b
iv) c
v) b , friction does not depend on area of contact

2.i) b
I = Fxt = ΔP = m(v2-v1) = 0.15(20+12) = 4.8Ns
ii) a
F = ΔP/ Δt = 20/10 = 2N
iii) a
Impulse imparted = change in momentum
=mv-(-mv) =2 mv = 2 × 0.06 × 4= 0.48 kg m/s
iv) b
ΔP = Fxt = 100x1 = 100 Ns

2 marks questions :
1. As the action and reaction never act on the same body, so they can not cancel each other .
2. change in momentum = m(-v)-mv = -2mv
3. An athlete runs before jumping to gain momentum. Because it helps injumping higher and longer because of
inertia of motion gained due to the motion.
4. In the given time interval x-t graph is a straight line so
V=constant so a=0 hence F=ma=0
5.If road is not banked, then the necessary centripetal force will be providedby the force of friction between tires and
the road. On the other hand, when the road is banked, a component of the normal reaction provides the necessary
centripetal force, which reduces wear and tear.
6. It is the quantity of motion contained in a body . It is a vector quantity. Unit = kg m/s . dimension [MLT-1]
7. Rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the applied force and this change always takes place in the
direction of the applied force.
F= k dP/dt = kd(mv)/dt =k m a k=1
F=ma
8. As per law of conservation of momentum M= mass of gun , m=mass of bullet , V = velocity of bullet , v=recoil
velocity of gun
MV+ mv = 0 so v=recoil velocity = - MV/m
9. These are the forces acting at the same point on a body .
Condition for equilibrium of a number of forces acting at the same point is that vector sum of all forces must be zero.
10. Limiting Frictional Force – The maximum value of static frictional force is the maximum frictional force which
can act between the two surfaces in contact and hence it is also known as limiting frictional force.Laws of Limiting
Frictional Force –
Static friction depends upon the nature of the surfaces in contact.
It comes into action only when any external force is applied to move the two bodies relatively, with their surfaces in
contact.
Static friction opposes the impending motion.
It is a self adjusting force.
The limiting frictional force is independent of the area of contact between the two surfaces.
11. Friction: A Necessary Evil – Although frictional force is a non-conservative force and causes lots of wastage of
energy in the form of heat yet it is very useful to us in many ways. That is why it is considered as a necessary evil.
Advantages of Friction -Friction is necessary in walking,Friction is helpful in tying knots in the ropes and strings.
Disadvantages of Friction -
i) Friction causes wear and tear in the machinery parts.
ii) Kinetic friction wastes energy in the form of heat, light and sound.
12. Do Derivation of angle of repose .
13. Apply law of conservation of momentum to find m1v1=m2v2
V2=0.8 m/s so K.E= 1.92 J
14. v2-u2=2as u=500m/s , s=0.12m , Find a Then
F=ma so F= 31250 N

15. As Time period is same so angular speed 𝜔 = is also same.

3 Marks Questions :
1. This can be demonstrated by the first and third laws of motion contained in the second law of motion.
i) F=ma if F=0 ⇒ a=0
That is, if there is no force acting on the body, its acceleration is zero. This means that if a body is at rest, it stays at
rest, and if a body is moving in a straight line with constant velocity, it keeps moving. This is stated in the first law.
ii) third law is contained in second law, For two particles A and B

2.When you pull the gun’s trigger, it forces the bullet out of the gun, but at the same time, the gun is forced in the
opposite direction of the bullet (towards you). The velocity of backward jerk is the recoil velocity . As per law of
conservation of momentum
M= mass of gun , m=mass of bullet , V = velocity of bullet , v=recoil velocity of gun
MV+ mv = 0 so v=recoil velocity = - MV/m
3.
4. For mass m, the forces are given as

T−mg=ma ...... (1)

Similarly, for mass M, the forces are given as
Mg−T=Ma ...... (2)
From equation (1), we have
T=mg+ma ...... (3)
Substituting equation (3) in (2) we get
Mg−mg−ma=Ma
g(M−m)=a(M+m)
a=(M-m)g/(M+m)
T=2Mm/(M+m)
5. Impulse received by the body during an impact is defined as the product of average impulsive force and the short
time duration for which it acts.
I = Favg x t
Let a force F act on a body of mass 'm' for a short interval of time't'.
Then impulse of the force = F t. =mat=mt(v−u)/t=m(v−u). Therefore impulse of force is equal to the change in
momentum.
6. Angle of friction: It is the angle which the resultant of the limiting friction and the normal reaction makes with the
normal reaction. Angle of repose: It is the minimum angle that an inclined plane makes with the horizontal when a
body placed on it just begin to slide down

7.
Divide equation 2 by 1 we get
v2/r g =tan 𝜃
8. Differentiating with respect to time ,dy/dt=v=gt+u
Again diff. dv/dt=g so acceleration = g
Hence F=mg
10. a= 10/(2+3+5) =1m/s2
By newton second law
2a=10-T1
T1=8 N

10N 2kg T1

5 Marks questions :
1.

a. when the lift is moving upward acceleration- Apparent weight = Initial weight + Reaction force
= mg + ma=m(g+a)
b. moving downward with uniform acceleration :Apparent weight = Initial weight - Reaction force
= mg – ma=m(g-a)
c. falls freely - zero.
2. The static friction is a friction that acts on a body at rest. Limiting friction is the maximum value of static friction.
It is the force that is required for the body to just start moving. Kinetic friction is the frictional force that action a

body which is in motion.

Friction is changing as per the applied force.
3. friction force, f=μR=μ m g cosθ ,μ is the coefficient of the friction.
Net force in forward direction, F=mg sinθ−μ mg cosθ
Let the distance travelled by the body is ,S.work done, W=F.S
W=(mg sinθ−μ mg cosθ).S

4.Raising the outer edge w.r. t to inner edge is banking .

5. a) Because the horse has to work against the maximum value of static friction that comes into play when a body is
just at the verge of sliding over the surface of another body, the horse has to pull the cart harder during the initial few
steps of his motion
b) According to the law of inertia, a particle tends to stay at rest or in uniform motion unless pushed upon by an
external force. When you hit the blanket, it moves, but the dust particles remain at their original position and the dust
is eventually separated
c) The object with a smaller mass will move faster (mv=constant so, v α 1/m)
WORK ENERGY AND POWER (FLOW CHART AND MASTER CARD)
Gist of the Lesson
Introduction:
Work is said to be done when a force applied on the body displaces the body through a certain
distance in the direction of force.
Work Done by a Constant Force:
Let a constant force F be applied on the body such that it makes an angle θ with the horizontal and
body is displaced through a distance s.
Then work done by the force in displacing the body through a distance s is given by:
W = (F cos θ) s = Fs cos θ ⇒ W = (F cos θ) s = Fs cos θ
𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ . 𝑠⃗
Nature of Work Done:
Positive work:
Positive work means that force (or its component) is parallel to
displacement.
Angle between force and displacement (ө): (0º ≤ θ < 90º).

Negative Work:
Negative work means that force (or its component) is opposite to
displacement.
Angle between force and displacement (ө): (90º < θ ≤ 180º).

Zero Work:
Zero work means that force is perpendicular to displacement.
Angle between force and displacement ө= 90º.
Work Done by a Variable Force:
When the magnitude and direction of a force varies with
position, the work done by such a force for an infinite small
displacement is given by:

𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ . ⃗𝑑⃗⃗⃗𝑠⃗

The total work done in going from initial position A to B

B xf
W=⌠F.dx = ⌠ Fdx
A xi
Relation between Different Units:
1 joule = 107 erg, 1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 joule
1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 joule, 1 calorie = 4.18 joule
 Kinetic Energy: The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called kinetic
energy. Let m = mass of the body, v = velocity of the body then K.E. = ½ mv2

Work-Energy Theorem: It states that the work done by force acting on a body is equal to the
1 1
change produced in the kinetic energy of the body. 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑣2 − 𝑚𝑢2
2 2

Relation of Kinetic Energy (E) with Linear Momentum (p):

𝒑𝟐
𝑬= , 𝒑 = √𝟐 𝒎 𝑬.
𝟐𝒎
Various graphs of Kinetic Energy:

Relation between Different Units:

1 joule = 107 erg, 1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 joule
1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 joule, 1 calorie = 4.18 joule

Kinetic Energy: The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called kinetic
energy. Let m = mass of the body, v = velocity of the body then K.E. = ½ mv2

Work-Energy Theorem: It states that the work done by force acting on a body is equal to the
1 1
change produced in the kinetic energy of the body. 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑣2 − 𝑚𝑢2
2 2

Relation of Kinetic Energy (E) with Linear Momentum (p):

𝒑𝟐
𝑬= , 𝒑 = √𝟐 𝒎 𝑬.
𝟐𝒎
Various graphs of Kinetic Energy:
Potential Energy: Potential energy is defined only for conservative forces.
In the space occupied by conservative forces, every point is associated with certain energy which
is called the energy of position or potential energy.
Elastic Potential Energy:
Restoring force and spring constant: When a spring is stretched or compressed from its
normal position (x = 0) by a small distance x, a

restoring force is produced in the spring to bring it to

the normal position.
According to Hooke’s law, this restoring force is
proportional to the displacement x and its direction is
always opposite to the displacement. F ᾳ x ,F=Kx

Elastic potential Energy :E=1/2 Kx2

 𝟏 𝟏 𝑭𝟐
𝑼= 𝒌𝒙𝟐 = 𝑭. 𝒙 =
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐𝒌

If spring is stretched from initial position xi to final position xf then work done is equal to increase
𝟏
in elastic potential energy. 𝑾 = ∆𝑼 = 𝒌(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐).
𝟐 𝒇 𝒊

Power: The rate of doing work is called power.

Average Power: 𝑃 𝑑𝑊 𝑊
= = .
𝑎𝑣 𝑑𝑡 𝑡

Instantaneous Power (𝑷 ⃗𝑭⃗⃗⃗. ⃗𝒗⃗

𝒅𝑾 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ . 𝒅
𝑭 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝒔⃗
)= = =

𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒕. 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

Power is equal to the scalar product of force and velocity.

Dimensions of Power: [P] = [ML2T-3].
SI unit of Power: watt (W) or joule/second (J/s).
Other units of Power are kilowatt (kW), Mega watt (MW), horse power (hp).
1 kW = 103 W, 1 MW = 106 W, 1 hp = 746 W, 1 watt = 1 joule/second = 107 erg/s

Law of Conservation of Energy: For an isolated system or body in presence of conservative

forces, the sum of kinetic and potential energies at any point remains constant throughout the motion.
It does not depend upon time. This is known as the law of conservation of mechanical energy.

Law of Conservation of Total Energy:

If the forces are conservative and non-conservative both, it is not the mechanical energy alone which
is conserved, but it is the total energy, may be heat, light, sound or mechanical etc., which is
conserved.

Collision:
Collision is an isolated event in which a strong force
acts between two or more bodies for a short time as a
result of which the energy and momentum of the
interacting particle change.
In collision particles may or may not come in real touch.

Types of Collision:
Perfectly Elastic Collision:
If in a collision, kinetic energy after collision is equal to kinetic energy before collision, the
collision is said to be perfectly elastic collision.
The coefficient of restitution e = 1
Inelastic collision:
If in a collision kinetic energy after collision is not equal to kinetic energy before collision, the
collision is said to be inelastic.
The coefficient of restitution 0 < e < 1
Perfectly inelastic Collision:
If in a collision two bodies stick together or move with same velocity after the collision, the
collision is said to be perfectly inelastic.
The coefficient of restitution e = 0
*Linear momentum is conserved both in elastic and inelastic collision.
Perfectly Elastic Head on Collision:
Let two bodies of masses m1 and m2 moving initial velocities u1 and u2 in the same direction they
collide such that after collision their final velocities are v1 and v2 respectively.
According to law of conservation of momentum and kinetic energy:
𝑚1𝑢1 + 𝑚2𝑢2 = 𝑚1𝑣1 + 𝑚2𝑣2
½ m1u12+1/2 m2u22=1/2 m1v1 2=1/2m2v2 2
Velocity of approach = Velocity of Separation, u1 – u2 = v2 – v1
Coefficient of Restitution: The ratio of magnitude of their relative velocity after collision to
|𝒗𝟏−𝒗𝟐|
magnitude of their relative velocity before collision. 𝒆 =
|𝒖𝟏−𝒖𝟐|

For perfectly elastic collision: e = 1

For perfectly inelastic collision: e = 0
For other inelastic collisions: 𝟎 < 𝑒 < 1
𝒗
For a ball rebounding from a floor, 𝒆 =
𝒖

Motion in Vertical Circle: This is an example of non-uniform

circular motion.

In this motion, body is under the influence of gravity of earth.

Velocity at any point on vertical loop: If u is the initial velocity
imparted to body at lowest point then, velocity of the body at
height h is given by:

𝑣 = √𝑢2 − 2𝑔ℎ = √𝑢2 − 2𝑔𝑙 (1 − cos 𝜃)

Tension at any point P on the Vertical Loop:
𝑚𝑣2
𝑇 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 +
𝑙

Velocity at the Lowest Point A Condition

𝑢𝐴 > √5 𝑔𝑙 Tension in string will not be 0 at any point & body
will continue in circular motion

𝑢𝐴 = √5 𝑔𝑙 Tension at Highest point C will be 0 & body will just

complete the circle.

√2𝑔𝑙 < 𝑢𝐴 < √5𝑔𝑙 Body will not follow circular motion. Tension in
string become 0 some where between B & C. Velocity
remain positive. Body will follow parabolic path.

𝑢𝐴 = √2𝑔𝑙 Velocity & Tension become 0 at B and Body will

oscillate in semi-circular path.

𝑢𝐴 < √2𝑔𝑙 Velocity become 0 between A & B but Tension will

not be 0. Body will oscillate about point A.
 OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTION
[01 MARK EACH]
1 If W1, W2 and W3 represent the work done in moving a particle from X to Y along three
different paths 1, 2 and 3 respectively in the gravitational field of a mass M, then :

(a) W1, = W2 = W3
(b) W1 < W2 < W3
(c) W1 > W2 > W3
(d) W2 > W3 > W1
ANS – (a)
2 An object of mass 4 kg is dropped from a height 20 m. It reaches the ground with speed
16 m/s. Work done by the body is -
(a) 288 J
(b) – 288 J
(c) 312 J
(d) – 312 J
ANS – (b)
3 A particle of mass 1 kg is moving along a straight line. Its velocity-time graph is as
shown in Fig. Work done by the resultant of all forces acting on the particle from t = 0
to t = 8 s is:

(a) 25 J
 (b) 50 J
(c) Zero
(d) 12.5 J
ANS – (c)
4 Two masses, each 5 kg, are attached to the two ends of a spring of spring constant 40
N/m. The masses are pulled away from each other and the spring gets stretched by a
length 20 cm. Work done by the spring on each mass is:
(a) – 0.4 J
(b) – 0.8 J
(c) – 0.6 J
(d) 0.8 J
ANS – (a)
5 A bullet when fired at a target has its velocity decreased to 50% after penetrating 30
cm into it. Additional thickness it will penetrate in cm before coming to rest is:
(a) 10 cm
(b) 30 cm
(c) 40 cm
(d) 60 cm
ANS – (a)
6 A body of mass m is in vertical motion under the influence of gravity then
(a) Work will be negative and kinetic energy increase during fall
(b) Kinetic energy decreases when body is projected up and work will be
negative
(c) Kinetic energy increases when body is projected up and work will be
positive
(d) Work will be positive and kinetic energy decreases during fall.
ANS – (a)
7 An object of mass m is tied to a string of length L and a variable horizontal force is
applied on it which starts at zero and gradually increases until the string makes an
angle q with the vertical. Work done by the force F is
(a) mgL (1–sin q)
(b) mgL
(c) mgL (1+ sin q)
(d) None of these.
ANS – (c)
8 A body is attached to the lower end of a vertical spiral spring and it is gradually lowered
to its equilibrium position. This stretches the spring by a length d. if the same body
attached to the same spring is allowed to fall suddenly, what would be the maximum
stretching in this case?
(a) d
(b) 2d
(c) 3d
(d) 1/2 d
ANS – (b)
9
A particle of mass 0.01 kg travels with velocity given by After sometime,

its velocity becomes The work done on particle during this interval of time
is:
(a) 0.32 J
(b) 6.9 J
(c) 9.6 J
(d) 0.96 j
ANS – (d)
10 A heavy weight is suspended from a spring. A person raises the weight till the spring
length becomes its natural length. The work done by him is W. the energy stored in the
stretched spring was E. what will be the gain in gravitational potential energy?
(a) W
(b) E
(c) W+E
(d) W – E
ANS – (c)
11 Two springs have force constant kA and kB such that kB = 2kA. The four ends of the
springs are stretched by the same force. If energy stored in spring B is:
(a) E/2
(b) 2E
(c) E
(d) Zero
ANS – (a)
12 The net work done by the tension in the figure when the bigger block of mass M touches
the ground is:

(a) +Mgd
(b) –(M + m) gd
(c) –mgd
(d) Zero
ANS – (d)
13 An object of mass 5 kg is acted upon by a force that varies with position of the object
as shown. If the object starts out from rest at a point x = 0. What is its speed at x = 50
m?

(a) 12.2 ms–1

(b) 18.2 ms–1
(c) 16.4 ms–1
(d) 20.4 ms–1
ANS – (a)
14 A uniform chain of mass M and length L is lying on a smooth table and a part of it is
hanging from the table. The work required to pull the hanging part of the chain on to

the table is . Find the part of the chain in terms of its length which is hanging from
the table:
 (a) L/3
(b) L / 4
(c) L/6
(d) L / 2
ANS – (b)
15 The work done by the push of air on an object of mass 10 kg falling from rest through
a vertical distance of 10 m is 500 J. Find the velocity of the object at the end of 10 m
fall: (g = 10 m/s2)
(a) 20 m/s
(b) 12 m/s
(c) 5 m/s
(d) 10 m/s
ANS – (d)
16 The relationship between the force F and position x of a body is as shown in figure. The
work done in displacing the body from x = 1 to x = 5m will be:

(a) 30 J
(b) 15 J
(c) 25 J
(d) 20 J
ANS – (b)
17 A block is pulled by a constant horizontal force on a smooth surface. Work done on the
block as a function of speed acquired by the block can be described by:

(a)
 (b)

(c)

(d)
ANS – (d)
18 Force acting on a particle moving along a straight line varies with the speed of the

particle as . If the motion of particle starts from rest at t = 0, work done in time
‘t’ depends on t as:
(a) t2/3
(b) t0
(c) t5/3
(d) t–1/3
ANS – (a)
19 An object of mass 2 kg is placed at rest on a frictionless horizontal surface. A horizontal

force given by N acts on it along X-axis. Kinetic energy of the object

will be maximum at:
(a) x=3m
(b) x = – 3 m
(c) x = + 1.8 m
(d) x = – 1.8 m
ANS – (b)
20 An engine pumps water continuously through a hose. Water leaves the hose with a
velocity v and m is the mass per unit length of the water jet. What is the rate at which
kinetic energy is imparted to water:

(a)
(b)
(c) mv3
 (d)
ANS – (b)
21 Consider two observes moving with respect to each other at a speed v along a straight
line. They observe a block of mass m moving a distance l on a rough surface. The
following quantities will be same as observed by the two observes.
(a) Kinetic energy of the block at time t.
(b) Work done by friction.
(c) Total work done on the block
(d) Acceleration of the block.
ANS – (d)
22 A particle of mass 0.4 Kg is moving in one dimension under a force that delivers a
constant power ‘1W’ to the particle. If the initial speed (in m/s) of the particle is zero,
the speed in (m/s) after 5 sec is
(a) 2
(b) 3
(c) 5
(d) 1
ANS – (c)
23 A person of mass 75 kg carries a block of mass 15 kg from ground to the top of a tower
10 m high in 150 sec. The person exerts a constant power throughout this duration and
his power – time graph is a shown in Fig. If the person carries the same objects in a
time 300 sec instead of 150 sec by exerting a constant power, the correct power time
graph will be:

(a)
 (b)

(c)
(d) none of these
ANS – (a)
24 A motorcycle of mass m resting on a frictionless road moves under the influence of a
constant force F. The work done by this force in moving the motorcycle is given by
F2t2/2m, where t is the time in seconds.

Ratio of instantaneous power to average power of the motorcycle in t = T second is

(a) 1:1
(b) 2:1
(c) 3:2
(d) 1:2
ANS – (b)
25 It requires twenty turns of the stem of a watch to win the main spring and this stores
sufficient energy to keep the watch running for 30.0 hour. If ten turns are given to the
stem, it will run for:
(a) 20 hr
(b) 15 hr
(c) 7.5 hr
(d) 3.75 hr
ANS – (c)
26 The graph in Fig. represents the relation between displacement x and force F. The work
done in displacing an object from x = 8 m to x = 16 m is approximately:
 (a) 30 J
(b) 40 J
(c) 8 J
(d) 16 J

ANS – (a)
27 A ball of mass m is suspended on a weightless elastic thread whose stiffness factor is k.
The ball is lifted so that the thread is not stretched and let fall with zero initial velocity.
The maximum stretch of the thread in the process of ball’s motion is:
(a) mg/k
(b) 2 mg/k
(c) mg / 2k
(d) mg / 4k
ANS – (a)
28 A ball whose kinetic energy is E, is projected at an angle of 45º to the horizontal. The
kinetic energy of the ball at the highest point of its flight will be:
(a) E
𝐸
(b)
√2

(c) E/2
(d) zero
ANS – (c)
29 A mass M is lowered with the help of a string by a distance h at a constant acceleration
g/2. The work done by the string will be
(a)
 (b)

(c)

(d)

3Mgh

ANS – (b)
30 A bullet fired from a gun with a velocity of 104 ms–1 goes through a bag full of straw.
If the bullet loses half of its kinetic energy in the bag, its velocity when it comes out of
the bag will be
(a) 7071.06 ms–1
(b) 707 ms–1
(c) 70.71 ms–1
(d) 707.06 ms–1
ANS – (b)

VSA (1MARK)
A truck and car are moving with the same K.E. and are brought to rest by the application of
Q1.
brakes that provide equal retarding force. Which one will come to rest in a shorter
distance? Justify your answer.
Answer:
Both of them come to rest at the same distance as
K.E. = F.S1 = F.S2
or
FS1 cos 180 = F.S2 cos 180
or
S1 = S2.
In which motion, momentum changes but not the K.E.?
Q2.
Answer:
In uniform circular motion.
When is the exchange of energy maximum during an elastic collision?
Q3.
Answer:
 When two colliding bodies are of the same mass, there will be a maximum exchange of
energy.
Q4. Out of a pair of identical springs of force constants, 240Nm-1 one is compressed by 10 cm
and the other is stretched by 10 cm. What is the difference in the potential energies stored
in the two springs?
Answer:
The difference in potential energies is zero. This is because
Ep = 12 kx2. In both cases, k and X2 are the same.

Q5. What is the work done on a body in moving it in a circular path with a constant speed?
Why?
Answer:
Zero, because it is acted upon by centripetal force in a direction perpendicular to its
motion.
i.e. W = FS cos 90° = 0.
Q6.
Which physical quantity is conserved during both the elastic and inelastic collision?
Answer:
Q7. Linear momentum is conserved in both collisions.
A spring is cut into two equal halves. How is the spring constant of each half affected?
Answer:
The Spring constant of each half becomes twice the spring constant of the original spring.

Can a body have energy without momentum?

Answer:
Q8. Yes, everybody has some internal energy due to the thermal agitation of the particles of the
body. But the vector sum of linear momenta of the moving particles may be zero. It may
have energy due to its position (P.E.) and thus momentum is zero

Does the work done in raising a load to a platform depend upon how fast it is raised?
Answer:
Q9. The work done is independent of time
When a ball is thrown up, the magnitude of its momentum first decreases and then
increases. Does this violate the conservation of momentum principle?
Q10 Answer:
No. This is because the momentum of the system (ball and air molecules) remains
constant. When the momentum of the ball decreases, the momentum of air molecules in
contact increases and vice-versa.
Will water at the foot of the waterfall be at a different temperature from that at the top? If
yes, explain.
Q11. Answer:
Yes, when water reaches the ground, its gravitational potential energy is converted into
kinetic energy which is further converted into heat energy. This raises the temperature of
the water. So water at the foot of the waterfall is at a higher temperature as compared to the
temperature of water at the top of the water fall.
What is work done by centripetal force? Explain.

Q12.
 Ans : The work done by the centripetal force is zero because at each point of motion the
force is always perpendicular to displacement.

Q13. A cake of mud is thrown on a wall where it sticks. What happens to its initial kinetic
energy?

Ans:- The kinetic energy converts into heat and sound energy
Q14. Is it possible to exert a force which does a work with out changing its kinetic energy? If
so, give an example.
Ans : yes it is possible in uniform circular motion

Q15. Is it possible to have a collision in which all the kinetic energy is lost? If so give an example.
Ans- Yes it is possible in perfectly inelastic collision. Example : when a moving ball collides
with wet clay.
Q16. By using simple mechanical devices such as a lever, wedge, inclined plane, pulley, wheel,
etc. we can do work even by applying small force. What makes it possible to do so?
Ans. Such mechanical devices multiply forces
Q17.
What is the work done by Earth’s gravitational force in keeping the moon in its orbit in a
Q18. complete-revolution?
Ans: Zero, because gravitational force is a conservative force.
The force between two a pair of proton is repulsive. Does the potential energy increases
or decreases as the two protons are brought closer?
Ans : The potential energy of the protons will increase because work will have to be done
against the force of repulsion.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTION(SA)

[02 MARK EACH]

1. Find the work done in moving a particle along a vector S=4i-j+7k. If the applied force is F=
i+2j –k Newton. S is in meter.
Ans- W = F.s = (i+2j –k).( 4i-j+7k) = -5J

2. Distinguish between conservative and non-conservative forces with one example each.

3. A football kicked by a player leaves the ground and after traveling in the air reaches the
ground and comes to stop at some other position on the ground. Identify the energy
 transformation in this process. Is the energy of the ball conserved?
Answer:
The kinetic energy imparted to the ball is converted into potential energy at the highest point
and a small part remains kinetic. Then it is converted into kinetic energy when it hits the
ground. This energy is used up in overcoming the friction against air and the ground. Due to
the dissipation of energy in overcoming friction against air and ground, the kinetic energy of
the ball is not conserved.
4. In a circus ,the diameter of globe of death is 30m. From what minimum height must a cyclist
start in order to roll down the inclined and go round the globe successfully?
Ans. Velocity acquired after roll down incline=√2gh
For looping minimum velocity at lowest point=√5gr
√5gr=√2gh.h=5r/2=5x15/2=37.5m

5. To bodies of mass m1 and m2 have the same linear momentum. What is the ratio of their
kinetic energies.
Ans. K E = p2/2m , therefore on solving K1/K2=m2/m1
6. A truck and a car are moving with the same kinetic energy on the straight road. Their engines
are simultaneously switched off. Which one will stop at lesser distance?
Ans. Truck has more mass so its velocity is less,
By using third equation of motion v2 = u2 – 2as it can be shown that Truck will stop at lesser
distance.
7. A particle is moving in a circular path of a given radius with the number of rotations per
second (i) increasing, (iii) decreasing. What happens to work done in the two cases ?
Ans. (a) When speed increases, K.E. increases, work is done by the force.
(b) When speed decreases, K.E. decreases, work is done by the body.
8. State carefully if the following quantities are positive or negative?
(i) Work done by a man lifting a bucket out of a well by means of a rope tied to the bucket.
(ii) Work done by the gravitational force in this case.
(iii) Work done by a friction on a body sliding down an inclined plane.
(iv) Work done by an applied force on a body moving on a rough horizontal plane with
uniform velocity.
Ans. (i) positive (ii) negative (iii) negative (iv) positive
9. A body of mass 4 kg initially at rest is subject to a force 16 N. What is the kinetic energy
required by the body at the end of 10 s?
 Solution : Acceleration a=F/m=16/4=4 m/s2.
V=u+at=0+4x10=40 m/s
The kinetic energy required by the body,
K=1/2mv2=1/2x4x40x40=3200 J
10 A light body and a heavy body have the same momentum . Which one will have greater
kinetic energy? Justify.
Ans: Using formula KE = p2/2m it can be shown that lighter body has greater kinetic energy.

11. Kinetic energy of a particle is increased by 300℅. Find the percentage increase in
momentum.

Solution : KE =p2/2m, K1=K, K2=K+300%of K, K2=4K ,P2=√p*4=2P and % increase in

momentum( 2P-P)/p*100 = 100%.

12 A body falls towards earth in air. Will its total mechanical energy be conserved during the
fall? Justify
Ans. Its total mechanical energy will not be conserved because due to presence of air friction
will act on it and some energy will be lost in the form of heat.
13 A mass of 5 kg is moving along a circular path of radius 1m. if the mass moves with 300
revolution per minute, the what is its kinetic energy?
Solution : υ = 300 rev per min = 5 rev/s.
ω = 2π x 5 rad/s
v = ωr =2π x 5 x 1 =10π m/s.

K E = ½ mv2 = ½ x 5 x (10π)2 = 250 π2 = 2464.9J

14. State and Prove Work- Energy Theorem.

Ans:W=Change in kinetic energy
V2-U2=2as
v2-u2=2F/m.S
W=1/2mv 2-1/2mu 2

15. A ball whose kinetic energy is E, is projected at an angle of 450 to the horizontal. What will
be the kinetic energy of the ball at the highest point of its flight?
Ans. At highest point velocity = horizontal component of velocity of projection
 V=u cos 450=u/√2, K.E of the ball at highest point=1/2*1/2mu2 =1/2 (E))

[03 MARKS ]QUESTIONS

1 Name the physical quantity which is expressed as force times velocity. Is it a scalar or
vector quantity ?A body is initially at rest. It undergoes one-dimensional motion with
constant acceleration. Determine the power delivered to it at time t .
Answer: (i):Power ,Scalar quantity
(ii) From v = u + at
v = 0 + at = at
As power, p = F . v
.’. p = (ma) x at = ma2t
Since m and a are constants, therefore, p α t.

2 What is elastic collision? Show that in case of one dimensional elastic collisions of two
bodies ,the relative velocity of separation after the collision is equal to relative velocity of
approach.
Hint: 1.linear momentum is conserved: m1(u1-v1)=m2(u2-v2)….(1)
2.K.E. energy remains conserved: m1(u1+v1)(u1-v1)=m2(v2+u2)(v2-u2)…..(2)
Divide (2) by(1),u1+v1=v2+u2, u1-u2=v2-v1
3 A body of mass 1 kg initially at rest is moved by a horizontal force of 0.5 N on a smooth
frictionless table. Calculate the work done by the force in 10 sec. and show that it is equal to
the change in the kinetic energy of the body.
Solution : a = F/m =0.5/1 =0.5ms-2
S = ut +1/2 at2
S = 0 + ½ x 0.5 x 10 x 10 = 25m
Therefore W = Fs =0.5 x 25 =12.5J

4 What percentage of K.E. of a moving particle is transferred to the stationary particle of

(a) 9 times it’s mass
b):equal,mass
Answer(a)
 b):

5 A bullet of mass 0.01 kg is fired horizontally into a 4 kg wooden block at rest on a

horizontal surface. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and the surface is
0.25. The bullet remains embedded in the block and the combination moves 20 m before
coming to rest. With what speed did the bullet strike the block?
Answer:
F = μR = 0.25 × 4 × 9.8 = 9.8 N ,v = 0 ,u = ?
loss in KE. = work done by the force of friction against the block.

6 Three particles each of mass m are placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle of side d.
Calculate the work done on this system if the side of the triangle is changed from d to 2d.
Ans : on increasing the sides of the triangle the displacement of every particle is increased
by a displacement of ‘d’. therefor total work done is md + md +md = 3md.

7 Calculate the work done and power of an engine that can maintain a speed of 50 ms-1 for a
train of mass 3 × 106 kg on a rough level track for 5 km. The coefficient of friction is 0.05
and,g=10m/s2

8 A body of mass 0.5 kg travels in a straight line with velocity v = ax3/2 where a = 5m-1/2s-
1. What is the work done during its displacement from x = 0 to x = 2 m.
Solution: : given : v = ax3/2 , acceleration = dv/dt =3/2ax1/2dx/dt
Acceleration = 3/2ax1/2v = 3/2ax1/2(ax3/2) = 3/2 a2x2
 Force = mass x acceleration
W = ʃF.dx = ʃ 0.5 3/2 a2x2dx = 1.5/2 a2x3/3
=0.25 x 5 x 5 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 50J

9 Two springs A and B are identical but A is harder than B (KA > KB ). On which spring more
work will be done if : (a) they are stretched the same distance, (b) they are stretched by same
force?
Solution : (a) xA = xB , W = ½ kx2
WA : WB = KAxA2 / KBxB2 = KA : KB
WA > WB
(b) W = Fx
WA/WB =xA/xB, but xA<xB
Therefore WA<WB

10 The displacement x of a particle of mass m, moving in one dimension under the action of a
constant force is related to the time by the equation t = √ x+ 3.
where x is in meters and t is in seconds.
Find (i) the displacement of the particle when its velocity is zero and
(ii) work done by the force in the first six seconds.
Ans:

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTION

[05 MARKS EACH]
1 Define elastic collision in one dimension. Obtain expressions for velocities of the two
bodies after such a collision.
Ans: Elastic collision is a collision where the both kinetic energy and Linear Momentum is
conserved
Coefficient of restitution for the Elastic collision is 1

Collision between these two particles is head on elastic collision. From law of conservation
of momentum we have
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 (1)
 and from law of conservation of kinetic energy for elastic collision we have

(2)
rearranging equation 1 and 2 we get
m1(u1-v1)= m2(v2-u2) (3)
and

dividing equation 4 by 3 we get

u1 + v1 = u2 + v2
u2 - u1 = -(v2 - v1) (5)
where (u2 - u1) is the Relative Velocity of second particle w.r.t. first particle before
collision and (v2 - v1) is the relative velocity of second particle w.r.t. first after collision.
From equation 5 we come to know that in a perfectly elastic collision the magnitude of
relative velocity remain unchanged but its direction is reversed. With the help of above
equations we can find the values of v2 and v1 , so from equation 5
v1 = v2 - u1 + u2 (6)
v2 = v1 + u1 - u2 (7)
Now putting the value of v1 from equation 6 in equation 3 we get
m1(u1 - v2 + u1 - u2) = m2(v2 - u2)
On solving the above equation we get value of v2 as

Similarly putting the value of v2 from equation 7 in equation 3 we get

2 Show that spring force is conservative in nature. Find the expression for total energy stored
in a spring. Draw the graphical variation of kinetic and potential energy in case of a spring.
Ans: To prove that the elastic force is a conservative force let's consider a round trip by a
spring where it moves a particle to a distance dl and back. dl
Wtotal=WA→B+WB→A A B
dl

Wtotal=∫(−kxiˆ)⋅(dxiˆ)+∫(−kxiˆ)⋅(−dxiˆ =0 ,As work is done on the round is zero.

Therefore, which shows elastic force is a conservative force
 Consider an elastic spring that is extended or compressed.

Ifx1 =O,(choosing x1 as origin),thenx2 =x, The work done by an elastic force is stored as
potential energy in the spring and is given by,W = P.E. = 1/2 kx2.

3 Define in elastic collisions and perfectly inelastic collision. Show that in a perfectly inelastic
collision final kinetic energy is always less than initial kinetic energy.
Ans: Inelastic collision is a collision where the kinetic energy is not conserved due to
internal friction
Though the kinetic energy is lost in these collision, but they obey law of conservation
of Linear Momentum
If the bodies or particles stick together and move together after the collision, the it is called
Perfectly inelastic collision
If the bodies or particles does stick together after the collision but there is loss of kinetic
energy, then it is inelastic collision
Coefficient of restitution for the inelastic collision lies as 0<e<1. e is 0 for perfectly
inelastic collision .
Let both the particles stick together after collision and moves with the same
velocity v .Then from law of conservation of linear momentum
m1u1 +m2u2=(m1+m2)v
or

If we consider second particle to be stationary or at rest then u2=0

then
m1u1 =(m1+m2)
or

Hence |v| < |u1|

Kinetic energy before collision is
KE1=(1/2)m1u12
 After collision KE of the system is
KE2=(1/2)(m1+m2)v2

Hence from equation K2 < K1 .

4 A body of mass 2 kg initially at rest moves under the action of an applied horizontal force
of 7 N on a table with coefficient of kinetic friction =0.1. Compute the
(a) work done by the applied force in 10 sec.
(b) work done by friction in 10 sec.
(c) work done by the net force on the body in 10 sec.
(d) change in kinetic energy of the body in 10 sec.
And interpret your result.
Ans : a=F/m=7/2=3.5m/s 2,Frictional force F=µmg=1.96 N so a’=-1.96/2=-0.98m/s2
Total acceleration=3.5+(-0.98)=2.52m/s2, distance travelled by body S=0+1/2at2=126m
(a) Work done by applied force=f.s=7*126=882J
(b) Work done by force of friction=1.96*126=247J
(c) Net force=7+1.96=5.04N Wnet= 5.04*126=635J
(d) Final velocity=u+at=0+2.52*10=25.2m/s ,change in K.E=1/2*2(v2-02)=635J
Work done=Change in K.E

5 (i):A raindrop of 1.0 g falling from a height of 1 km hits the ground with a speed of 50 m/s.
Calculate
(a) the loss of P.E. of the drop.
(b) the gain in the K.E. of the drop.
(c) is the gain in K.E. is equal to loss in K.E.?
If not, why? ( Take g=10m/s2)
Ans: m=1/1000kg,h=1000m,loss in P.E=mgh= 10J
Gain in K.E=1/2mv2 =1/2*1/1000*(50)2 =1.25 J
Both are not equal
 (ii):Which of the following does work: the hammer or the nail, a cricket bat or a ball?
Explain.
Answer:
Hammer does work on nails. The force is applied by a hammer on the nail (object) and
moves it through some distance. A bat does work on the ball and pushes. Initially, the
bowler does work on the ball which in turn exerts impulse on the bat. The bat reacts with
the added force of the batsman and thus, the bat does work on the ball.

Assertion and Reason

Each of these questions contain two statements, Assertion and Reasons

Each of these questions also has four alternative choices, only one of
which is the correct answer. You have to select one of the codes (a), (b),
(c) and (d) given below.
(a) Assertion is correct, reason is correct; reason is a correct explanation
for assertion.
(b) Assertion is correct, reason is correct; reason is not a correct
explanation for assertion
(c) Assertion is correct, reason is incorrect
(d) Assertion is incorrect and reason is also incorrect.

Q1. Assertion : A spring has potential energy, both when it is compressed or stretched.
Reason : In compressing or stretching, work is done on the spring against the restoring force.

Answer (a)

Q2. Assertion : A man rowing a boat upstream is at rest with respect to the bank. He is doing
no external work.
Reason : Work done by constant force, W = F s cosθ.
Answer (a) In this case, s = 0, and so W = 0.

Q3. Assertion : The work done in moving a body over a closed loop is zero for every force
in nature.
Reason : Work done depends on nature of force.

Answer (b) In close loop, s = 0, and so W = Fs = 0.

Q4. Assertion : The change in kinetic energy of a particle is equal to the work done on it by
the net force.
Reason : Change in kinetic energy of particle is equal to work done only in case of a system
of one particle.

Answer (c) Change in kinetic energy = work done by net force. This relationship is valid for
particle as well as system of particles.
Q5. Assertion: Kinetic energy of a system can be increased or decreased without applying
any external force on the system.
Reason: This is because K.E. =mV2/2, so it independent of any external forces.

Answer (c) K.E. can be increased or decreased without applying any external force, as
internal forces can do work e.g., explosion of a bomb.
Q6. Assertion: Kinetic energy of a body is quadrupled, when its velocity is doubled.
Reason : Kinetic energy is proportional to square of velocity. If velocity is doubled the K.E.
will be quadrupled

Answer: (a)

Q7.Assertion: If momentum of a body increases by 50% its kinetic energy will increase
by 125%.
Reason: Kinetic energy is proportional to square of velocity.
Ans (a)

Q8. Assertion: The kinetic energy of the body of mass 2 kg and momentum of 2 Ns is1 J.
Reason: The kinetic energy of a body in relation to its linear momentum is given
by: 𝑃2 /2m
Ans. (a) .
Q9.Assertion: A particle strikes head on with another stationary particle such that the
first particle comes to rest after collision. The collision should necessarily be elastic.
Reason: In elastic collision, there is a loss of momentum of the system of particles.
Ans.(d)

Q10.Assertion: A quick collision between two bodies is more violent than a slow
collision even when the initial and final velocities are identical.
Reason: The rate of change of momentum is greater in the first case.

Q11.Assertion: Kinetic energy is conserved at every instant of elastic collision.

Reason: No deformation of matter occurs in elastic collision.
Ans (a)

CASE BASED STUDY QUESTIONS (4 Marks), (1+1+2)

Q1.Potential energy is defined only for conservative forces. In the space occupied by
conservative forces every point is associated with certain energy which is called the
energy of position or potential energy When a spring is stretched or compressed from
its normal position (x= 0) by a small distance x, a restoring force is produced in spring
to bring it to the normal position. According to Hooke’s law this restoring force is
proportional to the displacement x and its direction is always opposite to displacement.
Then potential energy of spring is given by: U = 1/2 kx2. If spring is stretched from
initial position x1 to final position x2 then work done = Increment in elastic potential
energy = ½ k (x22- x12)
Questions:
(i) If two particles are brought near one another, what will be the effect on the potential
energy of the system ?
Ans: Increase
(ii) If stretch in a spring of force constant k is doubled then determine the ratio of
elastic potential energy inthe two cases .
Ans: 4:1 (Since E1=1/2 Kx 2, E2= ½ K(2x)2
(iii):A spring of force constant 800N/m has an extension of 5cm. The work done in
extending itfrom 5cm to 15 cm is:
Ans:8J
OR
(Iii):When a spring is stretched by 2cm, it stores 100 J of energy. If it is stretched
further by 2cm,the stored energy will be increased by:

Ans: 300J

Q2. In all collisions, total linear momentum is conserved, while the total KE of the
system is not necessarily conserved. If there is no loss of KE during a collision it is
called an elastic collision. The collision between atoms and sub atomic particles are
 truly elastic. If there is a loss of KE during a collision it is called inelastic collision.
During collision, a part of kinetic energy may convert into heat and sound. When two
bodies stick together after a collision, the collision is perfectly inelastic.
Questions:
(i) A particle of mass m1 moves with velocity v1, collides with another particle at
rest of equalmass. What will be the velocity of second particle after collision ?
Ans: –v1
(ii) In an inelastic collision, what is conserved?
Ans: linear momentum

(iii) A body moving with a velocity v, breaks up into two equal parts. One of the parts
retraces backwith a velocity v. The velocity of other part is
Ans: 3v in forward direction
OR
(iii).A body of mass m1, collides elastically with another body of mass m2, at rest.
There ismaximum transfer of energy when
Ans: m1 = m2
.
Q3.Work is said to be done when a force applied on the body and the body displaces
through a certain distance in the direction of force Let a constant force F be applied on
the body such that it makes an angle θ with the horizontal and body is displaced through
a distance s. Then work done by the force in displacing the body through a distance s is
given by:

W = (F cos θ) s = Fs cos θ ⇒ W = (F cos θ) s = Fs cos θ or W =

Positive work means that force (or its component) is parallel to displacement 0º ≤ θ <
90º and negative work means that force (or its component) is opposite to displacement

90º < θ ≤ 180º

Questions
(i) A body displaces through a distance of 20m on applying a force of 20 newton
in a direction inclined at 60 degree to the ground. What will be the work done ?
 Ans: 200J
(ii):What will the value of work done by a force, when (a) force (or its component) is parallel to
displacement
(b): force (or its component) is perpendicular to displacement ?
Ans: = (a):Wmax= FS (b) 0

(iii):A body moves through a distance of 10m when a force of 10 N is applied on it. If
he workdone is 25 J, then the angle between the force and direction of motion is
Ans:600
OR
(i) A person holding a bucket by applying a force of 10N. He moves a horizontal
distance of 5m

and then climbs up a distance of 10m. find total work done by the person .
Ans:100J

Q4. In nature we have various types of forces. A force is said to be a conservative force if
work done by (or against) the force for moving an object from one position to another
position depends on these two initial and final) points but is independent of other factors
like the nature of path followed or velocity of object. It is also found that work done on an
object against the conservativeforce present there gets stored up as the potential energy of
the object. When external constraints are removed, the stored potential energy manifests
itself as kinetic energy. lf above mentioned conditions are not fulfilled then force is called
a non-conservative force.

(i):Three girls of same mass climb through a certain height h' following different paths shown
as A, B and C in the figure. In which case is the work done against gravity maximum and in
which case it is minimum?
(ii)Under which condition is the principle of conservation of mechanical energy valid?

(iii):An object is taken from position A to B via a path ACB and then brought back to
position A via another path BDA. If the force involved is a conservative force, then show
that net work done for entire closed path is zero. OR
(iii):What is a non conservative force? Give two examples

Ans4 (i):Work done by all the three girls is exactly the same (w = mgh), because the force
of gravity is a conservative force So work done does not depend on the nature of the path
(ii):The principle of conservation of mechanical energy is valid only when conservative
forces are present in the system.

(iii):Work done to take an object from position A to B via path ACB and path ADB will be
exactly the same if the force involved is a conservative force. WACB = WADB
It is also clear that work done to take the object from position B to position A via path
BDA willbe: WBDA= -WADB. Total work done for entire closed path BDA
W= WACB + WBDA = WADB- WADB = ZERO (OR)
(iii):A force is said to be non-conservative if work done by/against it for moving an object
from one position to another depends on the nature of path followed besides the two
positions. Moreover, work done against a non-conservative force is never stored as
potential energy but is dissipated as heat energy. Friction and viscous force are examples of
non conservative forces.
Q5:Work energy theorem states that – change in kinetic energy of a body is equal to the
work done by the net force. In deriving the theorem, it is assumed that force is effective
only in changing the KE. When the force and displacement are in same direction, KE
increases and work done is positive. When the force and displacement are in opposite
direction, KE decreases and work done is negative. When the body is in uniform circular
motion, KE does not change and work done by centripetal force is zero.

Questions
(i) How much work must be done by a force on 50 kg body in order to accelerate
from rest to 20m/s in 10 sec?
Ans : ½ MV2 =1/2 50x20x20=4x104 J
(ii):A gun of mass M fires a bullet of mass m with maximum speed v.
What will be the KE of the gun ?
Ans: m/M(½ mv2) which is less than½ mv2
(iii):An unloaded car moving with velocity v on a frictionless road can be stopped in a
distance s. If the passengers add 40% to its weight and breaking force remains the same
then the stopping distance will be:
Ans: For unloaded car F.S=1/2mu2…(1) ,For loaded car Fs’=1/2x(140/100) mu2….(2) On
dividing S’=1.4 s OR
(iii):A block of mass 10 kg is moving in x direction with a constant speed of 10 m/s. It is
subjected to a retarding force F = - 0.1 x J/m during its travel from x=20m to x=30m. What
will be the final KE ?
Ans : (K.E=1/2 mv 2 =500J,W=-0.1⌠F.dx=-25J Using work energy theorem
Kf=W+Ki=- 25+500= 475 J
……………………………………………………………………………………
 Chapter–7: System of Particles and Rotational Motion
Centre of mass of a two-particle system,
momentum conservation and Centre of mass motion.
Centre of mass of a rigid body;
Centre of mass of a uniform rod.
Moment of a force,
torque,
angular momentum,
law of conservation of angular momentum and its applications.
Equilibrium of rigid bodies,
rigid body rotation and equations of rotational motion,
comparison of linear and rotational motions.
Moment of inertia, radius of gyration,
values of moments of inertia for simple geometrical objects (no derivation).

Rigid Body
A large class of problems with extended bodies can be solved by considering them to be rigid bodies. Ideally
a rigid body is a body with a perfectly definite and unchanging shape. The distances between all pairs of
particles of such a body do not change.
Centre of Mass
Centre of mass of a system is the point that behaves as whole mass of the system is concentrated at it
and all external forces are acting on it.
For rigid bodies, centre of mass is independent of the state of the body i.e., whether it is in rest or in accelerated
motion centre of mass will remain same.
Centre of Mass of System of n Particles If a system consists of n particles of masses m1, m2, m3 ,…
mn having position vectors rl, r2, r3,… rn. then position vector of centre of mass of
Centre of Mass of Two Particle System

Choosing O as origin of the coordinate axis.

(ii) Position of centre of mass from m2 = (m1d) / m1 + m2

iii) If position vectors of particles of masses m1 and m2 are r1 and r2respectively, then

(iv) If in a two particle system, particles of masses m1 and m2 moving with velocities v1 and v2respectively,
then velocity the centre of mass

(v) If accelerations of the particles are a1, and a1respectively, then acceleration of the centre of mass

(vi) Centre of mass of an isolated system has a constant velocity.

(vii) It means isolated system will remain at rest if it is initially rest or will move with a same velocity if
it is in motion initially.
(viii) The position of centre of mass depends upon the shape, size and distribution of the mass of the
body.
(ix) The centre of mass of an object need not to lie with in the object.
(x) In symmetrical bodies having homogeneous distribution mass the centre of mass coincides with the
geometrical centre the body.
(xi) The position of centre of mass of an object changes translatory motion but remains unchanged in
rotatory motion, Translational Motion
A rigid body performs a pure translational motion, if each particle the body undergoes the same displacement in the
same direction in given interval of time.

Determining the CM of a thin rod

Let us consider a thin rod, whose width and breath (in case the cross section of the rod is rectangular) or radius (in
case the cross section of the rod is cylindrical) is much smaller than its length. Taking the origin to be at the
geometric centre of the rod and x-axis to be along the length of the rod, we can say that on account of reflection
symmetry, for every element dm of the rod at x, there is an element of the same mass dm located at –x .
The net contribution of every such pair to the integral and hence the integral itself is zero. the point for which the
integral itself is zero, is the centre of mass. Thus, the centre of mass of a homogenous thin rod coincides with its
geometric centre. This can be understood on the basis of reflection symmetry. The same symmetry argument will
apply to homogeneous rings, discs, spheres, or even thick rods of circular or rectangular cross section. For all such
bodies you will realise that for every element dm at a point (x, y, z) one can always take an element of the same mass
at the point (–x, –y, –z). (In other words, the origin is a point of reflection symmetry for these bodies.) As a result, the
integrals in all are zero. This means that for all the above bodies, their centre of mass coincides with their
geometric centre.

Rotational Motion
A rigid body performs a pure rotational motion, if each particle of the body moves in a circle, and the centre of all
the circles lie on a straight line called the axes of rotation.

Moment of Inertia
The inertia of rotational motion is called moment of inertia. It is denoted by I.
Moment of inertia is the property of an object by virtue of which it opposes any change in its state of rotation
about an axis.
The moment of inertia of a body about a given axis is equal to the sum of the products of the masses of its
constituent particles and the square of their respective distances from the axis of rotation.

Its unit is kg.m2 and its dimensional formula is [ML2]. The moment

of inertia of a body depends upon

 position of the axis of rotation

 orientation of the axis of rotation
 shape and size of the body
 distribution of mass of the body about the axis of rotation.

The physical significance of the moment of inertia is same in rotational motion as the mass in linear motion.

Radius of Gyration
The root mean square distance of its constituent particles from the axis of rotation is called the radius of gyration
of a body.

It is denoted by K.

The product of the mass of the body (M) and square of its radius gyration (K) gives the same moment of inertia of
the body about rotational axis.

Therefore, moment of inertia I = MK2 ⇒ K = √1/M

Angular Momentum
The moment of linear momentum of a body with respect to any axis of rotation is known as angular momentum.
If is the linear momentum of particle and its position vector from the point of rotation then angular
momentum.

=
Angular momentum is an axial vector i.e., always directed perpendicular tothe plane of rotation and along the
axis of rotation.
(1) S.I. Unit : kgm2 s–1 or J-sec.
(2) Dimension : [ML2T–2] and it is similar to Planck’s constant (h).
(3) Angular momentum = (Linear momentum) × (Perpendicular distance ofline of action of force from the
axis of rotation)
The moment of linear momentum is called angular momentum.
It is denoted by L.
Angular momentum, L = I ω = mvr
In vector form, L = I ω = r x mv
Its unit is ‘joule-second’ and its dimensional formula is [ML2T-1]. Torque, τ =

dL/dt

Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum

If the net external torque on a particle (or system) is zero then =

i.e.,

=
Angular momentum of a system (may be particle or body) remains constantif resultant torque acting on it zero.

As L = I so if = 0 then I = constant

If the external torque acting on a system is zero, then its angular momentum remains conserved.
If τext 0, then L = I(ω) = constant ⇒ I1ω1== I2ω2

Moments of inertia for simple geometrical objects

 Equations of Rotational Motion

(i) ω = ω0 + αt
(ii) θ = ω0t + 1/2 αt2
(iii) ω2 = ωo 2 +0 2αθ
where θ is displacement in rotational motion, ω0 is initial velocity, omega; is final velocity and a is acceleration.
Torque
Torque or moment of a force about the axis of rotation τ = r x F = rF sinθ n
It is a vector quantity.
If the nature of the force is to rotate the object clockwise, then torque is called negative and if rotate the object
anticlockwise, then it is called positive.

Its SI unit is ‘newton-metre’ and its dimension is [ML2T-2].

In rotational motion, torque, τ = Iα

where a is angular acceleration and 1is moment of inertia.

Comparison of Translational and Rotational Motion

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. For which of the following does the centre of mass lie outside the body?
(a) Pencil
(b) A Short put
(c) A dice
(d) A bangle
Ans (d)
2. Two identical particles moves towards each other with velocities 2V and V respectively. The velocity of centre of
mass is
(a) V
(b) V/3
(c) V/2
(d) Zero
Ans (c)
3. Angular momentum of the particle rotating with a central force is constant due to
(a) Constant force
(b) Constant linear momentum
(c) Constant torque
(d) Zero torque
Ans (d)
4. The dimension of angular momentum are
(a) [MLT–2]
(b) [ML2T–1]
(c) [ML2T–2]
(d) [ML2T]
Ans (b)

5. Moment of Inertia of an object does not depend up on

(a) Mass of object
(b) Mass distribution
(c) Angular velocity
(d) Axis of rotation
Ans (c)

6. Two rings of radii R and nR made from the same wire have the ratio of moments of inertia about an axis passing
through their centres equal to 1:8. The value of n is
(a) 2
(b) 2 √2
(c) 4
(d) ½
Ans (a)

7. The moment of inertia of a ring about one of it's diameter is I. What will be the moment of inertia about a tangent
parallel to the diameter?
(a) 4 I
(b) 2 I
(c) 3/2 I
(d) 3 I
Ans (d)

8. A person standing on a rotating disc stretches out his hands, the angular speed will
(a) Increase
(b) Decrease
(c) Remains same
(d) None of the these
Ans (b)
9. Two bodies have their moment of inertia I and 2I respectively about their axis of rotation. If their kinetic energies
of rotation are equal, their angular momentum will be in the ratio
(a) 1 : 2
(b) √2 : 1
(c) 2 : 1
(d) 1 : √2
Ans (d)
10.Three identical balls each of radius 10cm and mass 1kg each are placed touching each other on a horizontal
surface. Where is their C.M. located?
(a) At the centre of one ball. (b) On the horizontal surface.
(c) At the point of contact of any two spheres. (d) None of these.
Ans (b)
11.A body rolls without slipping. The radius of gyration of the body about an axis passing through its centre of mass
is K. If radius of the body be R, then what is the ratio of its rotational K.E. to transitional K.E.?
(a) K2 / R2 (b) K2/ (K2 + R²) (c) R2/(K2 + R²) (d) K² + R2
Ans (a)
12.A body is under the action of two equal and oppositely directed forces and the body is rotating with constant
acceleration. Which of the following cannot be the separation between the lines of action of the forces?
(a) zero (b) 0.25m (c) 0.4m (d) 1.0m
Ans (a)
13. A body of mass M slides down an inclined plane and reaches the bottom with velocity v. If a ring of same mass
rolls down the same inclined plane, what will be its velocity on reaching the bottom?
(a) v2 (b) v/√2 (c) v (d) √2v
Ans (b)
14 .A ring of radius R slides down an inclined plane and reaches the bottom with speed v. If the radius of the ring is
doubled keeping its M.I. constant, the speed at the bottom of the inclined plane will be
(a) v (b) 2v (c) √2v (d) v/√2
Ans (a)
15. A wheel has radius 10cm and is coupled by a belt to another wheel of radius 30cm. The smaller wheel increases
its speed from rest at a uniform rate of π rads-2. The speed of larger wheel become 100 rpm after
(a) 2s (b) 5s (c) 20s (d) 10s
Ans (d)
II. ASSERTION - REASON TYPE QUESTIONS (Type-I)

Directions (1-10) : Each of these questions contain two statements, Assertion

and Reason. Each of these questions also has four alternative choices, only one
of which is the correct answer. You have to select one of the codes (a), (b), (c)
and (d) given below.
(a) Assertion is correct, reason is correct; reason is a correct explanation for
assertion.
(b) Assertion is correct, reason is correct; reason is not a correct explanation for
assertion
(c) Assertion is correct, reason is incorrect
(d) Assertion is incorrect, reason is correct.

1. Assertion : The centre of mass of a body may lie where there is no mass.
Reason : Centre of mass of body is a point, where the whole mass of the body is
supposed to be concentrated.

2. Assertion : The earth is slowing down and as a result the moon is coming nearer
to it.
Reason : The angular momentum of the earth moon system is conserved

3. Assertion : When you lean behind over the hind legs of the chair, the chair falls
back after a certain angle.
Reason : Centre of mass lying outside the system makes the system unstable.

4. Assertion : The centre of mass of system of n particles is the weighted average

of the position vector of the n particles making up the system.
Reason : The position of the centre of mass of a system in independent of
coordinate system.

5. Assertion: Centre of mass of a ring lies at its geometric centre though there is no
mass.
Reason: Centre of mass is independent of mass.
6. Assertion : The centre of mass of an isolated system has a constant velocity.
Reason : If centre of mass of an isolated system is already at rest, it remains at
rest.
7. Assertion : The position of centre of mass of body depend upon shape and size
of the body.
Reason : Centre of mass of a body lies always at the centre of the body
 8. Assertion : If no external force acts on a system of particles, then the centre of
mass will not move in any direction.
Reason : If net external force is zero, then the linear momentum of the system
remains constant
9. Assertion : A particle is moving on a straight line with a uniform velocity, its
angular momentum is always zero.
Reason : The momentum is not zero when particle moves with a uniform
velocity.
10. Assertion : The centre of mass of a two particle system lies on the line joining
the two particle, being closer to the heavier particle.
Reason : Product of mass of particle and its distance from centre of mass is
numerically equal to product of mass of other particle and its distance from centre
of mass.

ANSWERS - ASSERTION AND REASON TYPE

Qn.no 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Answer A D C B B B C D D A

Direction for Q.No. 11 to Q.No. 20 (Type-II)

The following questions from 1 to 12 consists of two statements each,
labelled Assertion (A) and the other labelled Reason (R). While answering
these questions, you are required to choose any of the following from
options (a), (b), (c) & (d).
(a) If both A and R are true & R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) If both A and R are true & R is NOT the correct explanation of A.
(c) If A is true but R is false.
(d) If A is false and R is also false.

11. Assertion (A) : In rolling, all points of a rigid body have the same linear
velocity.
 Reason (R) : The rotational motion does not affect the linear velocity.
12. Assertion (A) : The speed of a whirl wind in tornado is alarmingly high.
Reason (R) : If no external torque acts on a body, its angular velocity
remains constant.
13. Assertion (A) : The velocity of a body at the bottom of an inclined plane
of given height is more when it slides down the plane compared when it
is rolling down the same plane.
Reason (R) : In rolling down, a body acquires both kinetic energy of
translation and rotation.
14. Assertion (A) : Torque is due to the transverse component of force only.
The radical component has no role to play.
Reason (R) : This is because transverse component is not perpendicular
to radial component.
15. Assertion (A) : Power associated with torque is product of torque and
angular speed of the body about the axis of rotation.
Reason (R) : It is rotational analogue of power in translatory motion.
16. Assertion (A) : A wheel moving down a perfectly frictionless inclined
plane shall undergo slipping (not rolling)
Reason (R) : For rolling torque is required, which is provided by tangential
frictional force.
17. Assertion (A) : Torque is a vector whose direction is along the applied
force.
→ →
Reason (R) :   F r

18. Assertion (A) : The centre of mass of a body may lie where there is no
mass.
Reason (R) : The centre of mass has nothing to do with the mass of the
body.
19. Assertion (A) : To unscrew a rusted nut, we need a wrench with longer
arm.
→ →
Reason (R) :   r  F

20. Assertion (A) : Moment of inertia of a body is same, whatever be the axis
of rotations.
Reason (R) : Moment of inertia depends only a distribution of mass.
ASSERTION - REASON BASED ANSWERS
11. (d) both A & R are false. In case of rolling body, all fruits on it have
same angular velocity but different linear speed. Linear speed is
difficult at different places. It is the maximum at highest point and
minimum at lowest point.
12. (c) here assertion is true but reason is false.
Assertion is true as per conservation of angular momentum but when
no external torque acts on the body, they its angular momentum is
constant not angular velocity.
13. (b) both A & R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A. When
a body slides its PE is converted into KE of translation, but when it
rolls down, some part of its PE is converted into its KE of rotation,
thereby reducing the KE of translation and hence its linear velocity.
14. (c) A is true but R false.
15. (a) both A & R are true & R is the correct explanation of A.
In translatory motion P = fV.
In rotatory motion P = Iw.
16. (a) both A & R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
17. (d) both A & R are false.
τ = r ×F so τ is ⊥ r to the force.
18. (c) A is true but R is false.
CM depends upon the distribution of mass.
19. (a) both A & R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
20. (d) both A & R are false.

CASE STUDY QUESTIONS

1. Torque :-
We know that when an external force is applied on a body. It accelerates thebody
and the body has translation motion. Similarly, a body has rotational motion, upon
a force is applied on a body at a certain distance from the axis of rotation of the
body. The product of the applied force & distance ofthe point of application of the
force from the axis of rotation its expressed by a physical quality known as a
'Torque'. Torque is rotational analogue of force. Torque is an axial vector as it
points along the axis of rotation.
 ˆ and r  xˆi  yˆi
(i) The torque about the origin of the force F  mg j
is
→ → →
(a)   mgxî (b)   mgyĵ (c)   mgxk̂ (d)   0

(ii) Which of the following statement is false for torque

→ dl → → → →
(a)   (b)   r f (c)   f  r (d)   I
dt

(iii) Let F be the force acting on a particle having position vector r and
 be the torque of this force about the origin, then
→ → →→ →
(a) r.F  0 and F. 0 (b) r. 0 and F. 0
→→ → →→ →
(c) r.   0 and F.  0 (d) r.  0 and F.  0

(iv) Angular momentum of the particle rotating with a central force is

constant due to
(a) constant force (b) constant linear momentum
(c) constant torque (d) zero torque
(v) When a disc rotates with uniform angular velocity, which of the
following is correct?
(a) The sense of rotation remains the same
(b) The orientation of the axis of the rotation remains the same
(c) The speed of rotation is non-zero & remains the same
(d) The angular acceleration is non-zero & remains the same.

Ans: (i) c (ii) c (iii) d

(iv) d (v) d
2. Moment of inertia:-
A body rotating about a given axis tends to maintain its state of uniform
rotation, unless an external torque is applied on it to change this state. The
property of a body by virtue of which it opposes to change its state of rest or
uniform rotation about an axis is called rotational inertia or moment of inertia.
Moment of inertia is the rotational analogue of man.
(i) The moment of inertia (MI) of a body does not depend upon its
(a) Axis of rotation
(b) different orientation of axis of rotation
(c) Nature of distribution of mass
(d) Angular velocity
(ii) Which physical quantity is represented by the product of MI and angular
acceleration
(a)Centre of mass
(b) Torque
(c) Angular momentum
(d) Linear momentum

(iii) What is rotational analogue of mass of body?

(a) Torque

(b) Centre of mass

(c) Moment of inertia

(d) Power

(iv) The radius of gyration of a solid cylinder about its own axis is

(a) R/2

(b) R/ √2

(c) 2 R

(d) R/ √3
 Ans (i) d
(ii) b
(iii) c
(iv) b

1 mark questions
1. State the principle of moments of rotational equilibrium.
2. Why should we prefer to use a wrench of longer aim?.
3. Can the couple acting on a rigid body produce translator motion ?
4. Which component of linear momentum does not contribute to angular
momentum ?
5. A system is in stable equilibrium. What can we say about its potential
energy ?
6. Is radius of gyration a constant quantity ?
7. Two solid spheres of the same mass are made of metals of different densities.
Which of them has a large moment of inertia about the diameter ?
8. The moment of inertia of two rotating bodies A and B are IA and
IB (IA > IB) and their angular momenta are equal. Which one has a greater
kineticenergy ?
9. A particle moves on a circular path with decreasing speed. What happens to
its angular momentum ?
10. What is the value of instantaneous speed of the point of contact during pure
rolling ?
11. Which physical quantity is conserved when a planet revolves around the sun
?
12. What is the value of torque on the planet due to the gravitational force of
sun ?
13. If no external torque acts on a body, will its angular velocity be constant ?
14. Why there are two propellers in a helicopter ?
15. A child sits stationary at one end of a long trolley moving uniformly with
speed V on a smooth horizontal floor. If the child gets up and runs about on
the trolley in any manner, then what is the effect of the speed of the centre
of mass of the (trolley + child) system ?
Answers
 1.

2. In order to increase the torque

3. No. It can produce only rotatory motion.

4. Radial Component.
5. P.E. is minimum.
6. No, it changes with the position of axis of rotation.
7. Sphere of small density will have large moment of inertia.

8.

9. as i.e., magnitude decreases but direction remains constant.

10.Zero.
11. Angular momentum of planet.
12. Zero.

13. No.

14. Due to conservation of angular momentum.

15. No change in speed of system as no external force is working.

2 mark questions
1. State the factors on which the position of centre of mass of a rigid body
depends.
2. What is the turning effect of force called for ? On what factors does it
depend ?
3. State the factors on which the moment of inertia of a body depends.
4. On what factors does radius of gyration of body depend ?
5. Why the speed of whirl wind in a Tornado is alarmingly high ?
6. Can a body be in equilibrium while in motion? If yes, give an example.
7. There is a stick half of which is wooden and half is of steel. (i) it is pivoted
at the wooden end and a force is applied at the steel end at right angle to its
length (ii) it is pivoted at the steel end and the same force is applied at the
wooden end. In which case is the angular acceleration more and why ?
8. If earth contracts to half of its present radius what would be the length of the
day at equator ?
9. An internal force can not change the state of motion of centre of mass of a
body. How does the internal force of the brakes bring a vehicle to rest ?
10. When does a rigid body said to be in equilibrium ? State the necessary
condition for a body to be in equilibrium.
11. How will you distinguish between a hard boiled egg and a raw egg by spinning
it on a table top ?
12. Equal torques are applied on a cylinder and a sphere. Both have same mass
and radius. Cylinder rotates about its axis and sphere rotates about one of its
diameter. Which will acquire greater speed and why ?
13. In which condition a body lying in gravitational field is in stable
equilibrium ?
14. Give the physical significance of moment of inertia. Explain the need of fly
wheel in Engine.
15. Show that in the absence of any external force, the velocity of the centre of
mass remains constant.

ANSWERS (2 MARKS)

1. (i) Shape of body

(ii) mass distribution
2. Torque
Factors
a. Magnitude of force
b. Perpendicular distance of force vector from axis of rotation.
3. (i) Mass of body
(ii) Size and shape of body
(iii) Mass distribution w.r.t. axis of rotation
(iv) Position and orientation of rotational axis
 4. Mass distribution.
5. In this, air from nearly regions get concentrated in a small space, so I 
considerably. Since I.W = constant so W so high.
6. Yes, if body has no linear and angular acceleration. Hence a body in uniform
straight line motion will be in equilibrium.

7. I (first case) > I (Second case)

  = I
  (first case) <  (second case)

8. I1 =  I2 =

L = I11 = I22

or =

or T =
9. In this case the force which bring the vehicle to rest is friction, and it is an
external force.
10. For translation equilibrium

= 0
For rotational equilibrium

= 0
11. For same external torque, angular acceleration of raw egg will be small than
that of Hard boiled egg.

12.  = I ,  =

 in cylinder, C =

 in sphere, S =

=
 13. When vertical line through centre of gravity passes through the base of the
body.
14. It plays the same role in rotatory motion as the mass does in translatory
motion.
15. F=ma, If F=0 acm= 0 it means v cm= constant, pcm= constant

3 marks questions

1. Using the expression of power and K.E. of rotational motion, derive the
relation τ = lɑ.
2. Define Torque .What is its physical significance?
3. Derive the expression for radius of gyration?
4. Obtain an expression for the work done by a torque. Hence write the
expression for power.
5. Prove that the rate of change of angular momentum of a system of particles
about a reference point is equal to the net torque acting on the system.
6. Show that moment of a couple does not depend on the point about which
moment is calculated.
7. A uniform circular disc of radius R is rolling on a horizontal surface.
Determine the tangential velocity (i) at the upper most point (ii) at the centre
of mass and (iii) at the point of contact.
8. Explain if the ice on the polar caps of the earth melts, how will it affect the
duration of the day ?
9. A solid cylinder rolls down an inclined plane. Its mass is 2 kg and radius
0.1 m. If the height of the include plane is 4 m, what is rotational K.E. when
it reaches the foot of the plane ?
10. Find the torque of a force 7i – 3j– 5k about the origin which acts on a particle
whose position vector is i + j– k.
Solution 10.
 FIVE MARKS QUESTIONS
1. (i) Write the relation between torque and angular acceleration.
Hence define moment of inertia.
(ii) Can a body in translatory motion have angular momentum ? Explain ?
(iii) Write the relation between angular momentum and moment of inertiafor a rigid body.
(iv) Why is it more difficult to revolve a stone by tying it to a longer string
than by tying it to a shorter string ?
(v) A cat is able to land on its feet after a fall. Why ?
2. (i) Name the physical quantity corresponding to inertia in rotational motion. How is it calculated? Give its
units.
(ii)Write expression for kinetic energy of a body.
(iii) State and prove the law of conservation of angular momentum. Give one illustration to explain it.

*****************************************
 UNIT VI: CHAPTER-8 GRAVITATION 12 (PERIODS)
GIST
1-Kepler's laws of planetary motion,
2-Universal law of gravitation.
3-Acceleration due to gravity
4- Variation in acceleration due to gravity with altitude
5-Variation in acceleration due to gravity with depth.
6-Gravitational potential energy
7-Gravitational potential,
8- The orbital velocity of a satellite.
9- Escape velocity
1-Kepler's law of planetary motion
(a) Kepler's first law (law of orbit): Every planet revolves around the sun in an elliptical
orbit with the sun situated at one focus of the ellipse.
(b) Kepler's second law (law of area): The radius vector drawn from the sun to a planet
sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time, i.e., the areal velocity of the planet around
∆𝐀 𝐋
the sun is constant. 𝐯 = ∆𝐭
= 𝟐𝐦
= constant

(c) Kepler's third law (law of period): The square of the time period of revolution of a
planet around the sun is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of the
elliptical orbit of the planet around the sun.
T2 α r3
2-Universal law of Gravitation (Newton's law of gravitation)
Newton's law of gravitation:
It states that the gravitational force of attraction acting between two-point mass bodies of the
universe is directly proportional to the product of their masses and is inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them,

𝑚 𝑚
𝐹𝛼
𝑟
𝑮𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
.𝑭=
𝒓𝟐
.
where G is the universal gravitational constant and in SI unit, G =6.67X10-11Nm2kg-2.
Weight of a body:
It is the gravitational force of attraction exerted on a body by the earth towards its centre
lying on or near the surface of the earth.
The weight of a body (w) = mass of body × acceleration due to gravity(g)
W = mg
The unit of weight of a body is Newton.
3-Acceleration due to gravity (g):
It is an acceleration set up in a body while falling freely under the effect of the gravitational
force of the earth alone.
The acceleration due to gravity (g) is given by
𝑮𝑴
g= 𝑹𝟐

where M and R are the mass and radius of the earth.

The value of g changes with the height, depth, rotation and shape of the earth. The value of g
on the surface of the earth is 9.8 ms-2.
4- Variation in acceleration due to gravity with altitude-
Acceleration due to gravity decreases with altitude. Acceleration due to gravity at a height ‘h’
from the earth’s surface is given by
𝑹𝟐
𝒈𝒉 = (𝑹 𝒉)𝟐
𝒈

and if h˂˂R
𝟐𝒉
𝒈𝒉 = 𝒈 [1- 𝑹
] (Approximate)

5-Variation in acceleration due to gravity with depth.

Acceleration due to gravity decreases with the increase in depth d from the earth’s surface
and it becomes zero at the centre of the earth. Acceleration due to gravity at a depth ‘d’ from
the earth’s surface is given by
𝒅
𝒈𝒅 = 𝒈 [1- 𝑹 ]

6-Gravitational potential energy

The gravitational potential energy of a body, at a point in the gravitational field of the earth,
is defined as the amount of work done in bringing the body from infinity to that point without
acceleration. The gravitational potential energy of a body is given by
𝑮𝑴𝒎
U=
𝒓

Here M is the mass of the earth and m is the mass of the body. r is the distance between the
centre of the body and the centre of the earth.

7-Gravitational potential:
The gravitational potential at a point in a gravitational field is defined as the amount of work
done in bringing a body of unit mass from infinity to that point without acceleration.
Gravitational potential at a point in earth’s gravitational field is given by,
𝑾
V=
𝒎

It is a scalar Quantity and the SI unit is Joule/Kg

The gravitational potential at a point in the earth’s gravitational field--
𝐆𝐌𝐦
𝐖 𝐆𝐌
V= = 𝐫
= -
𝐦 𝐦 𝐫
Here M is the mass of the earth and r is the distance of the point from the centre of the earth.
Gravitational potential energy (U) = gravitational potential × mass of body
8- The orbital velocity of a satellite-
The orbital speed of the satellite is the minimum velocity required tangentially to the circular
orbit to put the satellite into an orbit around earth.
he orbital velocity(𝑽𝑶 ) of a satellite revolving around the earth in circular orbit at a height h
from earth’s surface is given by
√𝐆𝐌
𝐕𝐎 = But GM = 𝐠𝐑𝟐
√𝐑 𝐡

𝐠𝐑𝟐
𝐕𝐎 =
√𝐑 𝐡

√𝐆𝐌
If h˂˂R 𝐕𝐎 = = 𝟐𝐠𝐑
√𝐑

where M and R are the mass and radius of the earth and ‘h’ is height of satellite from earth
surface.
 9-Escape Velocity:
The escape velocity on earth (or any other planet) is defined as the minimum velocity
required to project a body vertically upwards from the surface of earth (or any other planet )
so that it just crosses the gravitational field of earth (or of that planet) and never returns on its
own.
The escape velocity 𝑽𝒆𝒔 on the earth (or any other planet) is

𝟐𝐆𝐌
𝐕𝐞𝐬 = = 𝟐𝐠𝐑
𝐑

On the earth surface, g= 9.8 m/s2 and R = 6.4×106 meters, then value of the escape velocity
from the earth surface will be 11.2kms-1.
Relation between Escape velocity and Orbital velocity
For a point close to the earth’s surface, the escape velocity and orbital speed are related as
𝐕𝐞𝐬 = √𝟐 𝑉

QUESTION BANK

MCQ

Q1. The gravitational force of attraction between two mass m1 and m2 kept at a
distance of r from each other is F. What will be the gravitational force if m1 is
doubled, m2 is halved and the distance between them is made thrice?

a. F
b. F/9
c. 4F/9
d. None of these

Q2. Who among the following first gave the experimental value of G?

a. Cavendish
b. Copernicus
c. Brook Taylor
d. none of these

Q3. The Force of gravitational attraction of earth is the least

a. at the equator
b. at the poles
c. at a point in between equator and any pole
d. None of these.

Q4. Which of the following relation is correct?

a. GM = g R2
b. GM = gR3
c. gM = GR2
d. None of these

Q5. If the average density of Earth is doubled, then the acceleration due to gravity
will become

a. Remain constant
b. Will become doubled
c. Will become four times
d. None of these

Q6. If acceleration due to gravity is g on the surface of the Earth, Then what will be
the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of a planet whose mass is doubled and
radius is halved to that of the earth

a. 8g
b. 4g
c. G
d. None of these

Q7. Acceleration due to gravity

a. Decreases with altitude

b. Increases with altitude
c. Remain constant with altitude
d. None of these

Q8. Acceleration due to gravity

a. Decreases with depth

b. Increases with depth
c. Remain constant with depth
d. None of these
 Q9. If the mass of the Earth is made four-time and the radius is doubled, then the
acceleration due to gravity becomes

a. Double
b. Four times
c. Three times
d. None of these

Q10. At what height from the surface of the Earth, acceleration due to gravity is
reduced by 36% to that of its value from the surface of the Earth? Given that radius of
the Earth is R

a. R/4
b. R
c. R/2
d. None of these

Q11. A body weighs 500 N on the surface of the earth. How much would it weigh
halfway below the surface of the earth?

a. 1000 N
b. 500 N
c. 250 N
d. 125 N

Q12.If the weight of a body is 100N on the surface of the Earth and the radius of the
Earth is 6400 Km, then what will be the weight of the body at the centre of the Earth?

a. 100N
b. 0N
c. 50N
d. None of these

Q13.Point A is just 100m vertically above and point B just 100m vertically downward
from the surface of the earth, then Approximately at which point acceleration due to
gravity will be greater

a. At A
b. At B
c. Equal at A and B
d. None of these

Q14. Which law describes the orbits of planets around the sun?
a. Newton’s law
b. Faraday’s law
c. Kepler’s law
d. Kirchhoff’s Law

Q15.Which of the following is the evidence to show that there must be a force acting
on Earth directed towards the Sun?

a. revolution of Earth around the Sun.

b. apparent motion of the Sun the around the Earth.
c. duration of falling bodies towards Earth.
d. phenomenon of day and night.

Q16. If the distance between the earth and the sun doubles, what would be the
duration of the year?

a. 365 days
b. 366 days
c. 730 days
d. 1032 days

Q17.If two satellites of the masses 100kg and 500 Kg are orbiting at the same height
from the surface of the earth, then which will have greater orbital velocity

a. A satellite of mass 100Kg

b. A satellite of mass 500Kg
c. Both will have the same orbital velocity
d. None of these

Q18.What is the approximate orbital velocity of a satellite orbiting very close to

Earth’s surface

a. 10 Km/Second
b. 8 Km/Second
c. 11.2 Km/Second
d. None of these

Q19.In planetary motion

a. the total angular momentum remains constant

b. the linear speed remains constant
c. neither the angular momentum nor angular speed remains constant
d. none of these

Q20.If the mass of the Earth is M and the radius is R then What will be the
gravitational potential energy of a body of mass m on the surface of the Earth?

a. 𝑈 = −
b. 𝑈 = −
c. 𝑈 =
d. None of these

Q21.Gravitational potential is always negative because

a. Gravitational force is always attractive

b. Gravitational potential is scalar quantity
c. Gravitational potential is vector quantity
d. None of these

Q22. When a missile is launched with a velocity less than the escape velocity, the sum
of kinetic and potential energy is

a. 0
b. Negative
c. Positive
d. None of these options

Q23. What would be the maximum height reached by the body if the body is
projected vertically from the surface of the earth of radius R with a velocity equal to
half of the escape velocity?

a. 2+R
b. R
c. R/2
d. R/3

Q24. The escape velocity for a body projected vertically upwards from the surface of
the earth is 11 km/s. If the body is projected at an angle of 450 with the vertical, the
escape velocity will be

a. 11/√2 km/s
b. 11√2 km/s
c. 2 km/s
d. 11 km/s
 Q25.If the escape velocity from the Earth’s surface is 11.2 km/sec. then escape
velocity from a planet of mass same as that of the earth but radius one-fourth as that
of the earth is

a. 11.2 km/sec
b. 22.4 km/sec
c. 5.65 km/sec
d. 44.8 km/sec

Q26.A body of mass 1kg is attracted by the earth with a force that is equal to

a. 9.8N
b. 6.67x 10-11 N
c. 1N
d. None of these

Q27.When a mango falls from a mango tree then

a. only the Earth attracts the mango.

b. only the mango attracts the Earth.
c. both the mango and the Earth attract each other.
d. both the mango and the Earth repel each other.

ONE MARKS QUESTION

Q1. State universal law of the gravitation.

Q2. What is the value of the acceleration due to gravity at the centre of the earth?

Q3. Earth is continuously pulling the moon towards its centre. Why does not then, the
moon falls on the Earth?

Q4. Where does a body weigh more – at the surface of the Earth or in a mine?

Q5. What is the amount of work done in bringing a mass from the surface of Earth on
one side to a point diametrically opposite on the other side? Why?

Q6. Two satellites are at different heights. Which would have greater orbital velocity?
Why?

Q7. What is the relation between orbital and escape velocity?

Q8. The weight of a body is 20N, what is the gravitational pull of the body on the
Earth?

Q9. Does the gravitational force between two particles depends upon the medium
between them?

Q10. If the force of gravity acts on all bodies in proportion to their masses, then why
does not a heavy body fall faster than a light body?

Q11. A satellite does not need any fuel to circle around the Earth. Why?

Q12. What will be the effect on the earth If the gravitational attraction of the earth
suddenly disappears?

Q13. Draw areal velocity versus time graph for mars.

Q14. What is the direction of the areal velocity of the earth around the sun?

Q15. Name two factors that determine whether a planet has an atmosphere or not.

2-MARKS QUESTION

Q1. Suppose there existed a planet that went around the sun twice as fast as the earth.
What would be its orbital size as compared to that of the earth?

Q2. The gravitational force on the Earth due to the Sun is greater than that of the
moon, However, the tidal effect of the moon’s pull is greater than the tidal effect of
the Sun. Why?

Q3. Derive the expression for acceleration due to gravity at the earth’s surface 𝑔 =
. Given that M is mass and R is the radius of the earth.

Q4. There is no atmosphere on the surface of the moon. Explain?

Q5. Prove that the weight of a body at the centre of the Earth is zero.

Q6. Hydrogen escapes faster from the Earth than oxygen. Why?

Q7. We cannot move even our little fingers without disturbing the whole universe.
Explain why.

Q8. Explain why tennis ball bounces higher on hills than on plains.
Q9. Calculate the average density of the Earth.

Q10. State four Characteristics of Gravitational force.

Q11. Define gravitational potential. Write the mathematical expression for

gravitational potential at distance r from the centre of the earth. What is its SI unit?

Q12.If the average density of a planet is ϼ and the radius is R, then prove that
acceleration due to gravity at its surface is 𝐺𝑅ϼ

Q13.Acceleration due to gravity at a height of 1 km above the earth is the same as at a

depth d below the surface of the earth. Find the value of the d.

Q14.Write the expression for the orbital velocity of a body orbiting at height from the
earth’s surface and then calculate the orbital velocity of a body orbiting very close to
the surface of the earth. Given that g = 9.8 m/s2 and R = 6.4 ×106 m.

Q15. If the average density of a planet is ϼ, radius is R, and acceleration due to

gravity at its surface is g, then prove that the escape velocity is equal to 𝜋𝑔𝑅 ϼ

3-Marks Question

Q1. Three equal masses of m kg each are fixed at the vertices of an equilateral
triangle ABC. What is the force acting on a mass 2m placed at the centroid G of the
triangle = BG = CG = 1m in the given diagram

Q2. State the Kepler laws of the planetary motions.

Q3. Derive the expression for the acceleration due to gravity at height ‘h’ from the
surface of the earth.

Q4. Derive the expression for the acceleration due to gravity at a depth ‘d’ from the
surface of the earth.
Q5. Three equal masses of each mass m are placed at the three vertices of an
equilateral triangle of each side a. Find the gravitational potential at the centroid of
the triangle.

Q6. Derive the relation between escape and orbital velocities for a body revolving
very close to the earth’s surface. Find the percentage increase in the orbital velocity
by which the body escapes from its orbit forever.

Q7. State Kepler’s third law of planetary motion and then derive Newton’s law of
gravitation from Kepler’s law of planetary motion.

Q8. State the difference between weight and mass, A body weighs 63N on the surface
of the earth. What is the gravitational force exerted on it by the earth at a height equal
to half the earth's radius?

Q9Assuming the globe is a sphere with constant mass density, how much would a
body weigh halfway down to the planet's centre? Given that weight of the body on the
surface of the planet is 250N.

Q10. Write the expression for the potential energy of a body on the surface of the
earth. A body of mass m has been elevated from the earth's surface to a height equal
to the radius of the earth R. What will be the increase in the potential energy of the
body?

5-Marks Question

Q1. Define the gravitational potential energy of a body on the surface of the Earth. A
body of mass m is at a distance of r from the centre of the earth. If M is the mass of
the earth and R is the radius of the earth, then find the gravitational potential energy
of the body.

Q2. Define escape velocity. Does the escape velocity of a body from the Earth depend
on (a) the mass of the body, (b) the location from where it is projected, (c) the
direction of projection, and (d) the height of the location from where the body is
launched? Why the atmosphere of Jupiter contains light gases (generally hydrogen)
whereas the Earth’s atmosphere has little hydrogen gas?

Q3. State Kepler’s second law of planetary motion. Show that Kepler’s Second law is
the law of conservation of angular momentum. A Saturn year is 29.5 times the Earth
year. How far is Saturn from the Sun if the Earth is 1.50 x 108 km away from the Sun?
Q4. Derive the expression for escape velocity for a body projected from the surface of
the earth. Calculate escape velocity on the surface of the earth if the radius of the
earth is 6400 Km and acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s2 on the surface of the
earth. A body is projected out thrice the escape velocity. What will be the velocity of
the body far away from the earth? Ignore the presence of the sun and other planets.

Q5. Define orbital velocity. Derive the expression for the orbital velocity of a satellite
orbiting in an orbit at a height h from earth surface. A rocket is fired from the earth
towards the sun. At what distance from the earth’s centre is the gravitational force on
the rocket zero? Mass of the sun = 2 x 1030 kg, mass of the earth = 6 x 1024 kg.
Neglect the effect of other planets etc. (orbital radius = 1.5 x 1011 m).

Case Study-Based Questions

Q1. Case Study

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

The notion of potential energy is the energy stored in the body at its given position. If
the position of the particle changes on account of forces acting on it, then the change
in its potential energy is just the amount of work done on the body by the force. The
force of gravity is a conservative force and the potential energy of a body arising out
of this force is called the gravitational potential energy. The potential energy at a
point of a particle is due to the gravitational forces of the earth and it is proportional
to the mass of the particle. The gravitational potential of the earth is defined as the
potential energy of a particle of unit mass at that point. The gravitational potential
energy associated with two particles of masses m1 and m2 separated by distance r is
given by

U=

Qi). What is the significance of the negative value of the potential energy?

Q.(ii). If the potential energy of a body of mass m on the surface of the earth is
U= then what will be gravitational potential at that point? Here M is
mass and R is the radius of the earth.

Q.(iii). What will be the potential energy of a system of three particles each of mass
‘m’ placed at the vertices of an equilateral triangle of each side ‘a’?

Q.(iv). Explain, which of the formulas in ∆U = -G m [ − ]and ∆U = mg (r2 – r1)

is more accurate for the difference of potential energy between two points at r2
and r1 distance away from the centre of the earth?
Q.(v). Give one example of potential energy for which potential energy is found to be
positive as well as negative.

Q2. Case study

THE ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY

Early in our lives, we become aware of the tendency of all material objects to be
attracted to the earth. Anything thrown up falls down towards the earth, going uphill
is lot more tiring than going downhill, raindrops from the clouds above fall towards
the earth and there are many other such phenomena. Historically it was the Italian
Physicist Galileo (1564-1642) who recognized the fact that all bodies, irrespective of
their masses, are accelerated towards the earth with a constant acceleration. It is said
that he made a public demonstration of this fact. To find the truth, he certainly did
experiments with bodies rolling down inclined planes and arrived at a value of the
acceleration due to gravity which is close to the more accurate value obtained later.

Q(i). If the force of gravity acts on all bodies in proportion to their masses, then why
does not a heavy body fall faster than a light body?

Q(ii). When an apple falls towards the Earth, the Earth moves up to meet the apple. Is
the statement true? If yes, why is the Earth’s motion not noticeable?

Q(iii). State the factors on which acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the
earth depends.

Q(iv). Does the gravitational force between two particles depends upon the medium
between them?

Q(v). How does the acceleration due to gravity vary vertically downward from the
earth’s surface?

Q3. Case Study

ESCAPE VELOCITY
If a stone is thrown by hand, we see it falls back to the earth. Of course, using
machines we can shoot an object with much greater speeds, and with greater and
greater initial speed, the object scales higher and higher heights. A natural query that
arises in our mind is the following: can we throw an object with such high initial
speeds that it does not fall back to the earth?
The minimum speed required to throw an object to infinity away from the earth’s
gravitational field is called escape velocity and it is given by Ve = √(2gR)
Where g is the acceleration due to gravity and R is the radius of the earth and the
escape speed is equal to 11.2 km/s from the surface of the earth. This applies equally
well to an object thrown from the surface of the moon with g replaced by the
acceleration due to the Moon’s gravity on its surface and R replaced by the radius of
the moon. The escape speed for the moon turns out to be 2.3 km/s, about five times
smaller than that on the earth surface.

Q(i). Out of two objects of masses 10Kg and 20Kg, which requires greater speed to
escape out from the earth’s surface?

Q(ii). If an object is revolving very close to the earth’s surface, then what will be the
relation between its orbital velocity and escape velocity?

Q(iii). Explain, there is no atmosphere on the surface of the moon as compared to

earth.

Q(iv). The escape velocity for a body projected vertically upwards from the surface of
the earth is 11 km/s. If the body is projected at an angle of 450 with the vertical, then
what will be the escape velocity?

Q(v). What will be the velocity of a body just outside the earth’s gravitational field
when it is projected vertically upwards from the surface with the velocity of 11.2
km/s?

ANSWER
MCQ

𝐆𝐦𝟏 𝐦𝟐
Q1 b. F/9 Hints-- 𝐅 =
𝐫𝟐
.
Q2. a. Cavendish
𝑮𝑴
Q3. a. at the equator Hints Radius of earth is less at equator g = 𝑹𝟐

Q4. a. GM = g R2
Q5 b. Will become doubled Hints-- g = G 𝜋 𝑅 𝜌
𝑮𝑴
Q6 a. 8g Hints--- g = 𝑹𝟐

𝑹𝟐
Q7. a. Decreases with altitude Hints---𝒈𝒉 = (𝑹 𝒉)𝟐
𝒈

𝒅
Q8. a. Decreases with depth Hints 𝒈𝒅 = 𝒈 [1- 𝑹 ]
𝑮𝑴
Q9. d. None of these Hints--- g = 𝑹𝟐

𝑹𝟐
Q10. a. R/4 Hints--𝒈𝒉 = (𝑹 𝒉)𝟐
𝒈

𝒅
Q11. c. 250 N Hints--𝒈𝒅 = 𝒈 [1- 𝑹 ]
𝒅
Q12. b. 0N Hints--𝒈𝒅 = 𝒈 [1- 𝑹 ]
𝟐𝒉 𝒅
Q13. b. At B Hints---𝒈𝒉 = 𝒈 [1- 𝑹
] and 𝒈𝒅 = 𝒈 [1- 𝑹 ]

Q14. c. Kepler’s law

Q15. a. revolution of Earth around the Sun.
Q16. d. 1032 days Hints- T2 α r3
√𝐆𝐌
Q17. c. Both will have the same orbital Velocity Hints--𝐕𝐎 =
√𝐑 𝐡

Q18. b. 8 Km/Second Hints-- 𝐕𝐎 = 𝟐𝐠𝐑

Q19. a. the total angular momentum remains constant

𝐆𝐌𝐦
Q20. a. 𝐔= 𝐑
.

Q21. a. Gravitational force is always attractive

Q22. b. Negative
𝐆𝐌𝐦 𝐆𝐌𝐦
Q23. d. R/3 Hints ½ mVes2 + ( 𝐑
.) = 0 + ( 𝐑 𝐡
.)

𝟐𝐆𝐌
Q24 . b. 11 km/s Hints---𝐕𝐞𝐬 = = 𝟐𝐠𝐑
𝐑

𝟐𝐆𝐌
Q25. b. 22.4 km/sec Hints---𝐕𝐞𝐬 = = 𝟐𝐠𝐑
𝐑

Q26. a. 9.8N Hints W = mg

 𝐆𝐦𝟏 𝐦𝟐
Q27. c. both the mango and the Earth attract each other. Hints 𝐅 =
𝐫𝟐

ONE MARKS QUESTION

Ans1. Newton’s law of gravitation states that any particle of matter in the universe attracts
any other with a force varying directly as the product of the masses and inversely as the
square of the distance between them.
If F is the gravitational force between two particles of masses m1 and m2, separated by a
distance r then,

. 𝐹𝛼
𝑮𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
.𝑭= 𝒓𝟐
.

where G is the universal gravitational

constant and in SI unit is
G =6.67×10-11Nm2kg-2.

Ans2. 0
Ans3.The gravitational force between the earth and the moon provides the necessary
centripetal force to the moon to move around the Earth. This centripetal force avoids the
moon to fall onto the Earth.
Ans4 Weight of the body W = mg and acceleration due to gravity at mine at a depth is given
𝒅
by 𝒈𝒅 = 𝒈 [1- 𝑹 ]. Acceleration due to gravity(g) is greater at the surface as compared to
mine so weight of body is greater at surface.

Ans5. Zero, because gravitational potential on the surface of the earth is the same every
equal. W = m (V2 - V1) as V1 = V2 so W = 0
Ans6. A satellite at a lower height, because orbital velocity is inversely proportional to
√𝐆𝐌
height. 𝐕𝐎 =
√𝐑 𝐡

Ans7. 𝑉 = √2 Vo
Ans8. 20N, because the weight of the body is the gravitational pull of the earth on the body
so body will also have same pull on the earth.
Ans9. No

Ans10. g= and 𝑉 = 2𝑔ℎ

Acceleration due to gravity(g) does not depend upon the mass of the body. g is same for all
bodies.
Ans11. The gravitational force of earth on the satellite provides the necessary centripetal
force to the satellite to move in a circular orbit around the earth.
Ans12. If the gravitational force of the earth suddenly disappears, the weight of all the bodies
will disappear. We experience weight because the earth pulls us towards its centre through its
gravitational force.

Ans13.

Ans14. What is the direction of the areal velocity of the earth around the sun?
Areal velocity is normal to the plane containing the earth and sun.
Ans15. (1) Acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the planet.
(2) Surface temperature of the planet.

2-MARKS QUESTION
Ans1.
According to Kepler’s third law
If planets move faster with double speed then it will take half time period of revolution
around sun as that of earth. Te = 1 year Tp = 0.5 year re = 1A.U.
rp = re(Tp/Te)2/3 = 1AU(0.5year/1year)2/3 = 0.63 AU
Ans2.
The tidal effect depends inversely on the cube of the distance, unlike the force which depends
inversely on the square of the distance. The distance of the moon from the ocean water is
very small compared to the distance of the sun from the ocean water on earth. Therefore, the
tidal effect of the Moon’s pull is greater than the tidal effect of the sun.
Ans3. .
Suppose a body of mass m falling freely nearly to earth surface under gravitational
attraction of earth F = ,then the acceleration under this force is given by

g = F/m Here F = and g = = =

Ans4.
An atmosphere means the presence of a mixture of a number of gases. The molecules of these
gases are in a state of continuous random thermal motion moving at different velocities. As
the value of escape velocity on the surface of the moon is small (only 2.5 km s-
1
), the molecules of gases with velocities greater than the escape velocity moved out of the
atmosphere. As time passed, nearly all the molecules escaped from the moon’s atmosphere.

Ans5.
W = mg and g’= (1-d/R) g
At the centre of the earth d = R » g’ = 0 » W = mg’ = 0
Ans6.
The thermal speed of hydrogen is much larger than oxygen. Therefore, a large number of
hydrogen molecules are able to acquire escape velocity than that of oxygen molecules. Hence
hydrogen escapes faster from the Earth than oxygen.
Ans7.
According to Newton’s law of gravitation, every particle of this universe attracts every other
particle with a force that is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
When we move our fingers, the distance between the particle’s changes, and hence the force
of attraction changes which in turn disturbs the whole universe.
Ans8.
The value of acceleration due to gravity is lesser on hills than on the plains, so the weight of
the tennis ball at hills is lesser than that on the plains and hence its re-bounces more. In other
words, the force with which the Earth attracts the ball on hills will be lesser than that on the
plains.
 Ans9.
If the Earth is a uniform sphere with a density ρ, the gravitational acceleration will be.

g= where M = V ρ = πR3ρ
The above equations give the density of the earth in terms of g and G.

G
g= =

g= G 𝜋𝑅𝜌

ρ=

On putting g = 9.8 m/s2, G = 6.67 ×10-11 Nm2Kg-2 and R = 6.4×106 m in the above equation
We get ρ = 5.475 ×103 Kg/m3
Ans10.
Four Characteristics of Gravitational force.
i. It follows inverse square law.
ii. It is always attractive in nature,
iii. It is a long-range force.
iv. It is the weakest force in the universe.
v. It is a conservative force because it is a central force.
Ans11.
Definition-Gravitational potential at a point is equal to the work done in carrying a body of
unit mass from infinity to that point in that gravitational field.

Mathematical expression - V = Here M is the mass of the earth and r is the distance of
that point from the centre of the earth.
SI unit Joule/Kg

Ans12.
If the Planet is a uniform sphere with a density ρ and the radius is R , then gravitational
acceleration will be.

g= where M = πR3ρ
 From above two equations

G
g= =

g= G𝜋 𝑅 𝜌

Ans13.
Acceleration due to gravity at a height of 1 km above the earth is the same as at a depth d
below the surface of the earth. Find the value of the d.
Acceleration due to gravity at height h,
gn=g [1 − ]

Acceleration due to gravity at depth d,

gd=g[1 − ]

According to question gh=gd

g[1 − ] = g1 − ]

d=2h

now h=1km

d=2×1km =2km

Ans14.
Orbital Velocity of the body at a height h from earth surface is given by

Vo = ----------------------(i)

GM = g R

Vo = ----------------------(ii)

If a body orbiting very close to earth surface than h˂˂R then R+h = R
Ans15.
Escape velocity of the planet is given by

Ves =

Now Mass of the planet M = V ρ = πR3ρ

( )
Ves = = = =

3-MARKS QUESTION
Ans1.
Three equal masses of m kg each are fixed at the vertices of an equilateral triangle ABC.
What is the force acting on a mass 2m placed at the centroid G of the triangle?
( )
FGA =

( )
FGB = (-i cos300 - j sin300)

( )
FGB = (i cos300 - j sin300)
Net force F = FGA + FGB + FGC = 0
Ans2.
Kepler’s 1st Law of Orbits:
This law is popularly known as the law of orbits. The orbit of any planet is an ellipse around the Sun with
Sun at one of the two foci of an ellipse. In an ellipse, there are two foci and Sun is situated at one of the foci
of the ellipse.

Kepler’s 2nd Law of Areas:

This law is known as the law of areas. The line joining a planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal
interval of time. The rate of change of area with time will be constant.

∆
Areal Velocity = 𝑉 =
∆
𝑳
Areal Velocity = where L = Angular momentum and m are mass of the planet
𝟐𝒎

Kepler’s 3rd Law of Periods:

This law is known as the law of Periods. The square of the time period(T) of the planet is directly
proportional to the cube of the semimajor axis(a) of its orbit.
T² ∝ a³
Ans3.
Acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the earth is:

g = Where M is mass and R is radius of the earth

Acceleration due to gravity at a height h of the earth is:

g =
( )

Now = =
( )

If h˂˂R

= (1- )

g = g (1- )
Ans4.
Acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the earth is:

g = 𝑀 = mass of whole earth inside radius R

Acceleration due to gravity at a depth d inside the earth is:

g = 𝑀 = mass of earth inside the radial part (R-d)

( )

( )
= × but =
( ) ( )

( ) ( )
= × = = (1- )
( ) ( ) ( )

g = (1- ) g

Ans5.

Gravitational Potential at point is given by - V = − where M is mass of the source body and r is the
distance of the point from centre of the source body.
Gravitational potential at centroid due all three masses will be equal and will be given by

V1 = V2 = V3 = -

where x is the distance of the centroid from each vertex of the triangle
Now Total gravitational potential at the centroid of the triangle.

V= V1+V2+V3 = - - - = -3

Now x = = distance of centroid from each vertex

√

V = -3 = -3√3 Volt

Ans6.
Escape and Orbital velocities of a body revolving very close to earth surface of given by

𝑉 = 2𝑔𝑅 and 𝑉 = 𝑔𝑅

Now =

= √2
 𝑉 = √2 𝑉
. √ .
% Increase in the orbital velocity = .
× 100 = .
× 100 = 41.4% ≈ 42%

Ans7.
Kepler’s 3rd Law of Periods:
This law is known as the law of Periods. The square of the time period of the planet is directly proportional
to the cube of the semimajor axis of its orbit.
T² ∝ r³
Let m = mass of a planet.
M = mass of Sun.
r = radius of the circular orbit of the planet, around the Sun.
v = linear velocity of the planet in its orbit.𝑟
T = Time period of the planet.
The centripetal force required by the planet is.
F =

But linear velocity of planet v = =

This centripetal force is provided by the force of attraction between the Sun and the planet. According to
Newton, the force of attraction between the planet and the Sun is mutual.
 which is Newton’s law of gravitation.

Ans8.
Difference between weight and mass.
(i) Mass cannot be zero but weight can be zero
(ii) Mass is the measure of inertia whereas weight is the measure of the gravitational force
(iii) SI unit of mass is Kg whereas SI unit of weight is Newton

Acceleration due to gravity at height h from the surface of earth is:

g = ( )
g

mg = ( )
mg

w = w
( )

𝑤 = 𝑤 where h = R/2 and ws = 63 N

( / )

𝑤 = ×63N = 28N

Thus, the weight of the body at height equal R/2 from earth surface will be: 28N

Ans9.
Assuming the globe is spherical with constant mass density, how much would a body weighing 250N on the
surface weigh halfway down to the planet's centre?
Acceleration due to gravity at depth d is given by:

g = (1- ) g

𝑚g = (1- )𝑚 g

w = (1- )w

Here w is the weight of the body on the surface = 250N

And w is the weight of the body at a depth of d = R/2
/
Now w = (1- )w = (1- )250N = 125N
Ans10.

Expression for the Potential Energy U=

Here M is mass of the earth and m is the mass of the body. r is the distance between centre of the body and
the centre of the earth.
According to the diagram shown below, where a body of mass m is raised from the surface of the earth to a
height equal to the radius of the earth (R).

Initial potential energy of the object when it is at the surface of the earth

Ui =

where, M is the mass of earth and R is the radius of earth or distance of object from centre of earth.
Final potential energy of the object when it is at a height equal to the radius
−GMm
Uf = 2R

Gain in the potential energy = ( )-( ) = ( +1)

=( )
GM = gR2

Gain in the potential energy =( ) =( ) = 𝑚𝑔𝑅

5-MARKS QUESTION
Ans1.
Gravitational potential energy of a body on the surface of earth is numerically equal to work done to bring
the body from infinity to surface of earth.
Now for the surface of the Earth r = R

Ug =

Ans2
Escape Velocity is the minimum velocity an object must have to escape a celestial body’s gravitational field
permanently, or without ever falling back again.

Escape velocity of the body is given by Ves = 2𝐺𝑀/𝑅 = 2𝑔𝑅

Where M is mass of the earth and R is radius of the earth and g is acceleration due to gravity on the earth
surface.
(a)Escape velocity does not dependent upon mass of the body to be escaped
(b)Escape velocity does not dependent the location
© Escape velocity does not dependent the direction of the projection
(d) Yes, Escape velocity depends on the height of the location.

The escape velocity of Jupiter is much larger than the escape velocity of Earth. So in order to escape from
the surface of Jupiter, a very large velocity is required. Since the thermal velocity of hydrogen gas molecules
is lesser than the escape velocity of Jupiter, therefore hydrogen can’t escape from the surface of Jupiter.
Ans3
Kepler’s 2nd Law of Areas:
This law is known as the law of areas. The line joining a planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal
interval of time. The rate of change of area with time will be constant.

The second law states that the areal velocity is constant i.e. area covered by the radius vector is the same in
equal intervals of time. If the velocity and radius at the time, t1 is v1 and r1 while at another place these are
v2 and r2 in the same time, then the area covered by the planet in these intervals are

(v t) r = (v t) r (Area of Triangle = 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)

v r = v r (multiplying both side by m)

mv r = mv r

mv r = mv r
 L 𝐿
A Saturn year is 29.5 times the Earth year.
Earth is 1.50 x 108 km away from the Sun?

Thus, the distance between the sun and Saturn is .

Ans4.
Escape velocity is the minimum velocity with which a body must be projected vertically upward so that it
can just escape the gravitational field of the Earth.
Expression for escape velocity: Let a body of mass m be escaped from the gravitational field of the earth.
During the course of motion, let at any instant, body be at a distance r from the centre of the earth.

The gravitational force of the earth on the body is given

Work done on the body against the gravitational force of earth to raise the body by displacement dr is,

Total work done, W in raising the body from the surface of the earth to ∞ is,
This work done to raise the body from surface of the earth to infinity is equal to the kinetic energy required
for projection and suppose the minimum velocity required for projection is Ve, then

Substituting the values in equation (1), we have g = 9.81m/sec and R = 6.4 x 106m Escape velocity is given
by,

Total Kinetic energy by which body is projected

K1 = ½ m V12
Minimum Kinetic energy required by body to overcome earth gravitational field
K2 = ½ m V22
Kinetic Energy of body just after crossing earth gravitational field
K3 = ½ m V32
From conservation of energy
K1 = K2 + K3
½ m V12 = ½ m V22 + ½ m V32
V32 =
V12 - V22
 Here V2 = 11.2 Km/s and V1 = 3×11.2Km/s
V3 = 31.68 Km/s

Ans5.
Orbital velocity is the minimum tangentially velocity required by a body to be remained in the circular orbit
during its orbital motion around earth or a planet or sun.
The expression for the orbital velocity of an artificial Earth’s satellite.
Let m = mass of the satellite.
M, R = mass and radius of Earth.
h = height of the satellite above the surface of Earth.
r = radius of the orbit of the satellite = R + h.
v0 = orbital velocity of the satellite.
The centripetal force mv2/r required by the satellite to move in a circular orbit is provided by the
gravitational force between satellite and the Earth.
Mass of the sun, M = 2 x 1030 kg
Mass of the earth, m = 6 x 1024 kg
Mass of the rocket = m
Distance between sun and the earth, r = 1.5 x 1011 m
Suppose distance of that point, where net gravitational force is zero from earth, is x then

=
( ) ( )

x = 2.59×108 m

CASE STUDY-BASED QUESTION

Q1. Case Study
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY
The notion of potential energy is the energy stored in the body at its given position. If the position of the
particle changes on account of forces acting on it, then the change in its potential energy is just the amount
of work done on the body by the force. The force of gravity is a conservative force and the potential energy
of a body arising out of this force is called the gravitational potential energy. The potential energy at a point
of a particle is due to gravitational forces of the earth and it is proportional to the mass of the particle. The
gravitational potential of the earth is defined as the potential energy of a particle of unit mass at that point.
The gravitational potential energy associated with two particles of masses m1 and m2 separated by distance r
is given by

U=

Ans.(i).
 It shows that gravitational force is attractive in nature
Ans.(ii). If the potential energy of a body of mass m on the surface of the earth is
U= ,then gravitational potential is given by

V= = =

Ans.(iii). U=

U=

Ans.(iv).

Potential energy of a body is given by U =

𝑈 = and 𝑈 =
Now ∆U = 𝑈 − 𝑈 = [ − ] = GM m[ − ] is more accurate formula than
∆U = mg (r2 – r1) is incorrect.
Ans.(v).
Electrostatic force
Q2. Case study
THE ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY
Early in our lives, we become aware of the tendency of all material objects to be attracted to the earth.
Anything thrown up falls down towards the earth, going uphill is lot more tiring than going downhill,
raindrops from the clouds above fall towards the earth and there are many other such phenomena.
Historically it was the Italian Physicist Galileo (1564-1642) who recognized the fact that all bodies,
irrespective of their masses, are accelerated towards the earth with a constant acceleration. It is said that he
made a public demonstration of this fact. To find the truth, he certainly did experiments with bodies rolling
down inclined planes and arrived at a value of the acceleration due to gravity which is close to the more
accurate value obtained later.
Ans(i).
Acceleration due to gravity is independent of mass of body
Ans(ii).
Yes, the statement is true. The acceleration of earth is very small as compared to that of apple as
the mass of earth is very large.
Ans(iii).
 (i)Mass of Earth (ii) Radius of the Earth
Ans(iv).
No
Ans(v).
Decreases as depth increases
Q3. Case Study
ESCAPE VELOCITY
If a stone is thrown by hand, we see it falls back to the earth. Of course, using machines we can shoot an
object with much greater speeds, and with greater and greater initial speed, the object scales higher and
higher heights. A natural query that arises in our mind is the following: can we throw an object with such
high initial speeds that it does not fall back to the earth?
The minimum speed required to throw an object to infinity away from the earth’s gravitational field is called
escape velocity and it is given by Ve = √(2gR)
Where g is the acceleration due to gravity and R is the radius of the earth and the escape speed is equal to
11.2 km/s from the surface of the earth. This applies equally well to an object thrown from the surface of the
moon with g replaced by the acceleration due to the Moon’s gravity on its surface and R replaced by the
radius of the moon. The escape speed for the moon turns out to be 2.3 km/s, about five times smaller than
that on the earth surface.
Ans(i).
Both will have same escape speed as escape speed is independent of the mass of the body.
Ans(ii).

Ves = √2 V0
Ans(iii).
Thermal velocities of gas molecules are greater than the escape velocity at moon.
Ans(iv).
11 km/s because escape velocity is independent of the direction of projection
Ans(v).
Zero
 GRAVITATION

KEPLER’S LAWS

LAW OF
LAW OF LAW OF
PERIODS
ELLIPTICAL CONSTANT
ORBIT AREAL
VELOCITY
T² ∝ a³ ∆𝑨 𝑳
𝑽= =
∆𝒕 𝟐𝒎
CONCTANT

NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION

𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
𝐅=𝐆
𝒓𝟐

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL
ENERGY
U=

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL
V = −
 MOTION IN THE GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

ORBITAL
VELOCITY
ESCAPE
𝑮𝑴 𝑮𝑴
VELOCITY V= =
𝒓 𝑹 𝒉

𝟐𝑮𝑴
V= V=R
𝒈
𝑹
𝑹 𝒉

V= 𝟐𝒈𝑹
 ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY(g)
𝐆𝐌 𝟒
g= 𝐑𝟐
= 𝟑
𝐆𝛑 𝐑 𝛒

VARIATION IN ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY (g)

VARIATION IN
VAR VARIATION ACCELERATION
IN DUE TO
ACCELERATION GRAVITY TO
DUE TO DUE DEPTH
GRAVITY TO 𝒅
DUE ALTITUDE gd=g(1- )
𝒓
𝟐𝒉
gh=g(1- )
𝒓
 CLASS XI
SUBJECT – PHYSICS
STUDY MATERIAL
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

GIST OF CHAPTER
1. Introduction A rigid body generally means a hard solid object having a definite shape and
size. But in reality, bodies can be stretched, compressed and bent. Even the appreciably rigid
steel bar can be deformed when a sufficiently large external force is applied on it. This
means that solid bodies are not perfectly rigid. A solid has definite shape and size. In order
to change (or deform) the shape or size of a body, a force is required.

2. Deforming Force A force which produces a change in configuration (size or shape) of the
object on applying it, is called a deforming force.

3. Elasticity Elasticity is that property of the object by virtue of which it regains its original
configuration after the removal of the deforming force. For example, if we stretch a rubber
band and release it, it snaps back to its original length.

4. Perfectly Elastic Body Those bodies which regain its original configuration immediately
and completely after the removal of deforming force are called perfectly elastic bodies. The
nearest approach to a perfectly elastic body is quartz fibre.

5. Plasticity If a body does not regains its original size and shape completely and immediately after the
removal of deforming force, it is said to be a plastic body and this property is called plasticity.

6. Perfectly plastic body That body which does not regain its original configuration at all on
the removal of deforming force are called perfectly plastic bodies.Putty and paraffin wax are
nearly perfectly plastic bodies.

7. Stress If a body gets deformed under the action of an external force, then at each section of
the body an internal force of reaction is set up which tends to restore the body into its original
state.
Definition The internal restoring force set up per unit area of cross section of the
deformed body is called stress.
Mathematical Form Stress=Applied Force / 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Its unit is N/m2 or Pascal.
Its dimensional formula is [ML-1T -2 ].
Types of stress
 There are three different types of stress
i) Longitudinal Stress
If deforming force is applied normal to the area of cross section, then the stress is called longitudinal
stress. It is further categorized in two types

(a)Tensile stress If there is an increase in length of the object under the effect of applied force,
then stress is called tensile stress.
(b)Compressional stress If there is a decrease in length of the object under the effect of applied
force, then stress is called compression stress.
ii) Tangential or Shearing Stress
If deforming force acts tangentially to the surface of a body, it produces a change in the shape of
the body. The tangential force applied per unit area is called tangential stress.
iii) Normal Stress
If a body is subjected to a uniform force from all sides, then the corresponding stress is called
hydrostatic stress.

8. Strain
When a deforming force acts on a body, the body undergoes a change in its shape and size. The
fractional change in configuration is called strain.
Mathematical Equation
Strain=change in dimension / original dimension
It has no unit and it is a dimensionless quantity.
According to the change in configuration, the strain is of three types
(1) Longitudinal strain=change in length / original length
(2)Volumetric strain =change in volume / Original volume
(3)𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛tangential = applied force / Area of face
Hooke’s Law
Robert Hook found that within the elastic limit, the stress is directly proportional to strain. Thus
we have 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔∝𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
or 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔=𝑲.𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
where K is the constant of proportionality called “Elastic Modulus” of the material.
There are some materials that do not obey Hooke’s law like rubber, human’s muscle.

9. Types of Modulus of rigidity

Young’s Modulus of rigidity (Y)
It is defined as the ratio of normal stress to the longitudinal strain within the elastic limit.
Y=𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠Longitudinal strain
It has same units as stress because strain does not have any unit. Y is measured in N/m2 or Pa.
Metals generally have large values of Young’s modulus compare to other materials. In scientific
terms, the higher the Young’s modulus of the material the more elastic it is.
Bulk Modulus of Rigidity κ=𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠Volumetric strain
or κ=−𝐹/𝐴ΔV/V = - pV/Δ𝑉
The SI unit of bulk modulus is N/m2
Compressibility
Compressibility of a material is the reciprocal of its bulk modulus of elasticity. Compressibility
(C) = 1 / k
Its SI unit is N-1m 2 and CGS unit is dyne-1 cm2 .
Modulus of rigidity or shear Modulus (𝜼) 𝜼=𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 / shear strain
= 𝐹 / 𝐴ϒ
The SI unit of shear modulus is N/m2
The shear modulus of a material is always considerably smaller than the Young’s modulus for it.

10.Limit of elasticity
The maximum value of deforming force for which elasticity is present in the body is called its limit of
elasticity.

11.Stress- strain Curve

Figure shows the stress-strain curve for a metal wire which is gradually being loaded.
(a)The initial part OA of the graph is astraight line indicating that stress isproportional to strain.
Upto the point A,Hooke’s law is obeyed. The point A is calledthe proportional limit. In this region,
thewire is perfectly elastic.
(b)After the point A, the stress is notproportional to strain and a curved portionAB is obtained.
However, if the load isremoved at any point between O and B, thecurve is retraced along BAO and
the wireattains its original length. The portion OB ofthe graph is called elastic region and thepoint B
is called elastic limit or yield point.The stress corresponding to B is called yieldstrength.
(c)Beyond the point B, the strain increasesmore rapidly than stress. If the load isremoved at any
point C, the wire does notcome back to its original length but tracesdashed line. Even on reducing
the stress to tozero, a residual strain equal to OE is left in the wire. The material is said to have
acquired a permanent set. The fact that stress-strain curve is not retraced on reversing the strain is
called elastic hysteresis.
(d)If the load is increased beyond the pointC, there is large increase in the strain or thelength of the
wire. In this region, theconstrictions ( called necks and waists)develop at few points along the
length ofthe wire and the wire breaks ultimately atthe point D, called the fracture point.
In the region between B and D, the length of the wire goes on increasing even without any addition
of load. This region is called plastic region and material is said to undergo plastic flow or plastic
deformation. The stress corresponding to the braking point is called ultimate strength or tensile
strength of the material.

12.Elastic Fatigue
The property under the action of repeated alternating deforming force is called elastic fatigue.

13. Elastomers
The materials for which strain produced is much larger than the stress applied, with in the limit of
elasticity are called elastomers, e.g., rubber, the elastic tissue of aorta, thelarge vessel carrying
blood from heart. etc. Elastomers have no plastic range.

14. Poisson’s Ratio

When a deforming force is applied at the free end of a suspended wire of length 1 and diameter
D, then its length increases by Δl but its diameter decreases by Δ𝐷. Now two types of strains are
produced by a single force.
(i)Longitudinal strain = Δ𝑙𝑙
(ii)Lateral strain = –−Δ𝐷D
∴ Poisson’s Ratio (σ) = 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛=
= −Δ𝐷DΔ𝑙𝑙= − 𝑙Δ𝐷𝐷Δ𝑙
The negative sign shows that longitudinal and lateral strains are in opposite sense.
As Poisson’s ratio is the ratio of two strains, it has no units and dimensions.
The theoretical value of Poisson’s ratio lies between – 1 and 0.5. Its practical value lies between
0 and 0.5 .

15. Applications of elasticity

The elastic behavior of materials plays an important role in everyday life. All engineering
designs require precise knowledge of the elastic behavior of materials. For example while
designing a building, the structural design of the columns, beams and supports require
knowledge of strength of materials used.
A bridge has to be designed such that it can withstand the load of the flowing traffic, the force of
winds and its own weight.
MIND MAP
 SECTION A (MCQs)
1. A spring of force constant 800 N/m has an extension of 5 cm. The work done in extending it
from 5 cm to 15 cm is
(a) 16 J
(b) 8 J
(c) 32 J
(d) 24 J
Ans.(b)

2. A wire fixed at the upper end stretches by length L by applying a force F. The work done in
stretching is
(a) 2FL
(b) FL
(c) F /2L
(d) FL / 2
Ans. (d)

3. A wire elongates by l mm when a load W is hanged from it. If the wire goes over a pulley and
two weights W each are hung at the two ends, the elongation of the wire will be (in mm).
(a) l
(b) 2l
(c) zero
(d) l/2
Ans. (a)

4. Two wires are made of the same material and have the same volume. However wire 1 has
cross sectional area A and wire 2 has cross-sectional area 3A. If the length of wire 1 increases by
x on applying force F, how much force is needed to stretch wire 2 by the same amount?
(a) 4 F
(b) 6 F
(c) 9 F
(d) F
Ans. (c)

5. The pressure that has to be applied to the ends of a steel wire of length 10 cm to keep its length
constant when its temperature is raised by 100ºC is:
(a) 2.2 ×108 Pa
(b) 2.2 ×109 Pa
(c) 2.2 ×107 Pa
(d) 2.2× 106 Pa
Ans. (a)

6. Two wires A and B are of the same length. The diameters are in the ratio 1 : 2 and the Youngs
modulus are in ratio 2 : 1. if they are pulled by the same force, then their elongations will be in
ratio
(a) 4 : 1
(b) 1 : 4
(c) 1 : 2
(d) 2 : 1
Ans. (d)

7. A rubber cord of cross sectional area 1 mm² and unstretched length 10 cm is stretched to 12
cm and then released to project a stone of mass 5 gram. If Y for rubber = 5 × 108N/m², then the
tension in the rubber cord is
(a) 25 N
(b) 50 N
(c) 100 N
(d) 200 N
Ans. (c)

8. Out of the following materials, whose elasticity is independent of temperature?

(a) Copper
(b) Invar steel
(c) Brass
(d) Silver
Ans.(b)

9. One end of a steel wire of area of cross-section 3 mm² is attached to the ceiling of an elevator
moving up with an acceleration of 2.2 m/s². if a load of 8 kg is attached at its free end, then the
stress developed in the wire will be
(a) 8 × 106 N/m²
(b) 16 ×106 N/m²
(c) 20 × 106 N/m²
(d) 32 × 106 N/m²
Ans. (b)

10. The ratio of the change in dimension at right angles to the applied force to the initial
dimension is known as
(a) Youngs modulus
(b) Poissons ratio
(c) Lateral strain
(d)Shearing strain
Ans. (c)

11. The maximum load of a wire can withstand without breaking, when its length is reduced to
half of its Original length will-
(a) be Double
(b) be Half
(c) be four times
(d) same.
Ans. (d)

12. S.I Unit of modulus of elasticity is -

(a) Newton
(b) N – m2/sec
(c) N/m2
(d) Newton – sec
Ans. (c)

13. The Bulk modulus of perfectly rigid body is

(a) Infinite
(b) Zero
(c) Some finite value
(d) Non zero Constant
Ans. (a)

14. Young Modulus of Elasticity with rise in Temperature

(a) Decreases
(b) Increases
(c) Remains Constant
(d) first increases than decreases
Ans. (a)

15. The ratio of the lengths of two wires A and B of same material is 1 : 2 and the ratio of their
diameter is 2 : 1. They are stretched by the same force, then the ratio of increase in length will be
(a) 2 : 1
(b) 1 : 4
(c) 1 : 8
(d) 8 : 1
Ans. (c)

16. The Young's modulus of a wire of length L and radius r is Y N/m2. If the length and radius
are reduced to L/2 and r/2, then its Young's modulus will be
(a) Y/2
(b) Y
(c) 2Y
(d) 4Y
Ans. (b)

ASSERTION AND REASONING QUESTIONS

Directions:
(a) If both assertion and reason are true and the reason is the correct explanation of the assertion.
(b) If both assertion and reason are true but reason is not the correct explanation of the assertion.
(c) If assertion is true but reason is false.
(d) If the assertion and reason both are false.
Q.1. Assertion : Steel is more elastic than rubber.
Reason : Under given deforming force, steel is deformed less than rubber.
Ans. (a)

Q.2. Assertion : Glassy solids have sharp melting point.

Reason : The bonds between the atoms of glassy solids get broken at the same temperature.
Ans. (d)

Q3. Assertion : Bulk modulus of elasticity (K) represents incompressibility of the material.
Reason : Bulk modulus of elasticity is proportional to change in pressure.
Ans. (a)

Q.4. Assertion : The stretching of a coil is determined by its shear modulus.

Reason : Shear modulus change only shape of a body keeping its dimensions unchanged.
Ans. (a)

Q.5. Assertion : Young’s modulus for a perfectly plastic body is zero.

Reason : For a perfectly plastic body, restoring force is zero.
Ans. (a)

Q.6. Assertion : Strain is a unitless quantity.

Reason : Strain is equivalent to force.
Ans. (c)

Q.7. Assertion : Identical springs of steel and copper are equally stretched. More work will be
done on the steel spring.
Reason : Steel is more elastic than copper.
Ans. (a)

Q.8. Assertion : The bridges declared unsafe after a long use.

Reason : Elastic strength of bridges losses with time.
Ans. (a)

SECTION B (2 MARKS QUESTIONS)

Q1. Stress and pressure are both force per unit area. Then in what respect does stress differ from
pressure? Also write the types of stress.
Ans. Pressure is the external force per unit area, while stress is the internal restoring force which
comes into play in a deformed body acting transversely, per unit area of the body.
Types of stress : Normal stress, Tangential stress or Shearing stress and Hydrostatic stress.

Q2. What do you mean by ‘permanent set’ in a body? Draw the relevant stress – strain graph.
Ans . Permanent set is the amount by which a material is stressed beyond its yield point and if
the load is removed the material does not come back to its original shape or size.
Q3. Define modulus of elasticity. Write it’s dimensional formula and S.I. unit. Name its three
components.
Ans . The ratio of stress and strain is called modulus of elasticity. Dimensional formula of
Modulus of elasticity is [ ML-1T-2 ] . It’s S.I. unit is Pascal (Pa).
Modulus of elasticity has three components: (a) Young’s modulus (b) Shear modulus
(c) Bulk modulus

Q4. What is elastic fatigue? Give an example.

Ans: The property of an elastic body by virtue of which its behaviour becomes less elastic under
the action of repeated alternating deforming force is called elastic fatigue.
It is suggested that after a certain time the bridges must be demolished and reconstructed as they
might have developed elastic fatigue.

Q5.The ratio stress/strain remains constant for small deformation. What will be the effect on this
ratio when the deformation made is very large? Explain your answer.
Ans. When the deforming force is applied beyond elastic limit, the strain produced is more than
that has been observed within elastic limit. Due to which the ratio stress/strain will decrease.
Explanation:
Beyond the elastic limit, the body loses its ability to restore completely when subjected to stress.
Thus, there occurs more strain for a given stress. At some points, however, the body undergoes
strain without the application of stress. So, the ratio of stress to stain decreases.

Q6. State Hooke’s law. Deduce expression for young’s modulus of material of a wire of length
‘l’, radius of cross-section ‘r’ loaded with a body of mass M producing an extension ∆l in it.

Q7. A wire of length l area of crossection A and young’s modulus Y is stretched by an amount x.
What is the work done ?
Hint. Work done is equal to Potential energy stored in the wire.
W = U = ½ stress strain volume
= (Yx2A)/ 2L

Q8. Prove that the elastic potential energy per unit volume is equal to stress × strain.
Hint: Energy density=energy/volume

Q9. Define the term bulk modulus. Give its SI unit. Give the relation between bulk modulus and
compressibility.
Hint: The bulk modulus of a substance measures the substance's resistance to uniform
compression. It is defined as the ratio of the infinitesimal pressure increase to the resulting
relative decrease of the volume. Its SI unit is the pascal. Bulk Modulus K=−VdV/dP.

Q10. Define shear modulus. With the help of a diagram explain how shear modulus can be
calculated.
Hint: Shear modulus, also known as Modulus of rigidity, is the measure of the rigidity of the
body, given by the ratio of shear stress to shear strain.

Q11. Which is more elastic steel or rubber. Explain.

Hint: For same force applied to wires made of steel & rubber of same length and same area of
cross section ∆I s < ∆I r

Q12.Two wires P and Q of same diameter are loaded. The length of wire P is L m and its
young’s modulus is Y N/m2 while length of wire Q is twice that of P and its material has
young’s modulus half that of P. Compute the ratio of their elongation.
Ans. 3:8

SECTION C (3 MARKS QUESTIONS)

Q1. The stress-strain graphs for materials A and B are shown in figure.

The graphs are drawn to the same scale.

(a) Which is more brittle? Give reason .
(b) Which of the two is the stronger material? Give reason.
Ans. (a) Material B is more brittle than A, because its plastic range of extension is very small.
(b) Material A is the stronger of the two materials. It is because, it can bear greater stress
before the wire of this material breaks.

Q2. Define the coefficients of linear expansion. Deduce relation between it and coefficient of
superficial expansion and volume expansion.
Hint : Coefficient of Linear Expansion is the rate of change of unit length per unit degree change
in temperature.
Γ = 3α
α:β:γ=1:2:3.
Q3. Two rods of different metals of coefficient of linear expansion α1 and α2 and initial length L1
and L2 respectively are heated to the same temperature. Find relation in α1, α2, L1 and L2 such
that difference between their lengths remain constant.
Hint: Difference of length at any temperature = L1(1+ α1 T) − L2(1+ α2T)
= (L1− L2)+T(L1 α1 − L2α2)
Now since length is independent of temperature, the coefficient of temperature must vanish
So, (L1 α1 − L2 α2)=0
This gives
L1 α1 = L2 α2

Q4. A brass wire 1.8 m long at 27ºC is held taut with little tension between two rigid supports. If
the wire is cooled to a temperature of – 39ºC, what is the tension developed in the wire, if its
diameter is 2.0 mm ? Coefficient of linear expansion of brass = 2.0 × 10–50C–1, Young’s modulus
of brass = 0.91 × 1011 Pa.
Ans. y=stress/strain
= 3.8 × 102N

Q5. Which of the two materials (see figure here) would you choose for a car tire? Why?

Hint:
Rubber (A) would be used.
It will avoid excessive heating of the car tire.
Q6. Why are the bridges declared unsafe after long use?
Ans: A bridge during its use undergoes alternative strains a large number of times each
day, depending upon the movement of vehicles on it. When a bridge is used for a long time it
loses its elastic strength, due to which the number of strains in the bridge for given stress will
become large and ultimately the bridge may collapse.
Thus, to avoid this, the bridges are declared unsafe after long use.
Q 7. The spherical ball contracts in volume by 0.1% when subjected to a uniform normal
pressure of 100 atmosphere calculate the bulk modulus of material of ball?
Ans .Volumetric strain =
Normal Stress = 100 atmosphere = 100 X 105 = 107 N|m2
∴ Bulk Modulus of the material of the ball is = Normal stress / Volumetric strain = 1010N/ m2
Q8. The stress-strain graphs for materials A and B are shown in Fig below

The graphs are drawn to the same scale.

(a) Which of the materials has the greater Young’s modulus?
(b) Which of the two is the stronger material?
Ans. (a) From the two graphs we note that for a given strain, stress for A is more than that of B.
Hence, Young's modulus (=stress/strain) is greater for A than that of B.

(b) A is stronger than B. Strength of a material is measured by the amount of stress required to
cause fracture, corresponding to the point of fracture.

Q9. Below figure shows the strain-stress curve for a given material. What are (a) Young’s
modulus and (b) approximate yield strength for this material?

Ans. (a) It is clear from the given graph that for stress 150 × 106 N/m2, strain is 0.002.
∴Young’s modulus, Y = Stress / Strain
= 150 × 106 / 0.002 = 7.5 × 1010 Nm-2
Hence, Young’s modulus for the given material is 7.5 ×1010 N/m2.
(b) The yield strength of a material is the maximum stress that the material can sustain without
crossing the elastic limit.
It is clear from the given graph that the approximate yield strength of this material is 300 ×
106 Nm/2 or 3 × 108 N/m2.

Q10. How much should the pressure on a litre of water be changed to compress it by 0.10%?

Ans. Volume of water, V = 1 L

It is given that water is to be compressed by 0.10%.
∴ Fractional change, ∆V / V = 0.1 / (100 × 1) = 10-3
Bulk modulus, B = ρ / (∆V/V)
ρ = B × (∆V/V)
Bulk modulus of water, B = 2.2 × 109 Nm-2
ρ = 2.2 × 109 × 10-3 = 2.2 × 106 Nm-2
Therefore, the pressure on water should be 2.2 ×106 Nm–2.

SECTION D ( 4 MARKS EACH)

CASE STUDY BASED QUESTIONS:

Q1. The graph shown below shows qualitatively the relation between the stress and the strain as
the deformation gradually increases. Within Hooke’s limit for a certain region stress and strain
relation is linear. Beyond that up to a certain value of strain the body is still elastic and if
deforming forces are removed the body recovers its original shape.

1. If deforming forces are removed up to which point the curve will be retraced?
 Ans. OB

2. In the above question, during loading and unloading the force exerted by the material are
conservative up to?
Ans. OB

3. During unloading beyond B, say C, the length at zero stress is now lesser or greater than
the original length?
Ans. Greater

4. What is the breaking stress for a wire of unit cross-section called?

Ans. Tensile strength.

Q2. Stress and Strain.

Stress:- When an external force is applied to a body then at each cross section of the body an
internal restoring force is developed which tends to restore the body to its original state. The
internal restoring force per unit area of cross section of the deformed body is called Stress. It is
usually denoted by “σ”(Sigma)

STRESS = FORCE /AREA

Strain:- When the size or shape of a body is changed under an external force, the body is said to
be under Strain. The change occurred in the unit size of the body is called Strain.
STRAIN = EXTENSION / LENGTH

1. Dimensional formula of stress is _____

Ans. ML-1T-2
2. In the volumetric strain, the deforming force produces a change in _____.

Ans. Volume

3. What is meant by tensile stress?

4. What is the formula to calculate the modulus of rigidity?
Ans. The modulus of rigidity is given by the formula:
G= Shearing stress / Shearing strain
 SECTION E (5 MARKS QUESTIONS)

Q1. What is the percentage increase in the length of a wire of diameter 2.5 mm stretched by a
force of 100 kgf? Young’s modulus of elasticity of the wire is 12.5 X1011 dyne cm–2.

Hint: Y = (FL)/ (A×ΔL)

ΔL/L × 100 = 0.16%

Q.2. A cable is replaced by another cable of the same length and material but twice the diameter.
How will this affect the elongation under a given load? How does this affect the maximum load
it can support without exceeding the elastic limit?
Ans Let Y be the Young’s modulus of the material of the wire,L the length and D the diameter.
Let the wire be loaded with a mass M. If Dl is the elongation, we can write,
ΔL = MgL / (D/2)2 Y
ΔL= 4MgL / D2 Y ………. (1)
When the diameter is doubled for the same length (L) and mass (M), the elongation is given by,
ΔL(L) = MgL / (2D/2)2 Y = MgL / D2 Y ……… (2)
From equation 1 & 2 we get
ΔL(L)/ ΔL = 1/4
Therefore, the elongation is one-fourth the elongation with the diameter D of the wire.
From equation 1, it is also clear that , Mg ∝ D2 .
Therefore if diameter is doubled, the wire can support 4 times of the original load.

Q3. Draw and discuss stress versus strain graph, explaining clearly the terms elastic limit,
permanent set, proportionality limit, elastic hysteresis, tensible strength.

Hint:

Q4. .An aluminium wire 1 m in length and radius 1 mm is loaded with a mass of 40 kg hanging
vertically. Young’s modulus of Al is 7.0 × 1010 N/m2. Calculate:
(a) Tensile stress
(b) change in length
(c) Tensile strain
(d) The force constant of such a wire.
Ans. (a) Tensile stress = F/A = 1.27 ×108 N/SqM
(b)ΔL = FL/ AY = 1.8 × 10-3 m
(c)Strain = ΔL/L = 1.8 × 10-3
(d) K =ΔF /L = 2.2 × 105N /m

Q5. The average depth of ocean is 2500 m. Calculate the fractional compression of water at the
bottom of ocean, given that the bulk modulus of water is 2.3 × 109 N/m2.
Ans. Pressure exerted at the bottom layer by water column of height h is P = hρg = 2500 × 1000
× 10 = 2.5 × 107 N/m–2 = Stress

Bulk Modulus , K= Sterss / Strain

ΔV/ V = P/K = 1.08 × 10-2

Q6. A force of 5 × 103 N is applied tangentially to the upper face of a cubical block of steel of
side 30 cm. Find the displacement of the upper face relative to the lower one, and the angle of
shear. The shear modulus of steel is 8.3 × 1010 pa.
Hint: Area A of the upper face = (0.30)2 m2 The displacement ∆x of the upper face relative to
the lower one is given by
Q7. The breaking stress for a metal is 7.8 × 109 Nm–2. Calculate the maximum length of the
wire made of this metal which may be suspended without breaking. The density of the metal =
7.8 × 10–3 kg m–3. Take g = 10 N kg–1.
Hint: Stressmax = e×lengthmax × g
Lmax = 1.02×105 m
Mechanical properties of fluids

www.physicsgurukul.com
 Mechanical Properties of Fluids

Intermolecular
CohessiveForce force Adhesive force
The force of attraction or repulsion acting between the molecules are known
The
as force of attractionforce.
intermolecular between
Themolecules The force of attraction
nature of intermolecular force isbetween the mole-
electromagnetic.
of same substance is called the force of cules of the different substances is called
The intermolecular forces of attraction may be classified into two types.
cohesion. This Forces
1. Cohesive force is lesser in liquids the force of adhesion.
2. Adhesive Forces
and least in gases.

Surface Tension
The property of a liquid due to which its free surface tries to have minimum
surface area is called surface tension. A small liquid drop has spherical shape
due to surface tension. Surface tension of a liquid is measured by the force
acting per unit length on either side of an imaginary line drawn on the free
surface of liquid, then T = (F/L).
(1) It depends only on the nature of liquid and is independent of the area of
surface or length of line considered.
(2) It is a scalar as it has a unique direction which is not to be specified.
(3) Dimension : [MT–2]. (Similar to force constant)
(4) Units : N/m (S.I.) and Dyne/cm [C.G.S.]

Factors Affecting Surface Tension

(1) Temperature : The surface tension of liquid decreases with rise of
temperature
Tt = T0 (1 – α t)
where Tt, T0 are the surface tensions at t0C and 00C respectively and α
is the temperature coefficient of surface tension.
(2) Impurities : A highly soluble substance like sodium chloride when
dissolved in water, increases the surface tension of water. But the springly
soluble substances like phenol when dissolved in water, decreases the
surface tension of water.

Surface Energy
The potential energy of surface molecules per unit area of the surface is
called surface energy.
Unit : Joule/m2 (S.I.) erg/cm2 (C.G.S.)
Dimension : [MT–2]
∴ W = T × ∆A [∆A = Total increases in area of the film from both the sides]

202 Physics Class XI

 i.e., surface tension may be defined as the amount of work done in increasing
the area of the liquid surface by unity against the force of surface tension at
constant temperature.

Splitting of Bigger Drop

When a drop of radius R splits into n smaller drops, (each of radius r) then
surface area of liquid increases.
R3 = nr3
Work done = T × ∆A = T [Total final surface area of n drops
– surface area of big drop] = T[nπr2 – 4πR2].

Excess Pressure
Excess pressure in different cases is given in the following table :
Plane surface Concave surface
L L
x
B D C

x
O

Convex surface Drop

Ultimate Tension strength Ultimate Tension strength

Fracting Fracting
Stress

Point
Stress

Point
mit
r li
ea
Lin
Linear limit

Strain E Strain E
[Material (i)] [Material (ii)]

Bubble air Bubble in liquid

v v v

t t t t

P

Properties Of Matter 203

 Shape of Liquid Meniscus
The curved surface of the liquid is called meniscus of the liquid.
If Fc = Fc < Fc >
tan α = ∞ ∴ α = 90º i.e., tan α = positive ∴ α tan α = negative ∴ α
the resultant force acts is acute angle i.e., the is obtuse angle i.e., the
vertically downwards. resultant force directed resultant force directed
Hence the liquid meniscus outside the liquid. Hence inside the liquid. Hence
must be horizontal. the liquid meniscus must the liquid meniscus must
be concave upward. be convex upward.

Al
Steel

Example : Pure water Example : Water in glass Example : Mercury in

in silver coated capillary
capillary tube. glass capillary tube.
tube.

Angle of Contact
Angle of contact between a liquid and a solid is defined as the angle enclosed
between the tangents to the liquid surface and the solid surface inside the
liquid, both the tangents being drawn at the point of contact of the liquid with
the solid.

θ < 90º θ = 90º θ > 90º

E
Temperature (%)

100°C C
D

A B

concave meniscus. plane meniscus. convex meniscus,

Liquid wets the Liquid does not wet the does not wet the
solid surface. solid surface. solid surface.

204 Physics Class XI

 (i) Its value lies between 0º and 180º.
θ = 0º for pure water and glass, θ = 90º for water and silver.
(ii) On increasing the temperature, angle of contact decreases.
(iii) Soluble impurities increases the angle of contact.
(iv) Partially soluble impurities decreases the angle of contact.

Capillarity
If a tube of very narrow bore (called capillary) is dipped in a liquid, it is
found that the liquid in the capillary either ascends or descends relative to the
surrounding liquid. This phenomenon is called capillarity.
The cause of capillarity is the difference in pressures on two sides curved
surface of liquid.

Ascent Formula
When one end of capillary tube of radius r is immersed into a liquid of
density d which wets the sides of the capillary and R = radius of curvature of
liquid meniscus.
T = surface tension of liquid
P = atmospheric pressure

∴ h =

Important points
(i) The capillary rise depends on the nature of liquid and solid both i.e., on
T. d, θ and R.
(ii) Capillary action for various liquid-solid pair.
Meniscus Angle of contact Level
Concave θ < 90º Rises
Plane θ = 90º No rise no fall
Convex θ > 90º Fall

Pressure
The normal force exerted by liquid at rest on a given surface in contact with
it is called thrust of liquid on that surface.
If F be the normal force acting on a surface of area A in contact with liquid, then
Properties Of Matter 205
 pressure exerted by liquid on this surface is P = F/A
(1) Units : N/m2 or Pascal (S.I.) and Dyne/cm2 (C.G.S.)

(2) Dimension : [P] =

(3) Pressure is a tensor quantity.

(4) Atmospheric pressure : atm = 1.01 × 105 Pa = 1.01bar = 1 torr.
(5) If P0 is the atmospheric pressure then for a point at depth h below the
surface of a liquid of density ρ, hydrostatic pressure P is given by P =
P0 + hρg.
(6) Gauge pressure : The pressure difference between hydrostatic pressure
P and atmospheric pressure P0 is called gauge pressure. P – P0 + hρg.

Pascal’s Law
The increase in pressure at one point of the enclosed liquid in equilibrium
of rest is transmitted equally to all other points of the liquid and also to the
walls of the container, provided the effect of gravity is neglected.
Example : Hydraulic lift, hydraulic press and hydraulic brakes.

Archimedes Principle
When a body is immersed partly or wholly in a fluid, in rest it is buoyed
up with a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body. This
principle is called Archimedes principle. Apparent weight of the body of
density (ρ) when immersed in a liquid of density (σ).
Apparent weight = Actual weight – Upthrust
= W – Fup = Vρg – Vσg = V(ρ – σ)g

∴ Wapp =

(1) Relative density of a body (R.D.)

206 Physics Class XI

 (2) If the loss of weight of a body in water is ‘a’ while in liquid is ‘b’

∴ =

=
Streamline, Laminar and Turbulent Flow
(1) Stream line flow : Stream line flow of a liquid is that flow in which each
element of the liquid passing through a point travels along the same path
and with the same velocity as the preceding element passes through that
point.
The two streamlines cannot cross each other and the greater is the
crowding of streamlines at a place, the greater is the velocity of liquid
particles at that place.
(2) Laminar flow : If a liquid is flowing a horizontal surface with a steady
flow and moves in the form of layers of different velocities which do
not mix with each other, then the flow of liquid is called laminar flow.
In this flow the velocity of liquid flow is always less than the critical
velocity of the liquid.
(3) Turbulent flow : When a liquid moves with a velocity greater than its
critical velocity, the motion of the particles of liquid becomes disordered
or irregular. Such a flow is called a turbulent flow.
Critical Velocity
The critical velocity is that velocity of liquid flow upto which its flow is
streamlined and above which its flow becomes turbulent.
Equation of Continuity
The equation of continuity is derived from the principle of conservation of
mass.
For an incompressible, streamlined and non-viscous liquid product of area
of cross section of tube and velocity of liquid remains constant.
i.e., a1v1 = a2v2

Properties Of Matter 207

 or av = constant; or

When water falls from a tap, the velocity of falling water under the action of
gravity will increase with distance from the tap (i.e., v2 > v1). So in accordance
with continuity equation the cross section of the water stream will decrease (i.e.,
A2 < A1), i.e., the falling stream of water becomes narrower.

Energy of a Flowing Fluid

Pressure Energy Potential energy Kinetic energy
It is the energy possessed It is the energy possessed It is the energy possessed
by a liquid by virtue of its by liquid by virtue of its by a liquid by virtue of its
pressure. It is the measure height or position above motion or velocity.
of work done in pushing the surface of earth or any
the liquid against pressure reference level taken as
without imparting any zero level.
velocity to it.
Pressure energy of the Potential energy of the Kinetic energy of the
liquid PV liquid mgh Potential
energy per unit mass of liquid Kinetic
Pressure energy per unit the liquid gh energy per unit mass of
mass of the liquid the liquid
Potential energy per unit Kinetic energy per unit
Pressure energy per unit volume of the liquid volume of the liquid
volume of the liquid P

Bernoulli’s Theorem
According to this theorem the total energy (pressure energy, potential energy
and kinetic energy) per unit volume or mass of an incompressible and non-viscous
fluid in steady flow through a pipe remains constant throughout the flow.

= constant

208 Physics Class XI

 (i) Bernoulli’s theorem for unit mass of :

= constant

(ii) Dividing above equation by g, we get

= constant

Here is called pressure head, h is called gravitational head and

is called velocity head.

Applications of Bernoulli’s Theorem

(i) Attraction between two closely parallel moving boats.
(ii) Working of an aeroplane : ‘dynamic lift’
(= pressure difference × area of wing) Load
A

(iii) Action of atomiser : B

(iv) Blowing off roofs by wind storms

(v) Magnus effect : When a spinning ball is
Extension
thrown, it deviates from its usual path in
flight. This effect is called Magnus effect.
(vi) Venturimeter : It is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of liquid
through pipes.

Rate of flow of liquid V =

Velocity of Efflux
Velocity of efflux from a hole made at a depth h below the free surface of
the liquid (of depth H) is given by
Which is same as the final speed of a free falling object from rest through a
height h. This result is known as Torricelli’s theorem.
Viscosity and Newton’s law of Viscous Force
The property of a fluid due to which it opposes the relative motion between
its different layers is called viscosity (or fluid friction or internal friction) and
the force between the layers opposing the relative motion is called viscous
force.

Properties Of Matter 209

 Viscous force F is proportional to the area of the plane A and the velocity

gradient in a direction normal to the layer,

i.e., F =
Where η is a constant called the coefficient of viscosity. Negative sign is
employed because viscous force acts in a direction opposite to the flow of
liquid.
(1) Units : dyne-s-cm–2 or Poise (C.G.S. system);
Newton-s-m–2 or Poiseuille or decapoise (S.I. system)
1 Poiseuille = 1 decapoise = 10 Poise
(2) Dimension : [ML–1T–1]
(3) With increase in pressure, the viscosity of liquids (except water) increases
while that of gases is independent of pressure. The viscosity of water
decreases with increase in pressure.
(4) Solid friction is independent of the area of surfaces in contact and the
relative velocity between them.
(5) Viscosity represents transport of momentum, while diffusion and
conduction represents transport of mass and energy respectively.
(6) The viscosity of gases increases with increase of temperature.
(7) The viscosity of liquid decreases with increase of temperature.

Stoke’s Law and Terminal Velocity

Stokes established that if a sphere of radius r moves with velocity v through
a fluid of viscosity η, the viscous force opposing the motion of the sphere is
F = 6πηrv (stokes law)
If a spherical body of radius r is dropped in a viscous fluid, it is first
accelerated and then it’s acceleration becomes zero and it attains a constant
velocity called terminal velocity.

Terminal velocity v =

(i) If ρ > σ then body will attain constant velocity in downward direc-
tion.
(ii) If ρ < σ then body will attain constant velocity in upward direction.
Example : Air bubble in a liquid and clouds in sky.

210 Physics Class XI

 (iii) Terminal velocity graph :

Poiseuille’s Formula
Poiseuille studied the stream–line flow of liquid in capillary tubes. He found
that if a pressure difference (P) is maintained across the two ends of a capillary
tube of length ‘l’ and radius r, then the volume of liquid coming out of the
tube per second is

(Poiseuille's equation)

This equation also can be written as, V = where R =

R is called as liquid resistance.

3.40 Stefan’s Law

According to it the radiant energy emitted by a perfectly black body per unit
area per sec (i.e., emissive power of black body) is directly proportional to
the fourth power of its absolute temperature.
i.e., E α T4 or E = σ T4
where σ = Stefan’s constant having dimension [MT–3θ–4] and value
5.67 × 10–8 W/m2K4.
(i) If e is the emissivity of the body then E = e σ T4
(ii) If Q is the total energy radiated by the body then Q = At e σ T4
(iii) If a body at temperature T is surrounded by a body at temperature
T0, then E = e σ (T4 – T04).

Nature of thermal Radiation

• Radiation emitted by a black body is a mixture of waves of different
wavelengths and only a small range of wavelength has significant
contribution in the total radiation.

Properties Of Matter 211

 QUESTION BANK

MCQs

1. While studying about fluid mechanics, the equations and postulates stand for the fluids [1]
which are

a) non-viscous only b) incompressible only

c) liquid only d) non-viscous and incompressible

2. A body is just floating on the surface of a liquid. The density of the body is same as that of [1]
the liquid. The body, is slightly pushed down. What will happen to the body?

a) It will remain submerged where it b) It will sink

is left

c) It will come out violently d) It will come back slowly to its

earlier position

3. If a liquid does not wet glass, its angle of contact is [1]

a) zero b) right angle

c) acute d) obtuse

4. Two non-mixing liquids. of densities ρ and nρ(n > 1) are put in a container. The height of [1]
each liquid is h. A solid cylinder of length L and density d is put in this container. The
cylinder floats with its axis vertical and length pL(p < 1) in the denser liquid. The density of
d is equal to

a) [2 + (n - 1)p]ρ b) [1 + (n + 1)p]ρ

c) [1 + (n - 1)p]ρ d) [2 + (n + 1)p]ρ

5. Two match sticks are laid side by side on the surface of the water. When a drop of light oil [1]
on the end of a third match stick is touched to the surface film between the two floating
sticks, the two match sticks

a) will move apart rapidly b) will remain as they are

c) will come closer d) will be joined

6. Two spherical soap bubbles of radii r1 and r2 in vacuum combine under isothermal [1]
conditions. The resulting bubble has a radius equal to:

a) b)
√r1r2 √r21 + r22

c) d)
 r1 + r2 r 1r 2

2 r1 + r2

7. The three vessels shown in figure have same base area. Equal volumes of a liquid are [1]
poured in the three vessels. The force on the base will be:

a) equal in all vessels b) maximum at vessel A

c) maximum at vessel C d) maximum at vessel B

8. Water rises in plant fibres due to: [1]

a) Osmosis b) Viscosity

c) Fluid pressure d) Capillarity

9. Liquid reaches an equilibrium as shown, in a capillary tube of internal radius r. If the [1]
surface tension of the liquid is T, the angle of contact θ and density of liquid μ, then the
pressure difference between P and Q is:

a) 4T b) T

( )
r
cosθ
rcos θ

c) 2T d) 2T

( )
r
cosθ
rcos θ

10. A gas flows with a velocity v along a pipe of cross-sectional area S and bent an angle of 90° [1]
at a point A. What force does the gas exert on the pipe at A if its density is ρ?

a) b)
√3Sv 2ρ √2Sv

2 ρ

c) d)
√3Sv 2ρ √2Sv 2ρ

11. Select the correct statement. [1]

a) Two streamlines will intersect at an b) Two streamlines will never

angle of 30° between them. intersect.
 c) Two streamlines are always d) Two streamlines will not exist.
perpendicular.

12. A drop of water of volume V is pressed between the two glass plates so as to spread to an [1]
area A. If T is the surface tension, the normal force required to separate the glass plates is:

a) 4TA 2 b) TA 2

V V

c) 2TA 2 d) TA 2

V 2V

13. A square plate 0.15 m side moves parallel to the second plate with a velocity of 0.1 ms-1 [1]
both plates being immersed in water. If the viscous force is 0.0025 N and the coefficient of
viscosity 0.001 poise, the distance between the plates is:

a) 0.0005 m b) 0.0009 m

c) 0.05 m d) 0.0015 m

14. A small solid ball is released in a viscous liquid. The velocity of ball is given by: [1]

a) Curve A b) Curve D

c) Curve C d) Curve B

15. Energy needed in the breaking of a drop of radius R into n drops of radius r is given by: [1]
(with S surface tension and P atmospheric pressure)

a) (4πr2n - 4πR2)S b) 4 4

( 3
πr 3n −
3 )
πR 3 S

c) (4πr2n - 4πR2)P d) (4πR2n - 4πr2)nS

16. Water hammering (striking of water on the walls of pipe with great velocity) in a pipeline is [1]
due to,

i. gradual closure of the valve.

ii. sudden closure of the valve.
 iii. increase in the area of the pipe.

a) Only (ii) b) Only (i)

c) (i), (ii) and (iii) d) Both (i) and (ii)

17. A candle of diameter d is floating on a liquid in a cylindrical container of diameter D(D >> [1]
d) as shown in figure. It is burning at the rate of 2 cm/hour, then the top of the candle will:

a) fall at the rate of 1 cm/hour b) go up at the rate of 1 cm/hour

c) remain at the same height d) fall at the rate of 2 cm/hour

18. The basic property of a fluid that makes it different from solids is that: [1]

a) It can be compressed b) It does not expand on heating

c) It has a large density d) It can flow

19. Arrange the liquids which are more likely to show streamlined flow, in descending order. [1]
i. Water at 14 °C
ii. Water at 40 °C
iii. Glycerine
iv. Blood

a) (iii), (iv), (ii), (i) b) (iv), (iii), (i), (ii)

c) (iv), (iii), (ii), (i) d) (iii), (iv), (i), (ii)

20. Surface tension of a stretched film equals to [1]

a) half the change in potential energy b) force per area

per increase in area per side

c) potential energy per area d) work done per unit area

Assertion and Reason
21. Assertion: A large force is required to draw apart normally two glass plates enclosing a [1]
thin water film.
Reason: Water works as glue and sticks two glass plates.

a) Assertion and reason both are b) Assertion and reason both are
correct statements and reason is correct statements but reason is not
correct explanation for assertion. correct explanation for assertion.

c) Assertion is correct statement but d) Assertion is wrong statement but

reason is wrong statement. reason is correct statement.

22. Assertion: When the height of a tube is less than the liquid rise in the capillary tube, the [1]
liquid does not overflow.
Reason: Product of radius of meniscus and height of the liquid in capillary tube always
remains constant.

a) Assertion and reason both are b) Assertion and reason both are
correct statements and reason is correct statements but reason is not
 correct explanation for assertion. correct explanation for assertion.

c) Assertion is correct statement but d) Assertion is wrong statement but

reason is wrong statement. reason is correct statement.

23. Assertion: A thin stainless steel needle can lay floating on a still water surface. [1]
Reason: Any object floats, when the buoyancy force balances the weight of the object.

a) Assertion and reason both are b) Assertion and reason both are
correct statements and reason is correct statements but reason is not
correct explanation for assertion. correct explanation for assertion.

c) Assertion is correct statement but d) Assertion is wrong statement but

reason is wrong statement. reason is correct statement.

24. Assertion: Bernoulli's theorem is applicable only on laminar flow. [1]

Reason: Laminar flow is considered to be non-viscous.

a) Assertion and reason both are b) Assertion and reason both are
correct statements and reason is correct statements but reason is not
correct explanation for assertion. correct explanation for assertion.

c) Assertion is correct statement but d) Assertion is wrong statement but

reason is wrong statement. reason is correct statement.

25. Assertion: For Reynold's number Re > 2000, the flow of fluid is turbulent. [1]
Reason: Inertial forces are dominant compared to the viscous forces at such high Reynold's
numbers.

a) Assertion and reason both are b) Assertion and reason both are
correct statements and reason is correct statements but reason is not
correct explanation for assertion. correct explanation for assertion.

c) Assertion is correct statement but d) Assertion is wrong statement but

reason is wrong statement. reason is correct statement.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS - I

26. Define the terms thrust and pressure. Give their SI units. [2]

27. In a mercury barometer, at sea level, the normal pressure of the air (one atmosphere) [2]
acting on the mercury in the dish supports a 76 cm column of mercury in a closed tube. If
you go up in the air, until the density has fallen to half its sea level value, what height of
mercury column would you expect?

28. A bubble having surface tension T and radius R is formed on a ring of radius b (b << R). Air [2]
is blown inside the tube with velocity v as shown. The air molecule collides perpendicularly
with the wall of the bubble and stops. Calculate the radius at which the bubble separates
from the ring.

29. What should be the pressure inside a small air bubble of 0.1mm radius situated just below [2]
the water surface? Given Surface tension of water = 7.2 × 10-2 Nm-1 and atmospheric
pressure = 1.013 × 105 Nm-2.

30. Why does a small piece of camphor dance about on the water surface? [2]

31. The terminal velocity of a tiny droplet is v. N number of such identical droplets combine [2]
 together forming a bigger drop. Find the terminal velocity of the bigger drop.

32. A liquid flows through a pipe of 1.0 mm radius and 10 cm length under a pressure 104 dyne [2]
cm-2. Calculate the rate of flow and the speed of the liquid coming out of the tube. The
coefficient of viscosity of the liquid is 1.25 centipoise.

33. A block weighs 15 N in air. It weighs 12 N when immersed in water. When immersed in [2]
another liquid, it weighs 13 N. Calculate the relative density (specific gravity) of
i. the block and
ii. the other liquid.

34. Why the food is cooked faster in the pressure cooker? Why? [2]

35. How much will a body of 70 N weigh in water if it displaces 200 ml of water? [2]

36. Why is mercury used in barometers? [2]

37. The two thigh bones (femurs), each of cross-sectional area 8.5 cm2 support the upper part [2]
of a human body of mass 60 kg. Estimate the average pressure sustained by the bones.

38. The surface tension and vapour pressure of water at 20°C is 7.28 × 10–2 Nm–1 and 2.33 × [2]

103 Pa, respectively. What is the radius of the smallest spherical water droplet which can
form without evaporating at 20°C?

39. Why is a soap solution a better cleansing agent than ordinary water? [2]

40. What are the limitations of Bernoulli's theorem? [2]

41. A horizontal pipe line carries water in a streamline flow. At a point along the pipe where [2]
the cross-sectional area is 10 cm2, the water velocity is 1 ms-1 and the pressure is 2000 Pa.
What is the pressure at another point where the cross-sectional area is 5 cm2?

42. What do you mean by absolute pressure and gauge pressure? [2]

43. Calculate the height to which water will rise in capillary tube of 1.5 mm diameter. Surface [2]
tension of water is 7.4 × 10-3 Nm-1.

44. Two soap bubbles in vacuum having radii 3 cm and 4 cm respectively coalesce under [2]
isothermal conditions to form a single bubble. What is the radius of the new bubble?

45. A cubical block of wood 10.0 cm on a side floats at the interface between oil and water, with [2]
its lower surface horizontal and 4.0 cm below the interface. What is the mass of the block?
The density of the oil is 0.6 g cm-3.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS - II

46. Mercury has an angle of contact equal to 140o with soda-lime glass. A narrow tube of radius [3]
1.00 mm made of this glass is dipped in a trough containing mercury. By what amount does
the mercury dip down in the tube relative to the liquid surface outside? Surface tension of
mercury at the temperature of the experiment is 0.465 N m-1. Density of mercury = 13.6 ×
103 kgm-3..

47. Calculate the radius of new bubble formed when two bubbles of radius r1 and r2 coalesce? [3]

48. A 50 kg girl wearing high heel shoes balances on a single heel. The heel is circular with a [3]
diameter 1.0 cm. What is the pressure exerted by the heel on the horizontal floor?

49. In deriving Bernoulli's equation, we equated the work done on the fluid in the tube due to [3]
its change in the potential and kinetic energy.
 a. What is the largest average velocity of blood flow in an artery of diameter 2 × 10 − 3 m if

the flow must remain laminar?(Given, η blood = 2.084 × 10 − 3PaS and

ρ blood = 1.06 × 10 3Kg / m 3)

b. Do the dissipative forces become more important as the fluid velocity increases? Discuss
qualitatively.

50. A cubical block of density ρ is floating on the surface of water. Out of its height L, fraction x [3]
is submerged in water. The vessel is in an elevator accelerating upward with acceleration a.
What is the fraction immersed?

51. A sphere is dropped under gravity through a fluid of viscosity η. Taking the average [3]
acceleration as half of the initial acceleration, show that the time taken to attain the
terminal velocity is independent of the fluid density.

52. What is the excess pressure inside a bubble of soap solution of radius 5.00 mm, given that [3]
o -2 -1
the surface tension of soap solution at the temperature (20 C) is 2.50 × 10 Nm ? If an air
bubble of the same dimension were formed at depth of 40.0 cm inside a container
containing the soap solution (of relative density 1.20), what would be the pressure inside
the bubble? (1 atmospheric pressure is 1.01 × 105 Pa).

53. A U-tube contains water and methylated spirit separated by mercury. The mercury columns [3]
in the two arms are in level with 10.0 cm of water in one arm and 12.5 cm of spirit in the
other. What is the specific gravity of spirit?

54. The density of ice is 0.918 g cm-3 water is 1.03 g cm-3. An iceberg floats with a and that of [3]
portion of 224 m3 outside the surface of water. Find the total volume of the iceberg,

55. State and prove the equation of continuity for steady flow of an ideal fluid. [3]

56. Figures (a) and (b) refer to the steady flow of a (non-viscous) liquid. Which of the two [3]
figures is incorrect? Why?

57. Find the work done in breaking a water drop of radius 1 mm into 1000 drops. Given the [3]
surface tension of water is 72 × 10-3 N/m?

58. A venturimeter is connected to two points in the mains where its radii are 20cm and 10cm, [3]
respectively, and the levels of water column in the tubes differ by 10cm. How much water
flows through the pipe per minute?

59. Briefly explain the construction and working of a hydraulic brake. [3]

60. A large bottle is fitted with a siphon made of capillary glass tubing. Compare the times to [3]
empty the bottle when it is filled
i. with water
ii. with petrol of density 0.8 cgs units. The viscosity of water and petrol are 0.01 and 0.02
cgs units respectively.

LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (5 MARKS)

61. a. It is known that density ρ of air decreases with height y as [5]

 ρ = ρ 0e − y / y 0

where ρ o = 1.25 kg m-3 is the density at sea level, and y0 is a constant. This density

variation is called the law of atmospheres. Obtain this law assuming that the
temperature of the atmosphere remains constant (isothermal conditions). Also, assume
that the value of g remains constant.
b. A large He balloon of volume 1425 m3 is used to lift a payload of 400 kg. Assume that the
balloon maintains a constant radius as it rises. How high does it rise?

[Take y0 = 8000 m and ρHe = 0.18 kg m-3].

62. What is the density of water at a depth where pressure is 80.0 atm, given that its density at [5]
the surface is 1.03 × 103 kg/m3.

63. Explain why [5]

i. The angle of contact of mercury with glass is obtuse, while that of water with glass is
acute.
ii. The surface tension of a liquid is independent of the area of the surface.
iii. Water with detergents dissolved in it should have small angles of contact.
iv. A drop of liquid under no external forces is always spherical in shape.

64. The surface tension of soap solution at 20 °C is 2.50 × 10 − 2 N m-1. Calculate the excess [5]

pressure inside a soap bubble of radius 5 mm of this solution. If an air bubble of the same
dimension were formed at depth of 40.0 cm inside a container containing the soap solution
of relative density 1.20, what would be the pressure inside the bubble? (1 atm = 1.01 × 105
pa.).

65. i. Pressure decreases as one ascends the atmosphere. If the density of air is ρ, what is the [5]

change in pressure dp over a differential height dh?

ii. Considering the pressure p to be proportional to the density, find the pressure p at a
height h if the pressure on the surface of the earth is p0.

iii. If p0 = 1.03 × 105 N m–2, ρ0 = 1.29 kg m–3 and g = 9.8 ms–2, at what height will the
pressure drop to (1/10) the value at the surface of the earth?
iv. This model of the atmosphere works for relatively small distances. Identify the
underlying assumption that limits the model.

CASE STUDY BASED QUESTIONS

66. Read the text carefully and answer the questions: [4]
Hydraulic lift is an application of Pascal's law. It is used to lift heavy loads. It is a force
multiplier. So, when small forces applied on the smaller piston (acting downward) will be
appearing as a very large force (acting upward) on the larger piston. As a result of it, a
heavy load placed on the larger piston is easily lifted upwards.

(i) Pascal's law states that pressure in a fluid at rest is the same at all points, if
 a) they are at the same height and b) they are along same plane
they are along same plane

c) they are at the same height d) they are along same line

OR
Pressure at a point inside a liquid does not depend on
a) the nature of the liquid b) the acceleration due to gravity at
that point

c) total weight of fluid in the d) the depth of the point below the
beaker surface of the liquid

(ii) Pressure is applied to an enclosed fluid as shown in the above figure. It is

a) transmitted unchanged to every b) diminished and transmitted to

portion of the fluid and the walls the walls of the container
of container

c) increased and applied to every d) increased in proportion to the

part of the fluid mass of the fluid and then
transmitted

(iii) A hydraulic lift has 2 limbs of areas A and 2A. Force F is applied over limb of area A to lift a
heavy car. If distance moved by piston P1 is x, then distance moved by piston P2 is

a) 2x b) 4x

c) x d) x

(iv) If work done by piston in the given figure on fluid is W1, then work done by fluid in limbs
on piston P2 is

a) W1 b) W 1

c) 4W1 d) W 1

67. Read the text carefully and answer the questions: [4]
Consider the flow at two regions 1 (i.e. BC) and 2 (i.e. DE). Consider the fluid initially lying
between B and D. In an infinitesimally time interval Δt, this fluid would have moved.
 Suppose v1 is the speed at which fluid would have moved. Suppose v1 is the speed at B and
v2 at D, then fluid initially at B has moved a distance v1Δt to C (v1Δt is small enough to
assume constant cross-section along BC).
In the same interval Δt, the fluid initially
at D moves to E, a distance equal to v2Δt.
Pressures p1 and p2 act as shown on the plane faces of areas A1 and A2 binding the two
regions as shown in figure

(i) The work done on the fluid at BC is

a) p1A1Δt b) A1Δv

c) p1v1Δt d) p1Δv

OR
Expression of Bernoulli's equation is
a) 1 b) 1
p + ρv2 + ρgh​​= constant p+ ρv2 + ρ​​gh = constant
2 2

c) 1 d) 1
ρv2 + ρgh = constant p+ ρv2 = constant
2 2

(ii) The work done on the fluid of DE is

a) p2v2Δt​​ b) p2ΔV

c) p1A2Δt d) -p2ΔV

(iii) Total work done on the fluid is

a) p1ΔV b) p2ΔV

c) p 1 − p 2 d) (p1 - p2) ΔV

ΔV
2

(iv) The change in its kinetic energy is

a) 1 b) 2 2
2 2 ρΔV(v 2 − v 1)
ρΔV(v 2 + v 1)
2
c) 1 d) 1
2 2 2 2
ΔV(v 2 − v 1) ρΔV(v 2 − v 1)
2 2
 Solution
of
QUESTION BANK

MCQs
1. (d) non-viscous and incompressible

Explanation: The equations and postulates of fluid mechanics are applicable to non-viscous and
incompressible fluids.
2. (b) It will sink
Explanation:
When a body just floating in a liquid (whose density is equal to the density of body),
is pushed down slightly, the downward force on the body (due to atmospheric pressure and due to
water column above the body) increases. As a result of which body sinks.
3. (c) acute

Explanation: The angle of contact is obtuse for a liquid that does not wet glass.
4. (c) [1 + (n - 1)p]ρ
Explanation:

Weight of the cylinder = Upthrust exerted by the two liquids

⇒  ALdg = (1 - p)LAρg + A (pL) (nρ)g

∴ d = (1 - p) ρ + pnρ

= ρ + (n - 1) pρ

= [1 + (n - 1)p] ρ
5. (a) will move apart rapidly
Explanation: They will move
apart rapidly because the surface tension of oil is lesser than that of
water.
−−−−−−
6. (b) √r 2
+ r
2

1 2

Explanation: Since, the bubbles coalesce in vacuum and there is no change in temperature, hence
its surface energy does not change. This means that the surface area remains unchanged.

Hence, 4πr + 4πr = 4πR

2 2 2

−−−−− −
1

2

or R = √r + r 2
1
2
2

7. (c) maximum at vessel C

Explanation: Three vessels
have same base area and equal volumes of liquid are added in them.
Considering the geometry of vessels, liquid in vessel ‘C’ will rise to maximum height amongst the
three.
Force
on base (F) ∝  Pressure exerted on base (P) ∝  height of liquid (h)
Hence, the force on the base will be maximum at vessel C.

8. (d) Capillarity
Explanation:
Water rises in plant fibres due to capillarity.
9. (c) ( ) cos θ
2T

Explanation: Radius of curvature at meniscus R = (r/cosθ )

Pressure difference across meniscus =  2T

∴ Pressure difference = 
2T cos θ

–
10. (d) √2S v ρ 2

Explanation:
Take x-axis along the flow and y-axis perpendicular to it.
^ ^

⃗ 
vinitial = vi; ⃗  inal = v j
vf

^ ^
∴ Δv ⃗ = v j − v i
−−−−−−−
2 2
–

|Δv|⃗  = √(v + v ) = √2v

 Force exerted on the pipe = mΔv

– – 2

= Sρ v(v√2) = √2 su ρ

11. (b) Two streamlines will never intersect.

Explanation: Streamline flow occurs when
a fluid flows in parallel layers.
2

12. (c) 2T A

Explanation:

Excess pressure,

p = T ( − ) =  1 1 T

R ∞ R

=  T
=
2T

d/2 d

Volume, V = Ad and p =  2T A

2
V

F = force = pA =  2T A

13. (b) 0.0009 m

Explanation:
As we know that,

F = ηA dv

dx

∴ dx = η
Adv

2
0.001×(0.15) ×0.1
=   = 0.0009 m
0.0025

14. (c) Curve C

Explanation:
According to Stokes’ law, initially velocity increases with faster rate and after same
time it will constant, so, graph is C.
15. (a) (4πr2n - 4πR2)S

Explanation: Energy = Surface tension ×  Area

2

Ei = S (4πR )

Ef = nS (4πr2)

Energy required = Ef − Ei

= S (4πr2n − 4πR2)
16. (a) Only (ii)
Explanation:
The valve regulates the flow of water in the pipe when the valve is completely open
the water flows with velocity v. If the valve is suddenly closed the momentum of the flowing water
is disturbed and a wave of high pressure is set up resulting in a hammering.
17. (a) fall at the rate of 1 cm/hour
Explanation: Initial weight of the
candle = weight of liquid displaced
ρcVcg = ρL (volume of liquid displaced) g

2

2
or ρ π( ) 2L = ρ π( ) Lg
e
d
L
d

2 2

or  =  ...(i)
ρ
c 1

ρ 2
L

When 2 cm has been burnt, total length = 2 L - 2

But ρc (2L - 2) = ρL (L - x)

Using eqn.(i) we get;

x = 1 cm

The length
of the candle outside the liquid is also decreased by 1 cm as the total decrease is 2 cm.
The level of the candle comes down at half the rate of burning.
18. (d) It can flow
Explanation:
Fluids can flow due to unbalanced forces between the atoms of fluids.
19. (d) (iii), (iv), (i), (ii)
Explanation: More
viscous fluids are more likely to show streamline behavior. Also, the viscosity
of liquids decreases with an increase in temperature. The viscosity of glycerine is higher than
blood.
Hence,
the order will be Glycerine →  Blood →  Water at 14 °C →  Water at 40 °C
20. (a) half the change in potential energy per increase in area per side

Explanation: T = 
Surf ace energy

I ncreasing in area of  the f ilm on both sides

=  ΔP .E.

2× Increase in area on oneside 

 Assertion and Reason
21. (c) Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.
Explanation: Assertion is true but the reason is false. The two glass plates stick together due to
large forces of adhesion.
22. (a) Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct explanation for
assertion.
Explanation: hR =  = a constant 2σ

ρg

When h decreases, R increases but the liquid does not overflow.

23. (c) Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.
Explanation: The needle floats when the upward tension on the
needle balances its weight.
24. (c) Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.
Explanation: Laminar flow may be viscous or non-viscous.

25. (a) Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct explanation for
assertion.

Explanation: Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct explanation
for assertion.
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS - I
26. Force exerted by an object perpendicular to the surface is called thrust and the force exerted by
any object per unit area is called pressure.

SI unit of force is newton (N) and SI unit of pressure is pascal (P) or newton per square metre i.e., N

sq.
27. The pressure exerted by a gas is directly proportional to its density. When we go high up in air at a
point where the density of air falls to half its sea-level value, the pressure also reduces to half its
sea-level value. Hence the height of the mercury column is also halved i.e., it becomes 38 cm.
28. The bubble will separate front the ring when

2πb × 2T sin θ = ρAv2

or 4π bT × = ρ× πb2 × v2b

or R = 4T
2
ρv

29. According to the question , Radius of air bubble ; r = 0.1mm

= 0.1 × 10-3 m

Surface tension of water, S= 7.2 × 10-2 Nm-1.

The excess pressure inside an air bubble is given by

P2 - P1 = , where 2S

P2 = Pressure inside air bubble

P1 = Atmospheric pressure

P2 = P1 + 2S

P2 = 1.01 × 105 + 2×0.0072

0.00001

= 1.013 × 105 + 1.44 × 103

= 1.027 × 105 Nm-2

30. Due to its irregular shape, the camphor piece dissolves more rapidly at some points than at others.
Where it dissolves, the surface tension of water is reduced. As the force of surface tension reduces
by different amounts at different points of the camphor piece, a resultant force acts on it which
makes it dance about on the water surface.
2

31. The terminal velocity is given by υ = ....(i), where η = coefficient of discovery. σ = density
g(σ−ρ)r
2
[ ]
9 η

of the liquid and ρ = density of the object. If N drops coalesce, then

Volume of one big drop = volume of N small droplets

4 3 4 3

πR = N ( πr )

3 3

R = N1/3 r
−1

r = RN 3

−2/3 2

Placing these values in the equation..(i) , we get υ = 2 (σ−ρ)N R

g[ ]
9 η

−2/3
υ = VN

V = N , is the terminal velocity of the larger drop.

2/3
υ

32. Here r = 1.0 mm = 0.1 cm, l = 10 cm, p = 104 dyne cm-2, η = 1.25 centipoise = 0.0125 poise
Rate of flow,

 4 4
4

Q=
πpr 3.142×10 ×(0.1)
=

8ηl 8×0.0125×10

= 3.142 cm3 s-1

Speed of liquid,

v=
Q 3.142 1 1
= = =
πr2 r2

2
 Cross - sectional area  (0.1)

= 100 cms-1 = 1 ms-1

33. i. Relative density of the block

 Weight of the block in air 

=

 Loss in weight when immersed in water 

=
15

15−12
=5
ii. Relative density of the liquid

 Loss in weight when immersed in liquid 

=
 Loss in weight when immersed in water 

15−13 2
= =
15−12 3

34. The pressure inside the pressure cooker is very high. This raises the boiling point of water and the
temperature inside the cooker is higher than 100oC which results in faster cooking of food. In the
mountains, the pressure is less, so the boiling point of water is less than 100oC. This makes the
cooking of food difficult.
35. Volume of water displaced = 200 ml = 0.2 litre
∴ Mass of water displaced = 0.2 kg

Loss in weight of body in water = Weight of water displaced

= 0.2 × 9.8 N = 1.96 N

Apparent weight of body = 70 - 1.96 = 68.04 N

36. Mercury is used in barometers due to the following reasons:
i. It does not stick to the walls of the barometric tube.
ii. Its density is high, so the length of the tube used is conveniently small.
iii. Its vapour pressure is quite small.
37. Total surface area of thigh bones A = 2 × 8.5cm = 17 × 10 m 2 −4 2

Force acting on the bones, F = mg = 60 × 9.8N

∴ Average pressure sustained by the bones P =

F 60×9.8 5
= = 3.46 × 10 Pa
−4
A 17×10

38. The drop will evaporate if the water pressure on liquid, is greater than vapour pressure above the
surface of liquid. Let a water droplet of radius R be formed without evaporation then
Vapour pressure = Excess pressure in a drop

ρ =
2σ
(only one surface in drop)
R

−2

−2
2×7.28×10 2×7.28×10 1456×10
R = = =

3 5
 Vapour preessure  2.33×10 233×10

R = 6.25 × 10-5 m.
39. Since a cloth has narrow spaces in the form of fine capillaries, Capillary rise is given by: →
2T cos θ
h =
rρg

h = height of capillary
T = Surface Tension
Θ = Angle of contact
r = Radius
ρ = Density

g = Acceleration due to gravity.

Now, addition of soap to water reduces the angle of contact θ, this will increase Cosθ and hence the
value of h. that is, the soap water will rise more in narrow spaces in the cloth and clean fabrics
better than water alone.
40. Following are the limitations of Bernoulli's Principle
i. Fluid flow should be laminar, that is speed of all fluid particles across any cross-section of pipe
should be uniform. But in practice fluid particles moving along the central axis of pipe are
moving faster and speed gradually decreases towards the wall of the pipe.
ii. A viscous drag also begins to act, whenever fluid flows.
iii. Some kinetic energy of a flowing fluid is lost due to sheer force and some transformed into heat
energy.
iv. When the fluid is flowing along a curved path, some energy is consumed to provide centripetal
force too.
41. According to the equation of continuity,
a1v1 = a2v2 or 10 cm2 × 1 ms-1 = 5 cm2 × v2
∴ v2 = 2 ms
-1
Using Bernoulli's theorem for horizontal flow,
p2 + ρv = p1 + ρv
1 2 1 2

2 2 2 1

or p2 + × 103 × 22 = 2000 + × 103 × 12

1 1

2

2

or p2 = 2000 + 500 - 2000 = 500 Pa

42.

The exact value of total pressure acting between two points whether due to a fluid column or
atmospheric pressure or any other cause is known as Absolute pressure at any point. . If in Fig. we
consider absolute pressure at point A, then we find that
Absolute pressure at A(P ) = Atmospheric pressure (P
)+ Pressure due to liquid column (P ) a l

As we know, P = hρg , l

∴ absolute pressure at point A

P = P + hρg.

Gauge pressure: at any point is the difference between the total (absolute) pressure at that point
and the atmospheric pressure.

∴ Gauge pressure(P ) = Absolute pressure(P )
g

− Atmospheric pressure(Pa )

In Figure, gauge pressure at point A, P = hρg g

43. Here r = = 0.75 mm = 0.75 × 10-3m,

1.5

σ = 7.4 × 10
-3 Nm-1

For water, ρ = 103 kg m-3,

Angle of contact θ = 0o

−3 ∘

∴ h = =2×
2σ cos θ 7.4×10 ×cos 0

rρg −3 3
0.75×10 ×10 ×9.8

= 0.002014 m
44. Surface energy of first bubble = Surface tension × surface area
= 2 ×4πr σ = 8πr σ
2 2

1 1

Similarly, surface energy of second bubble = 8πr σ 2

Let r be the radius of the coalesced bubble. Then, surface energy of coalesced bubble = 8πr 2
σ

By the conservation of energy,

2 2

2 2 2
8πr σ = 8πr σ + 8πr σ = 8π (r + r ) σ

1 2 1 2

or r2 = r + r = 32 + 42 = 25
2

1
2

or r = 5 cm
45. Volume of block = (10.0 cm)3 = 1000 cm3

Volume of block in water = 10.0 × 10.0 × 4.0 = 400 cm3

Volume of block in oil = 1000 - 400 = 600 cm3

According to Archimedes' principle,

Weight of the block = Weight of water

displaced + Weight of oil displaced
mg = 400 × 1 × g + 600 × 0.6 × g

or m = 400 + 360 = 760 g

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS - II

46. Angle of contact between mercury and soda lime glass, θ = 140o

Radius of the narrow tube, r = 1 mm = 1 × 10-3 m

Surface tension of mercury at the given temperature, s = 0.465 N m-1

Density of mercury, ρ = 13.6 × 103

kg

2
m

Dip in the height of mercury = h

Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 m

2
s

Surface tension is related with the angle of contact and the dip in the height as:

 hρgr
s =
2 cos θ

∴ h= 2 s cos θ

rog

2×0.465×cos 140
=

−3 3
1×10 ×13.6×10 ×9.8

= -0.00534 m
= -5.31 mm

Here, the negative sign shows the decreasing level of mercury. Hence, the mercury level dips by
5.34 mm.
47. Consider two soap bubbles of radii r and r and volumes as V and V . Thus 1 2 1 2

3 3
4π r 4π r
V1 =
3
1
and V2 =
3
2
. Let S be the surface tension of the soap solution. If P1 and P2 are excess
pressure inside the two soap bubbles then P 1 =
4S

r1
; P2 =
4S

r2
. Let r be the radius of the new soap
bubble formed when the two soap bubble coalesces under isothermal conditions. If V and P are
volume and excess of pressure inside the new soap bubble then V = πr P = . As the new 4

3
3 4S

bubble is formed under isothermal condition, so Boyle’s law holds good and hence
P1V1 + P2V2 = PV

4S 4 3 4S 4 3 4S 4 3
( × πr ) + ( × πr ) = × πr

r1 3 1 r2 3 2 r 3

2 2 2
(16 × S × π × r ) + (16 × S × π × r ) = 16Sπr

1 2

−−−−−−
2 2
r = √r + r
1 2

48. mass of girl m = 50kg

diameter of heel d = 1
cm = 0.01m

radius = heel r = = 0.005m d

area of heel A = πr = 3.14 × (0.005)2 2

A = 7.85 × 10-5 m2
force exerted by heel on floor F = mg = 50 × 9.8 = 490 N

pressure exerted by heel on floor P = F

P= 490

−5
7.85×10

P = 6.24 × 106 Nm-2

49. a. Diameter of the artery, d = 2 × 10 m −3

Viscosity of blood, η = 2.084 × 10 Pas −3

Density of blood, ρ = 1.06 × 10 kg/m 3 3

Reynolds' number for laminar flow, N

= 2000
R

The largest average velocity of blood is given as:

NR ×η

(Vavg )max =
ρ×d

−3
2000×2.084×10
=

3 −3
1.06×10 ×2×10

= 1.966 m/s
Therefore,
the largest average velocity of blood is 1.966 m/s.
b. Yes, As the fluid velocity increases, the dissipative forces become more important. From
Newton's law of viscous drag, we know that F = −ηA .This is because of the rise of turbulence. dv

dx

From this equation it can be explained that, as v increases, velocity gradient also increases, dv

dx

causing more viscous drag i.e. the dissipative force also increases because of turbulence.
50. a.
′
V pg = V pw g

V' = Volume
of water displaced by block
V' = Volume of block inside water

= area of base of block × height (inside water)

′ 2

V = L x

V = Volume of block L , p = Density of block 3

B

…(i)
pB x
3 2
∴ L p = L xp  or 
B = w

p L
w

pB
x = L
pw
 b. When the immersed block is in lift moving upwards then net acceleration of system = (g + a)
Weight of block = m(g + a) = v × p (g + a) B

3
= L pB (g + a)

block be submerged into water in moving lift (upward) is x
Now let part of 1

Weight of block = Buoyant force

3
L p (g + a) = x L p (g + a)

2
B 1 W

pB
x1
∴ =

pw L

….(ii)
p
B
x1 = L ⋅

p
w

From (i), (ii) we observe that submerged part of cube inside water in both case is ( which
pB
L)
pw

constant or it is independent of acceleration of lift (+a, −a or zero ) i.e. motion of lift upward or
downward or at rest because increase in mass of displaced fluid will be equal to increase in
weight.
51. Suppose a sphere of radius r and density ρ falls in a fluid of density ρ p' and viscosity η. When the ′

sphere just enters the fluid, the net downward force on it is

F = Weight of the sphere - Weight of the fluid displaced

4 3 4 3 ′

4 3 ′
= πr ρg − πr ρ g = πr (ρ − ρ ) g
3 3 3

It is Given that, average acceleration as half of the initial acceleration.​​

∴ Initial acceleration,

4 3 ′
πr (ρ−ρ )g ′

a= =
ρ−ρ
F 3
= ( )g

m 4
3 ρ
πr ρ
3

When the sphere attains terminal velocity, its acceleration becomes zero.

′

∴ Average acceleration =
a+0 ρ−ρ
= ( )g

2 2ρ

Let the sphere take time t to attain the terminal velocity,

v=
2
2 r ′
(ρ − ρ ) g

9 η

Initial velocity, u = 0
Hence by using first
equation of motion
v = u + at

′
2
2
r ρ−ρ
′
(ρ − ρ ) g = 0 + ( ) gt

9 η 2ρ

or t = 4 r ρ
⋅
9 η

52. The pressure inside the air bubble= 1.06 × 105 Pa

Soap bubble is of radius, r = 500 mm = 5 × 10-3m

Surface tension of the soap solution, S = 2.50 × 10-2 Nm-1

The relative density of the soap solution = 1.20

∴ Density of the soap solution, ρ = 1.2 × 10

kg

3
m

Air bubble formed at a depth, h = 40cm = 0.4m

Radius of the air bubble, r = 5mm = 5 × 10-3m

1 atmospheric pressure = 1.01 × 105 Pa

Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8
m

2
s

The excess pressure inside the soap bubble is given by the relation:
4S

p =

r

−2
4×2.5×10
=

−3
5×10

= 20 Pa

The excess pressure inside the air bubble is given by the relation:
4S

p =

r

−2
2×2.5×10
=

−3
5×10

= 10 Pa

At a depth of 0.4 m, the total pressure inside the air bubble

= Atmospheric pressure +hρg + P

= 1.01 × 105 + 0.4 × 1.2 × 103 × 9.8 + 10

= 1.057 × 105Pa
 = 1.06 × 105Pa
Therefore, the pressure inside the air bubble is ​= 1.06 × 105Pa.
53. The given system of water, mercury, and methylated spirit is shown as follows:

Height of the spirit column, h1 = 12.5 cm = 0.125 m

Height of the water column, h2 = 10 cm = 0.1 m
P0 = Atmospheric pressure
ρ = Density of spirit
1

ρ = Density of water
2

Pressure at point B =
P + h ρ g 0 1 1

Pressure at point D = P + h ρ g
0 2 2

Pressure at points B and D is the

same.
P + h ρ g = h ρ g

0 1 1 2 2

ρ
1
h2

=
ρ
2
h1

10
= = 0.8

12.5

Therefore, the specific gravity of spirit is 0.8.(specific gravity of any liquid is the ratio of liquid's
density to water)
54. Ice density , ρ = 0.918 × 103 kg/m3

​Water density, ρ = 1.03 × 10-3 ′

Let volume of the iceberg = V m3

Then volume of water displaced,

V = (V - 224) m3
′

∵ Weight of ice berg = Weight of water displaced

or V ρg = V ρ g ′ ′

or V × 0.918 × 103 × g = (V - 224) × 1.03 × 103 × g

or V (1.03 - 0.918) = 224 × 1.03

or V = = 2060 m3
224×1.03

0.112

55.

According to the equation of continuity, if there is no source or sink along the length of a pipe then
for steady flow of an ideal fluid the mass of the fluid crossing any section of the pipe per unit time
is always constant. Mathematically,
A v p = A v ρ  = a constant

1 1 1 2 2 2

Consider steady flow of an ideal fluid through a pipe (or tube) PRQ of varying cross-section. Let us
consider flow of fluid across any two transverse sections, say at P and Q, of the pipe having areas
A1 and A2, where velocity of fluid flow is v1 and v2, respectively.

∴ Volume of fluid crossing the area A1 per unit time at section P = A1v1

Similarly, volume of fluid crossing the area A2 per unit time at section Q
= A2v2.

If ρ1 and ρ2 be the densities of the given fluid at two sections, the mass of the fluid entering per
unit time at section P is m1 = A1v1ρ1 and mass of the fluid leaving per unit time at section Q is m2
= A2v2 ρ2
If there is
no source or sink of fluid within the pipe, i.e., the flow is steady one, then from the law of
conservation of matter, it follows that
m1 = m2

∴ A v ρ = A v ρ  .......(1)
1 1 1 2 2 2

which is the general form

of the equation of continuity.

For flow of an ideal incompressible liquid, the liquid density at both the cross-sections remains
 constant i.e., ρ = ρ . 1 2

Thus, equation of continuity may be expressed as A v = A v  .................(2) 1 1 2 2

From this equation, it is clear that at narrower portion of a pipe the velocity
of flow increases and
vice-versa.

56.

Take the case given in figure (b).

Where, A1 ⇒ Area of pipe 1

A2 ⇒ Area of pipe 2

V1 ⇒ Speed of the fluid in pipe 1

V2 ⇒ Speed of the fluid in pipe 2

From the equation of continuity,

we have:
A1V1 = A2V2

As the area of cross-section in the middle of the venturi meter is small,

the speed of the flow of liquid through this part should be more.

According to Bernoulli's principle for a flow in uniform horizontal tube, P + ρv = constant 1 2

Thus if speed is more, the pressure should be less.

pressure is directly proportional to height of liquid column. Hence, the level of water in pipe 2 is
less.

Therefore, figure (a) is not possible.

57. Initial Radius = R = 10-3 m (= 1 mm)
Final Radius = r
Since 1 drop breaks into 1000 small droplets, so
Initial volume = 1000 × Final Volume
4 3 4 3
πR = 1000 × πr
3 3

R3 = 103r3
3
3 R
r =
3
10

On, taking cube root on both sides, r = 1)

R
→
10

Initial Surface Area = 4πR 2

22 2
−3
= 4 × × (10 )
7

= 4 ×
22

7
× 10
−5
m
2
→ 2)
Final Surface Area = 1000 × (4πr 2
)

−3
2
22 10 R 4
= 1000 × 4 × × ( ) r = ) form eq  1)
7 10 10

1
22 −3
= 4× × 10 × 10 3

= 4 ×
22

7
× 10
−5
-3)
Increase in Surface Area = Final surface Area – Initial surface Area
= 4 × × 10
22
− 4 ×
7
× 10
−5
(→ 4) 22

7
−5

as definition of surface energy says it is the energy associated with the intermolecular forces at the
interface between two media.
Now, work Done = Surface Tension × Increase in surface Area
= 72 × 10 × (4 ×
−3
× 10 − 4 × × 10 ) (from eq
22 4 4) −5 22 −5

7 7

22 −3 −5 −6
= 72 × 4 × × 10 (10 − 10 )
7

22 −3 −5 −1
= 72 × 4 × × 10 × 10 (1 − 10 )
7

Work Done = 72 × 4 × 22

7
× 10
−5
(1 −
1

10
)

22 −3 9
= 72 × 4 × × 10 ×
7 10

Work Done = 8.14 × 10-6J

58. As we know that,

The volume of water flowing per second

 −−−−−−
2hρm g
V = a1 a2 √

2 2
ρ(a −a )
1 2

−−−−
2hg
∵ V = a1 a2 √

2 2
a −a
1 2

∵ r1 = 20cm, a1 = πr
2
= π(20) 2
cm
2

r2 = 20cm, a2 = πr
2
= π(20) 2
cm
2

2
r1 = 10cm, g = 980cm/s
−−−−−−−−−−

∴ V = π
2
(20) (10)
2 2

√
2×10×980
c.c/sec

4 4
2
π ((20) −(10)

= 175.93×10
c.c/sec
√15

= 175.93×10
×60c. c/min
√15

= 2728.7 litres/min

59. Hydraulic Brakes: Hydraulic brakes used in vehicles are based on Pascal's principle of transmission
of pressure in the liquid.
Construction:

It consists of following main parts: (i) Master cylinder (ii) Wheel cylinder (iii) Brake fluid (or brake
oil) pipelines.

Master cylinder is connected to four cylinders through a pipeline. The wheel cylinder consists of
brakes and shoe arrangement.  

Principle: It works on the principle of Pascal's law, which states that the confined liquid transmits
pressure intensity equally in all directions.

Working: When the driver presses pedal, the effort is transmitted through rod to piston in master
cylinder. The piston moves in the cylinder and compress return spring forcing out the fluid from
the cylinder into brake line through a by-pass. Piston of a brake cylinders are acted upon by the
fluid and press against shoes, bringing their linings tightly against the working surfaces of the
drums as soon as the pedal is released, the return spring pushes piston back. At the same time, the
compression springs of the brake shoe move pistons to their initial position and the fluid begins to
the flow in the reverse direction.

60. According the question, a large bottle is fitted with a siphon made of capillary glass tubing and
given that
The volume of liquid flowing in time t through a capillary tube is given by
4 4

V = Qt =
πρr t πhρgr t
=

8nl 8ηl

∴ For water, V1 =
πhρ1 gr t1

8 ln1

For petrol, V2 =
πhρ2 gr t2

8lη2

But V1 = V2

4 4
πhρ gr t1 πhρ gr t2
1 2
∴ =

8lη 8lη
1 2

η ρ
or = 0.4
t1 1 2 0.01 0.8
= × = ×
t2 η2 ρ1 0.02 1.0

LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS

61. a. We know that rate of decrease of density ρ of air is directly proportional to the height y. It is
given as
dρ ρ
= −

dy y0

where y is a constant of proportionality and -ve sign signifies that density is decreasing with
increase in height. On integration, we get

 ρ y
dρ 1
∫ = −∫ dy
ρ
0
ρ
0
y0

, where, ρ = density of air at sea level i.e., y = 0

ρ y
⇒ [log ρ]ρ = −[ ] 0

0 y0
0

or log or ρ = ρ
ρ y −
y

e
= − 0e
0

ρ0

y0

Here dimensions and units of constant y0 are same as of y.

b. Here volume of He balloon, V = 1425m3, mass of payload, m = 400kg

y0 = 8000m, density of He ρ = 0.18 kgm-3 He

Mean density of balloon, ρ =  Total mass of balloon  m+V ⋅ρlle

= Pa

 Volume  V

As density of air at sea level ρ = 1.25 kg m-3. The balloon will rise up to a height y where 0

density of air = density of balloon ρ = 0.46 kgm-3

y
ρ
y
0

As ρ = ρ e or = e
− 0
y y
0
0

or y =
ρ0 y0 y0 8000
log ( ) = =

e ρ y ρ
0 1.25
log ( ) log ( )
e ρ e
0.46

= 8002m or 8.0 km
62. Density of water at the surface is given by(ρ) = 1.03 × 103 kg/m3

Pressure is given by (△p) = 80 atm = 80 × 1.013 × 105 Pa

[∴ 1 atm = 1.013 × 10 pa ] 5

Compressibility of water is given by ( ) = 45.8 × 10-11 Pa-1 1

Let V and V' be the volumes of a certain mass of water at the surface and at a given depth. The
density of water at the given depth be ρ'.
Volume of water at the surface is V =
m

At the given depth, the volume is V = ′ m

′
ρ

∴ Change in volume is given by, ΔV = V − V

′ 1 1
= m ( − )

ρ ρ′

The volumetric strain is given by = ΔV

=m( − )× 1 1 ρ

ρ ρ m

= (1 −
ρ
)

ρ′

Compressibility = 1

 Bulk modulus (B)

= 1
= ΔV

Δp
ΔpV
(ΔV /V )

−11 ρ 1
45.8 × 10 = (1 − ′
)×

5
ρ 80×1.013×10

3
−11 5 1.03×10
45.8 × 10 × 80 × 1.013 × 10 = 1−

′
ρ

3
−3 1.03×10
3.712 × 10 = 1−

′
ρ

3
1.03×10 −3
= 1 − 3.712 × 10

′
ρ

or ρ' = 1.03×10
= 1.034 × 10 kg/m
3 3

1−0.003712

Thus, density of water at depth = 1.034 × 10 kg/m 3 3

63. i. When a small quantity of a liquid is poured on a solid, three types of interfaces namely liquid-
air, solid-air and solid-liquid occur. The surface tension corresponding to these 3 interfaces are
S , S and S , respectively. If θ  is the angle of contact between solid and liquid,
LA SA SL

SSL + SLA cosθ = SSA

  
⇒ SLA cosθ = SSA − SSL

cos θ    =  SSA −SSL

SLA

For mercury and glass, S < S ,∴  cos θ  is negative and ∴ θ  > 90°, i.e. obtuse. 
SA SL

For water and glass S > S , ∴  cos θ  is positive and ∴ θ  < 90°, i.e. acute.
SA SL

ii. The surface tension of a liquid is defined as the force acting per unit length on an imaginary line
drawn tangentially to the liquid surface at rest. ∴ surface tension is independent of the area of
the liquid surface.
iii. The rise of liquid in a capillary tube,

h = 
2S cos θ

rρg

⇒  h ∝  cosθ

The cloth has

narrow spaces in the form of fine capillaries. If the angle of contact θ  is small, then
the value of cosθ   will be large. The detergent will rise more in fine capillaries in the cloth. The
detergent solution will penetrate more in cloth and remove stains and dust from the cloth.
iv. When there are no external forces, the size of a liquid drop is decided only by the force due to
surface tension. Due to surface tension, a liquid drop tends to acquire a minimum surface area.  
∴ a liquid is always spherical in shape.

64. Calculation of excess pressure inside soap bubble

It is given that the radius of the bubble, r = 5.00 mm = 5 × 10 m −3

and Surface tension of the soap solution,

S = 2.50 × 10 N m-1 −2

according to the question the relative density of the soap solution is = 1.20
∴ Density of the soap solution, ρ = 1.2 × 10 kg/m
3 3

depth at which air bubble is formed , h = 40 cm = 0.4 m

Radius of the air bubble, r = 5 mm = 5 × 10 m The excess pressure inside the soap bubble is given
−3

by the relation:
P =
4S

r
, where S is surface tension and r is radius of the bubble
−2
4×2.5×10
=
−3
5×10

= 20 Pa
Therefore, the excess pressure inside the soap bubble is 20 Pa.
calculation of execess pressure inside an air bubble
The excess pressure inside the air bubble is given by the relation:
P =
′
, where S is surface tension and r is radius of the bubble
2S

−2
2×2.5×10
=
−3
5×10

= 10 Pa
Therefore, the excess pressure inside the air bubble is 10 Pa.
At a depth of 0.4 m, the total pressure inside the air bubble
Ptotal = Patm+ hρg + P'
5 3
= 1.01 × 10 + 0.4 × 1.2 × 10 × 9.8 + 10
5
= 1.057 × 10 Pa
5
= 1.06 × 10 Pa

Therefore, the pressure inside the air bubble is 1.06 × 10 Pa 5

65. i. As we go up in the atmosphere, pressure decreases. Consider a layer of atmosphere at height h

and area A.
Let the pressure at h be p + dp.
Let the pressure at h + dh be p.

This layer is in equilibrium and hence, upward and downward forces are balanced.
Pressure ×  Area = Force = ma =  -ρgAdh

∴(p + dp)A - pA = -ρgAdh

dp = -ρgdh

Negative sign indicates that pressure decreases with height.

ii. Here, p ∝ ρ

Hence,  =
p ρ

p0 ρ0
 p
ρ = ρo

po

We know,

p
dp = −ρgdh = −ρo gdh

po

dp ρo g
= dh
p

po

Integrating on both sides,

p dp

−ρo g h
∫ = ∫ dh
p0 p po 0

p −ρo gh
ln =

po po

−ρ gh
0

p
p = p0 e 0

iii. ln  
p −ρo gh
=
po po

1 −1.29×9.8×h
ln =

5
10 1.03×10

h = 16 × 103 m
iv.  We can assume p ∝ ρ  only under isothermal conditions which is valid near the surface of the
earth and not at great heights.
CASE STUDY BASED QUESTIONS
66. Read the text carefully and answer the questions:
Hydraulic lift is an application of Pascal's law. It is used to lift heavy loads. It is a force multiplier.
So, when small forces applied on the smaller piston (acting downward) will be appearing as a very
large force (acting upward) on the larger piston. As a result of it, a heavy load placed on the larger
piston is easily lifted upwards.

(i) (c) they are at the same height

Explanation: they are at the same height

OR
(c)
total weight of fluid in the beaker
Explanation: total weight of fluid in
the beaker
(ii) (a) transmitted unchanged to every portion of the fluid and the walls of container
Explanation: transmitted unchanged to every portion of the fluid and the walls of
container
(iii)(d) x

Explanation: x

(iv)(a) W1
Explanation: W1

67. Read the text carefully and answer the questions:

Consider the flow at two regions 1 (i.e. BC) and 2 (i.e. DE). Consider the fluid initially lying between
B and D. In an infinitesimally time interval Δ t, this fluid would have moved. Suppose v1 is the
speed at which fluid would have moved. Suppose v1 is the speed at B and v2 at D, then fluid
initially at B has moved a distance v1Δ t to C (v1Δ t is small enough to assume constant cross-
section along BC).

Δ t, the fluid initially at D moves to E, a distance equal to v Δ t. Pressures p
In the same interval 2 1
and p2 act as shown on the plane faces of areas A1 and A2 binding the two regions as shown in
figure

(i) (d) p1Δ v

Explanation: p1Δ v
OR
(c)
v2 + ρgh = constant
1
ρ
2

Explanation: ρv2 + ρgh = constant

1

(ii) (d) -p2Δ V

Explanation: p2Δ V
(iii)(d) (p1 - p2) Δ V

Explanation: (p1 - p2) Δ V

(iv)(d) ρΔV (v − v )
1 2 2

2 2

1

Explanation: ρΔV (v − v
1

2
2
2
2
1
)
 CH. 11 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
GIST: Heat, temperature, thermal expansion; thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases,
anomalous expansion of water; specific heat capacity; Cp, Cv - calorimetry; change of state -
latent heat capacity.
Heat transfer-conduction, convection and radiation, thermal conductivity, qualitative ideas of
Blackbody radiation, Wein's displacement Law, Stefan's law.
MASTER CARD
• Heat is that form of energy that flows from one body to another body or it surrounding
due to difference in temperature. it is measured in Joule/Calorie/kilocalorie.
• Temperature is measure of degree of hotness or coldness of body. (Note: Heat and
temperature are related to each other as sugar and sweetness if you add sugar sweetness
increases similarly when heat is given in any body temperature increases and when heat
is removed temperature decreases.) The S.I. Unit of Temperature is Kelvin (K) and
some of the commonly used units are: Fahrenheit (°F) and Celsius (°C)
• Comparison between Different Temperature Scales

𝐊−𝟐𝟕𝟑.𝟏𝟓 𝐂−𝟎 𝐅−𝟑𝟐 𝐑𝐄𝐀𝐃𝐈𝐍𝐆 𝐎𝐍 𝐀 𝐏𝐀𝐑𝐓𝐈𝐂𝐔𝐋𝐀𝐑 𝐒𝐂𝐀𝐋𝐄 −𝐋𝐎𝐖𝐄𝐑 𝐅𝐈𝐗𝐄𝐃 𝐏𝐎𝐈𝐍𝐓

= 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = = .
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝐔𝐏𝐏𝐄𝐑 𝐅𝐈𝐗𝐄𝐃 𝐏𝐎𝐈𝐍𝐓 − 𝐋𝐎𝐖𝐄𝐑 𝐅𝐈𝐗𝐄𝐃 𝐏𝐎𝐈𝐍𝐓
• THERMAL EXPANSION
When matter is heated without any change in its state, it usually expands.
• Solids can expand in one dimension (Linear expansion), two dimensions (Superficial
expansion) and three dimensions (Volumetric expansion) while liquids and gases
usually suffer change in volume only.
• Linear expansion: Change in length of a body due to change in temperature.
L = L0 (1 + α ∆T)
• Superficial (areal) expansion: Change in surface area of a body due to change in
temperature.
A = A0 (1 + β ∆T)
• Volumetric expansion: Change in volume of a body due to change in temperature.
V = V0 (1 + γ ∆T)
• Relation between coefficients of linear, superficial and volumetric expansion
𝛂 𝛃 𝛄
=𝟐=𝟑
𝟏

• ANOMALOUS BEHAVIOUR OF WATER: Water exhibits an anomalous

behaviour; it contracts on heating between 0 °C and 4 °C fig.(a). The volume of a given
amount of water decreases as it is cooled from room temperature, until its temperature
reaches 4 °C. Below 4 °C, the volume increases, and therefore, the density decreases
fig.(b). This means that water has the maximum density at 4 °C. This property has an
important environmental effect: bodies of water, such as lakes and ponds, freeze at the
top first. As a lake cools toward 4 °C, water near the surface loses energy to the
atmosphere, becomes denser, and sinks; the warmer, less dense water near the bottom
rises. However, once the colder water on top reaches temperature below 4 °C, it
becomes less dense and remains at the surface, where it freezes. If water did not have
this property, lakes and ponds would freeze from the bottom up, which would destroy
much of their animal and plant life.
• The amount of heat required to change the temperature of unit mass of a substance
though one unit is called specific heat of the substance. Its SI unit is J kg-1 K-1. It
depends on the nature of the substance and its temperature.
∆𝐐
c = 𝐦 ∆𝐓
• The amount of heat required to change the temperature of given mass of a substance
through one unit is called heat capacity of the substance. It is given as
s = m c , Here c = Specific heat
its SI unit is J K-1.
• Value of specific heats of gas can vary from zero (0) to infinity depending on the
condition to be heated.
• If the amount of substance is specified in terms of moles (n), instead of mass in kg, then
molar specific heat is defined as
∆𝐐
c = 𝐧 ∆𝐓
Its SI unit is J mol-1 K-1 and It depends on the nature of the substance and its
temperature.
• In case of a gas there are two specific heat capacities Cp (molar specific heat at constant
pressure) and Cv (molar specific heat at constant volume), Cp is amount of heat required
to change the temperature of one mole of a gas through one unit at constant pressure
and Cv is amount of heat required to change the temperature of one mole of a gas
through one unit at constant volume.
• The relation between two specific heats of a gas is Cp - Cv = R, where R is gas constant
and its value is 8.31 J mol-1 K-1.
• CALORIMETRY: The branch of Physics that deals with the measurement of heat is
called calorimetry.
• A device which is used to measure the quantity of heat is called a calorimeter.
• PRINCIPLE OF CALORIMETRY: When two isolated bodies interact thermally the
heat lost by one body is equal to heat gained by another body.
Heat Lost = Heat gained
• The transition of a substance (on heating or cooling) from one state to another is known
as change of state.
• Effect of change in pressure on M.P. and B.P. for ice/water
If pressure increases but if pressure decreases M.P. decreases and B.P. increases M.P.
increases and B.P. decreases.
• LATENT HEAT: The amount of heat required to change the state of unit mass of a
substance at constant temperature and pressure is called latent heat of substance. It is
given as Q = m L. Its SI unit is J kg-1. Its value depends on pressure.
• The latent heat for a solid-liquid state change is called the latent heat of fusion (Lf), and
that for a liquid-gas state change is called the latent heat of vaporisation (Lv). A plot of
temperature versus heat for a quantity of water is shown in Fig.

MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER

• Conduction: The process in which the material takes an active part by molecular action
and energy is passed from one particle to another is called conduction. It is predominant
in solids.
• Convection: The transfer of energy by actual motion of particle of medium from one
place to another is called convection. It is predominant in fluids (liquids and gases).
• Radiation: Quickest way of transmission of heat is known as radiation. In this mode
of energy transmission, heat is transferred from one place to another without affecting
the intervening medium.
• Heating by conduction, convection and radiation:
•

At the steady state, the rate of flow of heat (or heat current) H is proportional to the
temperature difference (TC – TD) and the area of cross-section A and is inversely
proportional to the length L:
TC – TD
H=KA L
The constant of proportionality K is called the thermal conductivity of the material. The
greater the value of K for a material, the more rapidly will it conduct heat. The SI unit
of K is J s–1 m–1 K–1 or W m–1 K–1.
• BLACK BODY RADIATION: A black body is one which neither reflects nor
transmits but absorbs whole of the heat radiation incident on it. When a black body is
heated to a high temperature, it emits radiations of all possible wavelengths within a
certain wavelength range. The radiations emitted by a black body are called black body
radiations. Energy distribution in a black body spectrum is shown in figure.

•
• WEIN'S DISPLACEMENT LAW: It states that the wavelength (λm) corresponding
to which the energy emitted by a black body is maximum is inversely proportional to
its absolute temperature (T). i.e.
 λm ∝ 1/T or λm T = b , where b is Wien’s constant and its value is 2.9 x 10-3 m K.
This law can be used to estimate the surface temperatures of the moon, sun and other
stars.
• STEFAN'S LAW: This law states that the total heat energy emitted by a perfect black
body per second per unit area is directly proportional to the fourth power of the absolute
temperature of its surface. i.e.
E ∝ T4 or E = σ T4
This relation was first deduced experimentally by Stefan and later proved theoretically
by Boltzmann and hence is known as Stefan-Boltzmann law.
In SI units, σ = 5.67 x 10-8 Js-1m-2K-4.

ONE MARK QUESTIONS

1. If a is coefficient of Linear expansion, b coefficient of areal expansion, c

coefficient of Volume expansion. Which of the following is true
(a) b = 2a (b) c = 3a (c) b = 3a (d) a = 2b

Ans. (a) b = 2a

2. A beaker is completely filled with water at 4°C. It will overflow

(a) When heated but not when cooled (b) When cooled but not when heated
(c) Neither when heated nor when cooled (d) Both when cooled or heated

Ans. (d) Both when cooled or heated

3. At which temperature, the centigrade & Fahrenheit scales are same?

(a) 400 C (b) -400 C ( c ) 370 C ( d ) - 800 C

Ans. (b) -400 C

4. Which of the following is the correct relation between temperature scales?

𝐊−𝟐𝟕𝟑.𝟏𝟓 𝐂−𝟎 𝐅−𝟑𝟐 𝐊−𝟐𝟕𝟑.𝟏𝟓 𝐂−𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐅−𝟑𝟐
(a) = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎 (b) 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝐊−𝟐𝟕𝟑.𝟏𝟓 𝐂−𝟎 𝐅−𝟑𝟎𝟐 𝐊−𝟐𝟕𝟑.𝟏𝟓 𝐂−𝟎 𝐅−𝟑𝟐

(c) = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = (d) = 𝟏𝟖𝟎 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝟏𝟖𝟎

𝐊−𝟐𝟕𝟑.𝟏𝟓 𝐂−𝟎 𝐅−𝟑𝟐

Ans. (a) 𝟏𝟎𝟎
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎

5. Using which of the following instrument, the temperature of the sun can be
determined?
(a) Platinum thermometer
(b) Gas thermometer
(c) Pyrometer
(d) Vapour pressure thermometer

Ans. (c) Pyrometer

6. Which of the curves in figure represents the relation between Celsius and
Fahrenheit temperature?
 (a) Curve a (b) Curve b
(c) Curve c (d) Curve d

Ans. (a) Curve a

7. A new scale of temperature (which is linear) called the W scale, the freezing
and boiling points of water are 39°W and 239°W respectively. What will be the
temperature on the new scale, corresponding to a temperature of 39°C on the
Celsius scale?
(a) 200° W (b) 139° W (c) 78° W (d) 117°W

Ans. (d) 117°W

8. The graph AB shown in figure is a plot of temperature of a body in degree

Celsius and degree Fahrenheit. Then

(a) slope of line AB is 9/5

(b) slope of line AB is 5/9
(c) slope of line AB is 1/9
(d) slope of line AB is 3/9

Ans. (b) slope of line AB is 5/9

9. The amount of heat required to convert 1 gm of ice at 0°C into steam at 100°C,
is
(a) 716 cal. (b) 500 cal.
(c) 180 cal. (d) 100 cal.

Ans. (a) 716 cal.

10. On a cold morning, a metal surface will feel colder to touch than a wooden
surface because
(a) Metal has high specific heat
(b) Metal has high thermal conductivity
(c) Metal has low specific heat
 (d) Metal has low thermal conductivity

Ans. (b) Metal has high thermal conductivity

11. A piece of iron is heated in a flame. It first becomes dull red then becomes
reddish yellow and finally turns to white hot. The correct explanation for the
above observation is possible by using :-
(a) Newton's Law of cooling
(b) Stefan's Law
(c) Wein's displacement Law
(d) Kirchoff's Law

Ans. (c) Wein's displacement Law

12. Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a body through 1 K is called
its
(a) Specific heat (b) Thermal capacity (c) Water equivalent (d) Entropy

Ans. (b) Thermal capacity

13. Define heat and temperature.

Ans. Heat is a form of energy that produces in us the sensation of warmth.
Temperature is measure of degree of hotness or coldness of body.

14. State the principle of calorimetry.

Ans. When two isolated bodies interact thermally the heat lost by one body is
equal to heat gained by another body.
Heat Lost = Heat gained

15. At what temperature will wood and iron appear equally hot and equally cold?
Ans. When both wood and iron are at the temperature of the human body, they
appear equally hot and equally cold.

16. Which is the fastest method of transfer of heat?

Ans. Radiation

17. Arrange the metals Cu, Al and Ag in the order of their increasing thermal
conductivities.
Ans. Al < Cu < Ag

18. Which is the only way of heat transfer through solids?

Ans. Conduction

19. What is sublimation?

Ans. When a substance changes from solid to gaseous state directly without
undergoing the liquid state, the process is called sublimation.

20. What is the dimensional formula of the coefficient of thermal conductivity?

Ans. MLT-3K-1
 For question numbers from 21 to 30, two statements are given-one labelled
Assertion (a) and the other labelled Reason (R). Select the correct answer
to these questions from the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d) as given below.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false and R is also false

21. Assertion (a): Specific heat capacity is the cause of formation of land and sea
breeze.
Reason (R): The specific heat of water is more than land.

Ans. (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A

22. Assertion (a): A brass disc is just fitted in a hole in a steel plate. The system
must be cooled to loosen the disc from the hole.
Reason (R): The coefficient of linear expansion for brass is greater than the
coefficient of linear expansion for steel.

Ans. (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
23. Assertion (a): The coefficient of volume expansion has dimension K–1.
Reason (R): The coefficient of volume expansion is defined as the change in
volume per unit volume per unit change in temperature.
Ans. (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
24. Assertion (a): The temperature at which Centigrade and Fahrenheit
thermometers read the same is – 40°.
Reason (R): There is no relation between Fahrenheit and Centigrade
temperature.

Ans. (c) A is true but R is false

25. Assertion (a): The melting point of ice decreases with increase of pressure.
Reason (R): Ice contracts on melting.
Ans. (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
26. Assertion (a): When a solid iron ball is heated, percentage increase is its
volume is largest.
Reason (R): Coefficient of superficial expansion is twice that of linear
expansion where as coefficient of volume expansion is three time of linear
expansion.

Ans. (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
27. Assertion (a): A beaker is completely filled with water at 4°C. It will
overflow, both when heated or cooled.
Reason (R): There is expansion of water below and above 4°C.

Ans. (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A

28. Assertion (a): Latent heat of fusion of ice is 336000 J kg–1.

Reason (R): Latent heat refers to change of state without any change in
temperature.

Ans. (b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
29. Assertion (a): Specific heat of a body is always greater than its thermal
capacity.
Reason (R): Thermal capacity is the required for raising temperature of unit
mass of the body through unit degree.

Ans. (d) A is false and R is also false

30. Assertion (a): Fahrenheit is the smallest unit measuring temperature.

Reason (R): Fahrenheit was the first temperature scale used for measuring
temperature.
Ans. (c) A is true but R is false

TWO MARKS QUESTIONS

1. What do you understand by anomalous expansion of water?

Ans. Almost all liquids expand on being heated but water behaves in a
peculiar manner. When water at 00C is heated, its volume decreases and,
therefore, its density increases, until its temperature reaches 40C. Above 40C,
the volume increases and therefore the density decreases. Thus water at 40C
has the maximum density.

2. Why is water used as an effective coolant in radiator?

Ans. The specific heat of water is very high. When it runs over hot parts of an
engine or machinery, it absorbs a large amount of heat. This helps in
maintaining the temperature of the engine low.

3. Ice of 00C is converted into steam at 1000C. State the isothermal changes in
the process.
Ans. The isothermal changes are
(a) Conversion of ice at 00C into water at 00C
(b) Conversion of water at 1000C into steam at 1000C
4. Why is mercury used in a thermometer?
Ans. The mercury is used in thermometer due to the following reasons-:
(a) It has a uniform coefficient of expansion over a wide range of temperature
 (b) Mercury is opaque and bright so its level can be seen easily in a glass tube
(c) It does not stick to the walls of the glass tube
(d) It is non-volatile.

5. State and give mathematical expression for Stefan’s law of black body
radiation.
Ans. STEFAN'S LAW: This law states that the total heat energy emitted by a
perfect black body per second per unit area is directly proportional to the
fourth power of the absolute temperature of its surface. i.e.
E ∝ T4 or E = σ T4
This relation was first deduced experimentally by Stefan and later proved
theoretically by Boltzmann and hence is known as Stefan-Boltzmann law.
In SI units, σ = 5.67 x 10-8 Js-1m-2K-4.

6. State and give mathematical expression for Wein’s displacement law of black
body radiation.
Ans. WEIN'S DISPLACEMENT LAW: It states that the wavelength (λm)
corresponding to which the energy emitted by a black body is maximum is
inversely proportional to its absolute temperature (T). i.e.
λm ∝ 1/T or λm T = b , where b is Wien’s constant and its value is
2.9 x 10-3 m K.

7. Explain the terms steady state and temperature gradient in reference to thermal
conduction in a rod.
Ans. steady state: When the temperature of every cross-section of the rod
becomes constant and there is no further absorption of heat in any part is
called steady state.
temperature gradient:
The rate of change of temperature with distance in the direction of flow of
heat is called temperature gradient.
8. A faulty thermometer has its fixed point marked as 50 and 950 . temperature of
a body as measured by the faulty thermometer is 590. find the correct
temperature of the body on Celsius scale.
Ans.
9. At what temperature, do the readings of celsius and fahrenheit scales
coincide?
Ans.

10. Show that the coefficient of areal expansion of a rectangular sheet of the solid
is twice its linear expansivity.
Ans.

11. Railway lines are laid with gaps to allow for expansion. If the gap between steel
rails 66 m be 3.63 cm at 100 C, then at what temperature will the lines just
touch? Coefficient of linear expansion of steel = 11 x 10-6 0C-1.
Ans.
12. Calculate the rate of loss of heat through a glass window of area 1000 cm2 and
thickness 0.4 cm when temperature inside is 370 C and outside is -50 C.
Coefficient of thermal conductivity of glass is 2.2 x 10-3 cal s-1 cm-1 K-1.
Ans.

13. Calculate the temperature (in K) at which a perfect black body radiates energy
at the rate of 5.67 W cm-2. Given σ = 5.67 x 10-8 Wm-2K-4.
Ans.

14. Wavelength corresponding to Emax for the moon is 14 microns. Estimate the
surface temperature of the moon, if b = 2.9 x 10-3 m K.
Ans.
15. Explain why the brass tumbler feels much colder than a wooden tray on a chilly
day.
Ans. Both are at the same temperature. But brass is much better conductor of
heat than wood. When we touch the brass tumbler, heat readily flows out from
our hand to tumbler and it feels colder. But this is not in the case with the
wooden tray.
THREE MARKS QUESTIONS

1. Explain the three modes of transfer of heat from one object to other.
The three modes of transfer of heat are as follows-:
Ans. (a) Conduction-: It is a process in which heat is transmitted from one part
of a body to another at a lower temperature through molecular collisions,
without any actual flow of matter. Solids are heated by the process of
conduction
(b) Convection-: It is the process by which heat flows from the region of higher
temperature by the actual movement of the material particles. Fluids (liquids
and gases) are heated by the process of convection in which buoyancy and
gravity play an important role.
(c) Radiation-: It is the process by which heat is transmitted from one place to
another without heating the transmitting medium. The heat from the sun reaches
the earth by the process of radiation.

2. Define the term latent heat capacity and its various types.
Ans. Latent heat -: The amount of heat required to change the state of unit mass
of a substance at constant temperature and pressure. It is given as
Q = mL
Where m is the mass of the substance undergoes a change from one state to
another and L is the latent heat of the substance. Its SI unit is J/Kg Latent heat
is broadly defined in two different ways-:
(a) Latent heat of fusion -: The amount of heat required to change the state of
unit mass of a substance from solid to liquid at its melting point. It is denoted
as Lf
(b) Latent heat of vaporization-: The amount of heat required to change the
state of unit mass of a substance from liquid to vapour at its boiling point. It is
denoted by Lv.

3. A sphere of aluminium of 0.047 kg is placed for sufficient time in a vessel

containing containg boiling water, so that the sphere is at 1000 C. It is then
immediately transferred to 0.14 kg copper calorimeter containing 0.25 kg of
water at 200 C. The temperature of water rises and attains a steady state at 230C.
calculate specific heat capacity of aluminium.
 Ans.

4. When 0.15 kg of ice is mixed with 0.30 kg of water at 500 C in a container, the
resulting temperature is 6.70 C. calculate heat of fusion of ice. (cwater = 4186
Jkg-1K-1)
Ans.
5. Two vessels of different materials are identical in size and wall-thickness. They
are filled equal quantities of ice at 00 C. If the ice melts completely in 10 to 25
minutes respectively, compare the coefficients of thermal conductivities of the
materials of the vessels.
Ans.

6. How does heat flow in Conduction? Define coefficient of thermal conductivity.

Write its SI unit
Ans.
Conduction: Conduction is the mechanism of transfer of heat between two
adjacent parts of a body because of their temperature difference without actual
movement of heated particles and physical significance.

At the steady state, the rate of flow of heat (or heat current) H is proportional to
the temperature difference (TC – TD) and the area of cross-section A and is
inversely proportional to the length L:
TC – TD
H=KA L
The constant of proportionality K is called the thermal conductivity of the
material. The
greater the value of K for a material, the more rapidly will it conduct heat. The
SI unit of K is J s–1 m–1 K–1 or W m–1 K–1.

7. Prove that the coefficient of cubical expansion of an ideal gas at constant

pressure is equal to the reciprocal of its absolute temperature.

Ans.
8. A blacksmith fixes iron ring on the rim of the wooden wheel of a horse cart.
The diameter of the rim and the iron ring are 5.243 m and 5.231 m, respectively
at 27 °C. To what temperature should the ring be heated so as to fit the rim of
the wheel?

Ans.
Given, T1 = 27 °C
LT1 = 5.231 m
LT2 = 5.243 m
So,
LT2 =LT1 [1+ α l (T2–T1)]
5.243 m = 5.231 m [1 + 1.20×10–5 K–1 (T2–27 °C)]
or T2 = 218 °C.

9. What is the temperature of the steel-copper junction in the steady state of the
system shown in Fig. Length of the steel rod = 15.0 cm, length of the copper
rod = 10.0 cm, temperature of the furnace = 300 °C, temperature of the other
end = 0 °C. The area of cross section of the steel rod is twice that of the copper
rod. (Thermal conductivity of steel = 50.2 J s–1 m–1K–1; and of copper = 385 J
s–1 m–1K–1).

Ans.
 FIVE MARKS QUESTIONS

1. Calculate the heat required to convert 3 kg of ice at –12 °C kept in a calorimeter

to steam at 100 °C at atmospheric pressure. Given specific heat capacity of ice
= 2100 J kg–1 K–1, specific heat capacity of water = 4186 J kg–1 K–1, latent heat
of fusion of ice = 3.35 × 105 J kg–1 and
latent heat of steam = 2.256 ×106 J kg–1.

Ans.
2. What is meant by coefficient of linear expansion, superficial expansion and
cubical expansion? Derive the relation between them.
Ans. (a) Coefficient of linear expansion (α) -: For solid rod ,it is defined as
the increase in length per unit original length per degree rise in its temperature.
The unit of α is 0C-1 or K-1.
(b) Coefficient of superficial expansion (β)-: For metal sheet, it is defined as
increase in its surface area per unit original surface area per degree rise in its
temperature. The unit of α is 0C-1 or K-1.
(c) Coefficient of cubical expansion (γ)-: It is defined as the increase in
volume per unit original volume per degree rise in temperature. The unit of γ is
0 -1
C or K-1.
We know that,
L =L0(1+αΔT)α= coefficient of linear expansion
A= A0(1+βΔT)β= coefficient of aerial expansion
V= V0(1+γΔT)γ= coefficient of cubical expansion.
So, now
V= V0 + γV0ΔT
V= V0 (1+γΔT)
L³= L0³ (1+αΔT)³
L³= L0³(1+3αΔT + 3α²ΔT² +α³ΔT³)
 L³= L0³(1+3αΔT)
,Neglecting 3α²ΔT² and α³ΔT³ because they are very smaller than 1-
L³= L0³(1+3αΔT)
V= L0³(1+3αΔT)
V0 (1+γΔT) = V0(1+3αΔT)
1+γΔT = 1+3αΔT
γΔT = 3αΔT
γ=3α
And β=2α
A= A0 (1+βΔT)
L²= L0²(1+αΔT)²
A= L0²(1+2αΔT+α²ΔT²)
A= A0 (1+2αΔT)
A0(1+βΔT) = A0(1+2αΔT)
,α²ΔT² Neglecting them due to very smaller volume-
β=2α
α:β:γ=1:2:3

3. An iron bar (L1 = 0.1 m, A1 = 0.02 m2, K1 = 79 W m–1 K–1) and a brass bar (L2
= 0.1 m, A2 = 0.02 m2, K2 = 109 W m–1K–1) are soldered end to end as shown
in Fig. 11.16. The free ends of the iron bar and brass bar are maintained at 373
K and 273 K respectively. Obtain expressions for and hence compute
(i) the temperature of the junction of the two bars,
(ii) the equivalent thermal conductivity of the compound bar, and
(iii) the heat current through the compound bar.

Ans.
 CASE STUDY QUESTIONS

1. THERMAL EXPANSION

A small gap is left between the iron rails of railway tracks. The two rails are
joined by fish plates. If no gap is left between the rails, the rails may bend due
to expansion in summer and the train may get derailed.
It simply shows that when temperature increases, size of the body increases.
This is termed as ‘thermal expansion’.
This expansion may be linear expansion, when there is increase in length (Δ l)
of rod.
New length of the rod l’= l (1+αΔT)
α = Δl / lΔT, whereα is coefficient of linear expansion
If this expansion is superficial expansion, then area of body increases.
New area A’ = A (1 + βΔT)
β = ΔA/ AΔT, where β is coefficient of superficial expansion.
If this expansion is cubical expansion, then volume of body increases.
New volume V’= V (1+γΔT)
γ = ΔV/VΔT, where γ is coefficient of cubical expansion.

(i) Assertion (a): Only platinum wire is used for fusing into glass.
Reason (R): Coefficient of thermal expansion of platinum is almost the same
as that of glass.
(a) If both assertion and reason are true and the reason is the correct explanation
of assertion
(b) If both assertion and reason are true but the reason is not the correct
explanation of assertion
(c) If assertion is true but reason is false
(d) If both the assertion and reason are false

Ans. (a) If both assertion and reason are true and the reason is the correct
explanation of assertion

(ii) Coefficient of linear expansion will be negative, when

(a) On increasing the temperature, length increases slowly
(b) On increasing the temperature, length decreases
(c) On increasing the temperature, length does not change
(d) When initial length is negative

Ans. (b) On increasing the temperature, length decreases

(iii) Some relations between α, β, γ are given

(i) β= 2 α
(ii) γ = 3α
(iii) γ= 3 / 2𝛽
(iv) α / 1 = 𝛽 / 2= γ / 3
 Which of the above is/are correct answer
(a) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
(b) (i), (ii), (iii)
(c) (i), (ii), (iv)
(d) (i), (ii)

Ans. (a) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)

(iv) A steel is 40 cm long at 20oC. The coefficient of linear expansion for steel
is 12x10-6 (oC)-1. The increase in length and the final length when it is at 70 oC
will be
(a) 0.24 cm, 4.24 cm
(b) 2.4 cm, 4.024 cm
(c) 0.024 cm, 4.44 cm
(d) 0.024 cm, 40.024 cm

Ans. (b) 2.4 cm, 4.024 cm

(v) A sheet of steel at 20oC has size as shown in the figure below. If the
coefficient of linear expansion for steel is 10-5 oC-1 then what is the change in
the area at 60 oC.

(a) 0.64 cm (b) 0.064 cm (c) 0.0064 cm (d) 0.00064 cm

Ans. (a) 0.64 cm

2. BLACK BODY RADIATION

When a black body is heated, it emits heat radiations of different wavelengths.
Figure shows experimental curves drawn between wavelength and intensity of
radiations (energy per second per unit area) emitted by a black body at
different temperatures.
 For a given temperature, as wavelength increases, the energy emitted
increases, reaches a maximum wavelength and then decreases. The
wavelength of maximum emissions shifts towards lower wavelength side as
temperature of black body increases. This is Wein’s displacement law. Wein’s
constant b = 2.9 × 10-3 mK . This law can be used to estimate the surface
temperatures of the moon, sun and the stars. Moreover, the area under a curve
represents the total energy (E) emitted by perfect black body per second per
unit area over the complete wavelength range at the given temperature. The
area is found to increase with fourth power of absolute temperature.

(i) The emissive power of a black body is proportional ( T = absolute

temperature) to
(a) E α T0 (b) E αT4 (c) E α T1 (d) E α T2

Ans. (b) E αT4

(ii) Which of the following statements is wrong?

(a) Stefan constant is same for all black bodies
(b) Thermal radiations travel with the speed 3 x 108 m / sec
(c) Thermal radiations exhibit diffraction
(d) Stefan law is applicable for all heated bodies.

Ans. (a) Stefan constant is same for all black bodies

(iii) In determining the temperature of a distant star one makes use of

(a) Kirchhoff’s law (b) Stefan’s law
(c) Wein’s displacement law (d) None of the above

Ans. (c) Wein’s displacement law

(iv) The wavelength of radiation emitted by a body depends upon

(a) The nature of the surface (b) The area of the surface
(c) The temperature of the surface (d) All of the above

Ans. (c) The temperature of the surface

3. THERMAL CONDUCTION
Cooking utensils are provided with wooden handles. Wood is a bad conductor
of heat. A wooden handle does not allow heat to be conducted from the hot
utensil to the hand. So we can easily hold the hot utensils with the help of
wooden handles.
A process in which heat is transmitted from one part of body to another at lower
temperature through molecular collisions without any actual flow of matter, is
called thermal conduction.

The amount of heat Q that flows from hot to cold face Q = KA (T1-T 2 ) t / x
Where K is coefficient of thermal conductivity.

(i) The factors influencing the thermal conductivity are:

(i) Humidity (ii) Temperature (iii) Thermal Anisotropy
(iv) Electrical Conductivity

Which of the above factors affect thermal conductivity?

(a) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
(b) (i), (ii), (iii)
(c) (i), (ii), (iv)
(d) (i), (ii)

Ans. (a) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)

(ii) Which are the best conductors?

(a) Solids (b) Liquids (c) Gases (d) Semiconductors

Ans. (a) Solids

(iii) If an analogy is to be drawn in between the heat flow and the electricity
flow in the circuits, the heat flow will be equated against the ______ in the
electrical circuit.
(a) Voltage (b) Resistance (c) Charge (d) Current

Ans. (d) Current

(iv) Assertion (a): Land is cooler at night.

Reason (R): Since land has higher thermal conductivity than the sea, it cools
off quickly before the sea does. Hence, the land is cooler than the sea at night.
(a) If both assertion and reason are true and the reason is the correct explanation
of assertion
(b) If both assertion and reason are true but the reason is not the correct
explanation of assertion
(c) If assertion is true but reason is false
(d) If both the assertion and reason are false

Ans. (a) If both assertion and reason are true and the reason is the correct
explanation of assertion

(v) Steam at 100°C is passed into a copper cylinder 10 mm thick and of 200
cm2 area. Water at 100°C collects at the rate of 150 g min-1. Find the
temperature of the outer surface, if the conductivity of copper is 0.8 cal s-1 cm-
1
°C-1 and the latent heat of steam is 540 cal g¹.
(a) 90°C (b) 91.56 °C (c) 89 °C (d) 90.9 °C

Ans. (b) 91.56 °C

KULDEEP DAUNDIYAL
PGT PHYSICS
K V ITBP GAUCHAR (CHAMOLI)
.

THERMODYNAMICS

GIST OF CHAPTER
A thermodynamical system is said to be in thermal equilibrium when macroscopic variables (like pressure,
volume, temperature, mass, composition etc.) that characterize the system do not change with time.
Thermodynamical System
An assembly of an extremely large number of particles whose state can be expressed in terms of pressure,
volume and temperature, is called thermodynamic system.
Thermodynamic system is classified into the following three systems
(i) Open System It exchange both energy and matter with surrounding.
(ii) Closed System It exchanges only energy (not matter) with surroundings.
(iii) Isolated System It exchanges neither energy nor matter with the surrounding.
A thermodynamic system is not always in equilibrium. For example, a gas allowed to expand freely against
vacuum. Similary, a mixture of petrol vapour and air, when ignited by a spark is not an equilibrium state.
Equilibrium is acquired eventually with time.
Thermodynamic Parameters or Coordinates or Variables
The state of thermodynamic system can be described by specifying pressure, volume, temperature, internal
energy and number of moles, etc. These are called thermodynamic parameters or coordinates or variables.
Work done by a thermodynamic system is given by
W = p * ΔV
Where p = pressure and ΔV = change in volume.
Work done by a thermodynamic system is equal to the area enclosed between the p-V curve and the
volume axis

Work done in process A-B = area ABCDA

Work done by a thermodynamic system depends not only upon the initial and final states of the system but
also depend upon the path followed in the process.
Work done by the Thermodynamic System is taken as
Positive → 4 as volume increases.
Negative → 4 as volume decreases.
Internal Energy (U)
The total energy possessed by any system due to molecular motion and molecular configuration, is called
its internal energy.
Internal energy of a thermodynamic system depends on temperature. It is the characteristic property of the
state of the system.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
According to this law, two systems in thermal equilibrium with a third system separately are in thermal
equilibrium with each other. Thus, if A and B are separately in equilibrium with C, that is if TA = TC and
TB = TC, then this implies that TA = TB i.e., the systems A and B are also in thermal equilibrium.
.

First Law of Thermodynamics

Heat given to a thermodynamic system (ΔQ) is partially utilized in doing work (ΔW) against the
surrounding and the remaining part increases the internal energy (ΔU) of the system.
Therefore, ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW
First law of thermodynamics is a restatement of the principle conservation of energy.
In isothermal process, change in internal energy is zero (ΔU = 0).
Therefore, ΔQ = ΔW
In adiabatic process, no exchange of heat takes place, i.e., Δθ = O.
Therefore, ΔU = – ΔW
In adiabatic process, if gas expands, its internal energy and hence, temperature decreases and vice-versa.
In isochoric process, work done is zero, i.e., ΔW = 0, therefore
ΔQ = ΔU
Thermodynamic Processes
A thermodynamical process is said to take place when some changes’ occur in the state of a
thermodynamic system i.e., the thermodynamic parameters of the system change with time.
(i) Isothermal Process A process taking place in a thermodynamic system at constant temperature is called
an isothermal process.
Isothermal processes are very slow processes.
These process follows Boyle’s law, according to which
PV = constant
From dU = nCvdT as dT = 0 so dU = 0, i.e., internal energy is constant.
From first law of thermodynamic dQ = dW, i.e., heat given to the system is equal to the work done by
system surroundings.
Work done W = 2.3026μRT log10(Vf / Vi) = 2.3026μRT log10(pi / pf)
where, μ = number of moles, R = ideal gas constant, T = absolute temperature and Vi Vf and Pi, Pf are
initial volumes and pressures.
After differentiating P V = constant, we have

i.e., bulk modulus of gas in isothermal process, β = p.

P – V curve for this persons is a rectangular hyperbola
Examples
(a) Melting process is an isothermal change, because temperature of a substance remains constant during
melting.
(b) Boiling process is also an isothermal operation.
(ii) Adiabatic Process A process taking place in a thermodynamic system for which there is no exchange of
heat between the system and its surroundings.
Adiabatic processes are very fast processes.
These process follows Poisson’s law, according to which

From dQ = nCdT, Cadi = 0 as dQ = 0, i.e., molar heat capacity for adiabatic process is zero.
.

From first law, dU = – dW, i.e., work done by the system is equal to decrease in internal energy. When a
system expands adiabatically, work done is positive and hence internal energy decrease, i.e., the system
cools down and vice-versa.
Work done in an adiabatic process is

where Ti and Tf are initial and final temperatures. Examples

(a) Sudden compression or expansion of a gas in a container with perfectly non-conducting wall.
(b) Sudden bursting of the tube of a bicycle tyre.
(c) Propagation of sound waves in air and other gases.
(iii) Isobaric Process A process taking place in a thermodynamic system at constant pressure is called an
isobaric process.
Molar heat capacity of the process is Cp and dQ = nCpdT.
Internal energy dU = nCv dT
From the first law of thermodynamics
dQ = dU + dW
dW = pdV = nRdT
Process equation is V / T = constant.
p- V curve is a straight line parallel to volume axis.
(iv) Isochoric Process A process taking place in a thermodynamic system at constant volume is called an
isochoric process.
dQ = nCvdT, molar heat capacity for isochoric process is Cv.
Volume is constant, so dW = 0,
Process equation is p / T = constant
p- V curve is a straight line parallel to pressure axis.
(v) Cyclic Process When a thermodynamic system returns to initial state after passing through several
states, then it is called cyclic process.
Efficiency of the cycle is given by

Work done by the cycle can be computed from area enclosed cycle on p- V curve.

Isothermal and Adiabatic Curves

The graph drawn between the pressure p and the volume V of a given mass of a gas for an isothermal
process is called isothermal curve and for an adiabatic process it is called adiabatic curve .
.

The slope of the adiabatic curve

= γ x the slope of the isothermal curve
Volume Elasticities of Gases
There are two types of volume elasticities of gases
(i) Isothermal modulus of elasticity ES = p
(ii) Adiabatic modulus of elasticity ET = γ p
Ratio between isothermal and adiabatic modulus
ES / ET = γ = Cp / CV
where Cp and Cv are specific heats of gas at constant pressure and at constant volume.
For an isothermal process Δt = 0, therefore specific heat,
c = Δ θ / m Δt = infinity;
For an adiabatic process 119= 0, therefore specific heat,
c = 0 / m Δt = 0
Second Law of Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics gives a fundamental limitation to the efficiency of a heat engine and
the coefficient of performance of a refrigerator. It says that efficiency of a heat engine can never be unity
(or 100%). This implies that heat released to the cold reservoir can never be made zero.
Kelvin’s Statement
It is impossible to obtain a continuous supply of work from a body by cooling it to a temperature below the
coldest of its surroundings.
Clausius’ Statement
It is impossible to transfer heat from a lower temperature body to a higher temperature body without use of
an external agency.
Planck’s Statement
It is impossible to construct a heat engine that will convert heat completely into work.
All these statements are equivalent as one can be obtained from the other.
Entropy
Entropy is a physical quantity that remains constant during a reversible adiabatic change.
Change in entropy is given by dS = δQ / T
Where, δQ = heat supplied to the system
and T = absolute temperature.
Entropy of a system never decreases, i.e., dS ≥ o.
Entropy of a system increases in an irreversible process
.

MEMORY CARD
• First Law of Thermodynamics
ΔU=Q-W
• Isothermal Process :
PV=constant, ΔU=0, Q=W, Molar Specific Heat=infinity
• Adiabatic Process :
PVγ= constant=0, ΔU=-W, Molar Specific Heat=zero
• Isochoric process
Volume Constant: P/T=constant W=0, ΔU=Q, Molar Specific Heat=Cv
• Isobaric process :
Pressure Constant: V/T=constant ΔU=Q-W, Molar Specific Heat=CP
• Internal energy depends on Temperature.
So for some temperature change ΔT
nCvΔT=Q1-W1=Q2-W2=Q3-W3
• Molar Specific Heat Capacity of any process is given by
C=CV+(P/n)(dV/dT)
where n is no of moles of the gas
• Work done by Gas= ∫PdV
Cp=Cv + R

MCQ(1 MARKS QUESTION)

1. It is known that curves A, B, C are Isobaric, Isothermal, Adiabatic process then which one is correct

(a) A - Adiabatic, B - Isothermal,, C - Isobaric

(b) A- Isothermal,, B - Adiabatic, C - Isobaric
(c) A - Isobaric, B - Isothermal C - Adiabatic
(d) None of these

Solution Isobaric Pressure is constant so Curve C is Isobaric Adiabatic slope is more steeper then
Isothermal So Adiabatic – A And Isothermal - B
So a is correct answer
2. Which of the following graph correctly represent the variation
δ=dV/dT for an ideal gas at constant pressure
.

Solution
D option is correct
3. Consider the following statements
(Assertion) The internal energy of an ideal gas does not change during an Isothermal process
(Reason) The decrease in the volume of the gas is compensated by a corresponding increase in pressure
when its temperature is constant in accordance with Boyle law
a. Both A & R are true and R is correct Explanation of A
b. Both A & R are true and R is not correct Explanation of A
c. A is true R is false
d. A is false but R is true
Solution (a)
4. Match the column
.

a. a-> q, b -> p, c-> r

b. a-> p, b -> q, c-> r
c. a-> r, b -> q, c-> p
d. a-> p, b -> r, c-> q
Solution a – AB b – AC c – BC
thus a is correct option
5. During an adiabatic process the square of the pressure of a gas is proportional to the fifth power of its
absolute temperature. The ratio of specific heat Cp / Cv for that gas is
a. 3/5
b. 4/3
c. 5/3
d. 3/2
Solution
P2= k T5
P2 =k(PV/nR)5
P2 = k'P5V5 where k'=k/(nR)5 which is a constant
P3V5 = constant
PV5/3 = constant
so Cp / Cv = 5/3
6. What is the molar specific heat of a isothermal & adiabatic process respectively
a. ∞ , 0
b. 0, ∞
c. 0, 0
d. none of these
Solution
a, ∞ , 0
7. A thermodynamical system is changed from state (P1, V1) to (P², V²) by two different processes, the
quantity which will remain same is:
(a) ΔQ
(b) ΔW
(c) ΔQ + ΔW
(d) ΔQ – ΔW
Answer: (d) ΔQ – ΔW
8. Which of the following is incorrect regarding the first law of thermodynamics?
A. It is not applicable to any cyclic process
B. It is a restatement of the principle of conservation of energy
C. It introduces the concept of the internal energy D. It introduces the concept of the entropy
(a) A and D
(b) B and C
.

(c) C and A
(d) A and B
Answer a) A and D
9. At a given volume and temperature, the pressure of a gas
(a) varies inversely as its mass
(b) varies inversely as the square of its mass
(c) varies linearly as its mass
(d) is independent of its mass
Answer(c) varies linearly as its mass
10. In a thermodynamic process, pressure of a fixed mass of the gas is changed in such a manner that the
gas molecules give out 30 J of heat. Also, 10 J of work is done on the gas. If the internal energy of the gas
was 40 J, what will be the final internal energy?
(a) 20 J
(b) -20 J
(c) 80 J
(d) zero
Answer (a) 20 J
11. Which of the following parameters dose not characterize the thermodynamic state of matter?
(a) Work
(b) volume
(c) pressure
(d) Temperature
Answer (a) work
12. For a diatomic gas change in internal energy for a unit change in temperature for constant pressure and
constant volume is U1 and U2 respectively. What is the ratio of U1 and U2?
(a) 5: 3
(b) 3: 5
(c) 1: 1
(d) 5: 7
Answer(c) 1: 1
13. Heat cannot by itself flow from a body at lower temperature to a body at higher temperature is a
statement as a consequence of
(a) conservation of mass
(b) conservation of momentum
(c) first law of thermodynamics
(d) second law of thermodynamics
Answer (d) second law of thermodynamics
14. Which of the following statements is correct for any thermodynamic system?
(a) The internal energy changes in all processes.
(b) Internal energy and entropy are state functions.
(c) The change in entropy can never be zero.
(d) The work done in an adiabatic process is always zero.
Answer (b) Internal energy and entropy are state functions.
15. What is true of Isothermal Process
(a) ΔT >0
(b) ΔU=0
.

(c) ΔQ=ΔW
(d) PV=constants
Solution In an Isothermal Process Temperature remains constant ΔT =0. Since Internal energy depends on
the temperature ΔU=0

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTION(2 MARKS)

1. Explain why
(a) Two bodies at different temperatures T1 and T2 if brought in thermal contact do not necessarily settle to
the mean temperature (T1 + T2)/2.
(b) The coolant in a chemical or a nuclear plant (i.e., the liquid used to prevent the different parts of a plant
from getting too hot) should have high specific heat.
(c) Air pressure in a car type increases during driving.
(d) The climate of a harbor town is more temperate than that of a town in a desert at the same latitude.
Answer:
(a) Two bodies would settle at the mean temperature (T1+ T2)/2 only if they have equal thermal capacities.
(b) A coolant of high specific heat can withdraw more heat out of the chemical or nuclear plant than a
coolant of ordinary specific heat.
(c) During driving, the tyres of the car are heated up due to friction between tyres and road. Since heating
of tyres causes an increase in temperature, the pressure in the tyres increases (P a T at constant volume).
(d) The relative humidity in a harbour town is more than the relative humidity in a desert town. Therefore,
the climatic conditions of a harbour town do not reach extremes of hot or cold making it a temperate zone.
2. In changing the state of a gas adiabatically from an equilibrium state A to another equilibrium state B, an
amount of work equal to 22.3 J is done on the system. If the gas is taken form state A to B via a process in
which the net heat absorbed by the system is 9.35 cal, how much is the net work done by the system in the
latter case ? [Take 1 cal = 4.19 J]
Answer: When the state of the gas changes adiabatically from A to B, amount of work done is used to
increase the internal energy of the gas.
Increase in internal energy, ΔU = 22.3 J.
In the second case, when state A changes to state B, heat absorbed by the system
ΔQ = 9.35 cal = 9.35 x 4.19J = 39.18 J
Now, using the first law of thermodynamics,
ΔQ =ΔU + ΔW
=> ΔW =ΔQ-ΔU = 39.18-22.3 = 16.88 J
3. Two cylinders A and B of equal capacity are connected to each other via a stopcock. A contains gas at
standard temperature and pressure. B is completely evacuated. The entire system is thermally insulated.
The stopcock is suddenly opened. Answer the following :
(a) What is the final pressure of the gas in A and B?
(b) What is the change in the internal energy of the gas?
(c) What is the change in the temperature of the gas?
(d) Do the intermediate states of the system (before settling to the final equilibrium state) lie of its P-V-T
surface ?
Answer:
(a) Since the final temperature and initial temperature remain the same (isothermal process).
.

(b) Since the temperature of the system remains unchanged, the change in internal energy is zero.
(c) The system being thermally insulated, there is no change in temperature (because of free expansion)
(d) The expansion is a free expansion. Therefore, the intermediate states are non-equilibrium states and the
gas equation is not satisfied in these states. As a result, the gas can not return to an equilibrium state which
lie on the P-V-T surface.
4. A thermodynamic system is taken from an original state to an intermediate state by the linear process
shown in Fig.

Its volume is then reduced to the original value from E to F by an isobaric process. Calculate the work done
by the gas from D to E to F.
Answer:
As is clear from above Fig.,
Change in pressure, dP = EF = 5.0 – 2.0 = 3.0 N m-2
Change in volume, dW = DF = 600 – 300 = 300 m3
Work done by the gas from D to E to F = area of ADEF

5. Kelvin and Clausius’s statements of the Second law of thermodynamics are equivalent. Explain?
Answer: Suppose we have an engine that gives a continuous supply of work when it is cooled below the
temperature of its surroundings. This is a violation of Kelvin’s statement. Now if the work done by the
engine is used to drive a dynamo which produces current and this current produces heat in a coil immersed
in hot water, then we have produced a machine which causes the flow of heat from a cold body to the hot
body without the help of an external agent. This is a violation of Clausius’s statement. Hence both
statements are equivalent.
.

6. Explain why two isothermal curves cannot intersect each other?

Answer: If they intersect, then at the point of intersection, the volume and pressure of the gas will be the
same at two different temperatures which is not possible.
7. What is the source of energy when gas does work when expands adiabatically?
Answer: During adiabatic expansion, the temperature and hence the internal energy of the gas decreases.
Thus work is done by the gas at the cost of its internal energy.
8. State and explain the zeroth law of thermodynamics?
Answer: It states that if two systems A and B are in thermal equilibrium with a third system C, then A and
B must.be in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Explanation: The three systems are shown in the figure. Let T1, T2, T3 be the temperatures of A, B, and C
respectively.

Systems A and C, B and C will exchange heat and after a certain time, they will attain thermal equilibrium
separately.
i.e. T1 = T3 …. (1)
and T2 = T3 …. (2)
Thus from (1) and (2),
T1 = T2
i.e. A and B are now in thermal equilibrium with each other.
9. Why cannot a ship use the internal energy of seawater to operate the engine?
Answer: The heat engine can convert the internal energy of seawater if there is a sink at a temperature
lower than the temperature of seawater. Since there is no such sink and hence a ship can’t use the internal
energy of seawater to operate the engine.
10. A certain amount of work is done by the system in a process in which no heat is transferred to or from
the system. What happens to the internal energy and the temperature of the system?
Answer: The temperature of the system decreases as the system is doing work and no heat transfer is
allowed to or from the system. As the temperature of the system decreases, the internal energy of the
system also decreases.
11. If an electric fan is switched on in a closed room, will the air of the room be cooled? Why?
Answer: No. It will not be cooled, rather it will get heated because the speed of the air molecules will
increase due to the motion of the fan. We feel cooler because of the evaporation of the sweat when the fan
is switched on.
12. Milk is poured into a cup of tea and is mixed with a spoon. Is this an example of a reversible process?
Give reason.
Answer: No. It is an example of an irreversible process. When milk is poured into a cup of tea and mixed,
some work is performed and the same gets converted into heat. It is not possible to convert the heat
produced back into work which will separate the milk from the tea.
13. Explain whether the following processes are reversible?
(a) Waterfall,
.

Answer: The falling of water is not a reversible process. During the waterfall, the major part of its potential
energy is converted into kinetic energy of the water and on striking the ground, a part of it is converted into
heat and sound. It is not possible to convert the heat and sound produced along with the K.E. of water into
the potential energy so that the water will rise back to its initial height.
(b) Electrolysis.
Answer: It is a reversible process if the electrolyte does not offer any resistance to the flow of current. If we
reverse the direction of the current, the direction of motion of ions is also reversed.
14. State the conditions for reversible and irreversible processes.
Answer: Conditions for the reversible process:

1. The process should be slow enough so that at each stage of operation the system is in:
(a) Mechanical equilibrium with the surroundings.
(b) Chemical equilibrium with the surroundings.
2. There should not be a loss of energy due to friction.
3. Energy should not be lost due to conduction, convection, and radiation during the process.
15. Why cooling takes place when gas suffers adiabatic expansion?
Answer: When a gas expands under adiabatic condition, then dB = 0 and thus dU + dW = 0. So the gas
does„external work for its expansion at the cost of internal energy due to which temperature of the gas falls
and hence cooling takes place.
16. What do you mean by internal energy?
Answer: When work is done on the gas, it gets compressed and its temperature rises. The work done is
converted into another form of energy called internal energy of the gas and the total energy remains
conserved. The internal energy is chiefly the result of kinetic energy arising from the notion of the
molecules inside the gas.
17. Why Cp is greater than Cv for a gas?
Answer: When heat is given to a gas keeping its volume constant whole of it is used to raise the kinetic
energy hence, the temperature of the gas. But if the pressure is to be kept constant, then an additional
amount of heat is needed to raise the temperature of the same amount of gas by the same extent as the gas
has to do work against pressure in the expansion (volume is now increased). Thus according to the
definition of Cp and Cv, Cp>Cv.
18. What is the difference between the internal energy of an ideal and a real gas?
Answer: The internal energy of an ideal gas depends upon K.E only while for a real gas, it depends upon
both K.E and P.E
19. Air escaping from a cycle tube becomes cool on removing the value. Why?
Answer: The air in a cycle tube is present at a present greater than the atmospheric pressure. When the
valve is removed, the air expands suddenly i.e. adiabatic expansion takes place and the temperature
decreases, thus the tube becomes cool.
SA TYPE QUESTION (3 MARKS EACH)
1. Explain the need SECOND LAW OF thermodynamics.
Answer: Its need is as follows:

1. The heat flows from a body at a higher temperature to a body at a lower temperature, but why not
from a body at a lower temperature to a higher temperature.
2. Heat engine converts heat into Work, but Why is the efficiency of an engine less than one?
3. When we rotate a paddle in a beaker containing water, we know that the Work was done is
converted into heat but when we put a paddle in hot water, no mechanical work is done. Why?
 .

The above questions lead us to the need for the second law of thermodynamics.
2. State and explain the first law of thermodynamics. What are the sign conventions?
Answer: It states that if an amount of heat dQ is added to a system then a part of it may increase its internal
energy by an amount dU and the remaining part may be used up as the external work dW done by the
system i.e. mathematically,
dQ = dU + dW
= dU + PdV
Sign conventions:

1. Work done by a system is taken as positive while the work done on the system is taken as -ve.
2. The increase in the internal energy of the system is taken as positive while the decrease in the internal
energy is taken as negative.
3. Heat added (gained) by a system is taken as positive and the heat lost by the system is taken as negative.
3. An electric heater supplies heat to a system at a rate of 100 W. If the system performs work at a rate of
75 joules per second, at what rate is the internal energy increasing?
Answer: Rate of heat supplied to the system is 100 W = 100 Js-1
Rate of work done by the system is 75Js-1.
From the first law of thermodynamics, we have
∆ Q = ∆ U + ∆ W ……..(1)
If the above parameters are observed for a time‘∆ t’,
ΔQ/Δt=ΔU/Δt+ΔW/Δt …….(2)
where ΔQ/Δt is the rate of heat supplied to the system for the given time, ΔU/Δt is the rate of increase in
internal energy of the system for the given time and ΔW/Δt is the
rate of work done by the system in the given time.
∴ From equation (2), we have
100 = ΔU/Δt + 75
∴ ΔU/Δt = 25 Js-1
Therefore the internal energy increases at rate of 25 Joules per second.
4. A cylinder with a movable piston contains 3 moles of hydrogen at standard temperature and pressure.
The walls of the cylinder are made of a heat insulator, and the piston is insulated by having a pile of sand
on it. By what factor does the pressure of the gas increase if the gas is compressed to half its original
volume?
.

Answer: Hydrogen is a diatomic gas. Therefore, for hydrogen, ratio of two specific heats is

5. A geyser heats water flowing at the rate of 3.0 liters per minute from 27 °C to 77 °C. If the geyser
operates on a gas burner, what is the rate of consumption of the fuel if its heat of combustion is 4-0 x
104 J/g ?
Answer:

6. What amount of heat must be supplied to 2.0 x 10-2 kg of nitrogen (at room temperature) to raise its
temperature by 45°C at constant pressure ? (Molecular) mass of N2 = 28 ; R = 8.3 J mol-1 K-1).
Answer: Nitrogen is a diatomic gas. Therefore its molar specific heat at constant pressure is
.

7. The specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J/kg K. What is the change In the internal energy of 5 kg of
water when it is heated from 20°G to 80°C?
Answer: Here, C = 4200 J/kg K
m = 5 kg
T1 = 20°C + 273 = 293 K
T2 = 80 + 273 = 353 K
ΔT = T2 – T1
= 353 – 293 = 60 K
ΔU = ?
If ΔQ be the heat supplied to water for its heating, then using
ΔQ = mCΔT, we get
ΔQ = 5 × 4200 × 60
= 1260 KJ
Let us ignore the slight expansion in the volume of water,
∴ ΔW = PdV = 0
∴ ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW, gives
ΔU = ΔQ = 1260 KJ.
8. A gas expands with temperature according to the relation V = kT2/3. What is the work done when the
temperature changes by 30°C?
Answer:
Here, V = kT2/3

= R ×2/3(T2– T1)
=2/3R × 30 = 20 R.
9. Two moles of a certain ideal gas at a temperature T0 = 300K were cooled isochorically so that the gas
pressure reduced two times. Then as a result of the isobaric process the gas expanded till its temperature get
back to the initial value.
(a) What would be total change in internal energy?
(b) Total work done by the system.
(c) Find the total amount of heat absorbed by gas in this process
Solution
.

(a) Change in internal energy ΔU = 0 for the whole process

(b) during Isochoric process work done would be equal to zero = W1 = 0
now work done during isobaric process is
W = PΔV
= μRΔT
At the end of Isochoric process temperature of the gas can be calculated as follows
In the beginning of Isochoric process ideal gas equation is
PV=nRT0 (1)
During Isochoric process volume remains constant and at the end of the process pressure becomes P/2 and
temperature becomes T'
Thus at the end of process ideal gas equation becomes
PV=nRT' (2)
From 1 and 2 T'=T0/2
Now since temperature is increasing from T0/2 to T0
W=μR(T0-(T0/2))
(c) total heat absorbed is given by ΔU = Q-W
from first law of thermodynamics
Q= W
total heat absorbed
Q= μRT0(1-1/n)
= 2 x 8.314 x 300 x (1-1 / 2)
= 2494.25
= 2.5 KJ
10. An ideal gas is taken from an initial state i to a final state f in such a way that the ratio of the pressure to
the absolute temperature remains constant. What will be the work done by the gas.
Solution
Given that
P / T = const.
from ideal gas equation
P / T = μR / V = constant
V = μRT / P = constant
Since volume remains constant in this process =>V = 0
or W = pdV = 0
Work done during the process is zero.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS(5 MARKS)

1. Derive the expression for the work done during:
(a) Isothermal process
(b) Adiabatic process
Answer:
Consider one mole of a perfect gas contained in a cylinder having conducting walls and fitted with
.

a movable piston.

Let P, V be the pressure and volume of the gas corresponding to this state.
Let dx = distance by which piston moves outward at constant pressure P so that its volume
increases by dV.
Let a = area of cross-section of the piston.
(a) If dW = work done in moving the piston by dx, then .
dW = force on piston × dx
= P a dx
= PdV …(i)
Where dV = a dx = volume
Let the system goes from initial state A(P1, V1) to final state B(P2, V2)
If W = total work done from A to B, then

= RT (logeV2 – logeV1)
= RT log2 V2V1
= 2.303 RT log10 V2V1
(b) From equation (ii) of case (a), we get

We know that an adiabatic process is represented mathematically by the equation:

PVγ = constant = K
or
P = KVγ …(iii)
.

∴ from (ii) and (iii), we get

2. A certain volume of dry air at NTP is allowed to expand 4 times its original volume under
(a) isothermal conditions
(b) adiabatic conditions.
Calculate the final pressure and temperature in each case γ = 1.4.
Answer:
Here, let V1 = V
∴ V2 = 4V
P1 = 76 cm of Hg
P2 = ?
γ = 1.4
T1 = 273 K
T2 = ?
(a) For isothermal expansion,
P1V1= P2V2
or
P2 = P1V1/V2
=76/4= 19 cm of Hg.
Since the process is isothermal, therefore the final temperature will be the same, as the initial
temperature.
T1 = 273 K
.

(b) Adiabatic expansion Using the relation

P1V1γ = P2V2γ

3. A litre of hydrogen at 27°G and 106 dyne cm-2 pressure expands isothermally until its volume is
doubled and then adiabatically until redoubled. Find the final temperature, pressure and work done
in each case, γ = 1.4
Answer:
Here, P1 = 106 dyne cm-2
V1 = 103 cm3 = 1 litre
T1 = 27 °C = 300 K.
V2 = 2V1
= 2000 cm3 for isothermal expansion
T2 =?
P2 =?
For adiabatic expansion
V1 = 2000 cm3
V’1 = 2V’1 = 4000 cm3
(a) For isothermal expansion: Using the relation
P2V2= P1V1,we get
P2=P1V1/V2=106x103/2x103
= 5 × 105 dyne cm-2
T2 = T1 for isothermal expansion = 300 K = 27°C
Work done during isothermal expansion is given by
W = 2.303 RT log10(V2/V1)
= 2.303 P1V1 log10(V2/V1)
= 2.303 × 106 × 103log102
.

= 2.303 × 109 × 0.3010

= 6.93 × 108 erg
(b) For adiabatic expansion:

= – 45.6 °C
Work done during adiabatic expansion is given by

4. One mole of an ideal monatomic gas is taken round the cyclic process ABCDA as shown in
figure.
.

a. Work done by the gas

b Heat absorbed by the gas in AB and BC
c. Heat in process CD
d. Find the temperature at C and D
e. Net change in the internal energy and the heat
Solution
For monatomic gas
Cp=5R/2
Cv=3R/2
a Work done by the gas = Area enclosed by the curve ABCDA
=3P0V0
b. Heat absorbed the gas in AB
QAB=Cv(TB-TA)
=3R/2(3P0V0/R -P0V0/R)
=3P0V0
Heat absorbed the gas in BC
QBC=CP(TC-TB)
=5R/2(6P0V0/R - 3P0V0/R)
=15P0V0/2
c. Heat rejected in DA
QDA=CP(TA-TD)
=-5P0V0
Now for the cycle process
QAB+QBC+QCD+QDA=W
So
QCD= -5P0V0/2
d. from diagram and PV=RT
TC=6P0V0/R
TD=3P0V0/R
e. ΔU=0
Net heat=3P0V0
5. Two moles of helium (γ=5/3) are initially at a temperature of 27 °C and occupy a volume of 20L.
The helium is first expanded at constant pressure until the volume has tripled, and then adiabatically
until the temperature returns to its initial state. given for helium
Cp = 20.78 J/mol-k

(a) Draw diagram of process in P-V plane

(b) What is the total heat supplied in the process
(c) What is the total change in internal energy of helium.
(d) What is the total work done by the helium.
(e) What is the final volume and pressure.
Answer.
.

a) PV diagram of process is

(b) since the gas is expending at constant pressure so when its volume gets tripled its temperature
also gets tripled.
for gas expending at constant pressure heat dQ flowing into gas is
dQ= nCpdT
Integrating both sides with limits of T going from T1 and T2
∫dQ=∫nCpdT
Q=nCp T2 - T1)
given that
Cp = 20.78 J/mol-k
n = 2 mol.
T1 = 27°C = 300 k
T2 = 3 x 300 = 900 k
= 2 x 20.78 x (900 - 300)
= 2.5 x 104 J
(c) Total change in internal energy of helium is zero as initial and final temperature of the process is
same
(d) for total work done by helium calculate work done by gas in isobaric process AB and also work
done by gas during adiabatic process BC.
now from ideal gas equation
PV = μRT
Initial pressure
P = μRT/V = (2 x 8.314 x 300)/(20 x 10-3)
= 2.49 x 105 N/m2
At point B
PB = PA = 2.49 x 105 N/m2
volume VB = 3VA = 60 x 10-3 m3
and TB = 900 k.
Thus work done by gas during isobaric process AB
= 2.49 x 105 (60 - 20) x 10-3
=9960 J.
Work done by gas during adiabatic process BC
= (μR/(1 - γ))(TB - TC)
.

= [2 x 8.314/1- (5/3)] [30-900]

;= 14940
Therefore net work done by gas
W = WAB + WBC
= 9960 J + 14940 J
= 2.49 x 104 J
(e) from adiabatic equation
TVγ-1 = Constant
TBVBγ-1 = TCVCγ-1
or, (VC / VB)γ-1 = TB/TC = 900 / 300 = 3
VC/VB = (3) 1/γ-1 = (3) 1.5
= 5.196
VC = 5.196 x VB
= 5.196 x 60 x 10-3m3
= VC = 5.196 x VB
= 5.196 x 60 x 10-3m3
= 311.7 x 10-3m3
final pressure
PC = μRTC / VC
= 2 x 8.3 x 300 / 311.7 x 10-3
= .159 x 105 N/m3

CASE STUDY BASED QUESTIONS

1. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that two systems in thermal equilibrium with a third
system separately are in thermal equilibrium with each other. The Zeroth Law clearly suggests that
when two systems A and B, are in thermal equilibrium, there must be a physical quantity that has
the same value for both. This thermodynamic variable whose value is equal for two systems in
thermal equilibrium is called temperature (T). Thus, if A and B are separately in equilibrium with
C, TA=TC and TB=TC. This implies that TA =TB i.e. the systems A and B are also in thermal
equilibrium. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics leads to the concept of internal energy of a system.
We know that every bulk system consists of a large number of molecules. Internal energy is simply
the sum of the kinetic energies and potential energies of these molecules. A certain amount of heat
is supplied to the system’ or ‘a certain amount of work was done by the system its energy changes.
1) Three thermodynamic systems are at temperature of 500 c .what can we say about them?
a) Heat flows between them
b) It obeys Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
c) Temperature of one system will increase and temperature of remaining two will decrease
d) None of these
2) Zeroth law of thermodynamics helped in the creation of which scale?
a) Temperature
b) Heat energy
c) Pressure
d) Internal energy
.

3) State Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

4) Define Internal energy of system

Answer key – 1
1) b
2) a
3) Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that two systems in thermal equilibrium with a third
system separately are in thermal equilibrium with each other. i.e. when two systems A and B, are in
thermal equilibrium individually with system C then these two systems are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
4) Internal energy is the sum of the kinetic energies and potential energies of all the molecules
possesses by system.

2 Kelvin-Planck statement: No process is possible whose sole result is the absorption of heat from
a reservoir and the complete conversion of the heat into work.
Clausius statement: No process is possible whose sole result is the transfer of heat from a colder
object to a hotter object. It can be proved that the two statements above are completely equivalent.
A thermodynamic process is reversible if the process can be turned back such that both the system
and the surroundings return to their original states, with no other change anywhere else in the
universe. a reversible process is an idealized motion. A process is reversible only if it is quasi-static
(system in equilibrium with the surroundings at every stage) and there are no dissipative effects. For
example, a quasi-static isothermal expansion of an ideal gas in a cylinder fitted with a frictionless
movable piston is a reversible process.
The free expansion of a gas is irreversible. The combustion reaction of a mixture of petrol and air
ignited by a spark cannot be reversed. Cooking gas leaking from a gas cylinder in the kitchen
diffuses to the entire room. The diffusion process will not spontaneously reverse and bring the gas
back to the cylinder. The stirring of a liquid in thermal contact with a reservoir will convert the
work done into heat, increasing the internal energy of the reservoir. The process cannot be reversed
exactly; otherwise it would amount to conversion of heat entirely into work, violating the Second
Law of Thermodynamics. Irreversibility is a rule rather an exception in nature.
1) The diffusion process is
a) Reversible process
b) Irreversible process
2) A quasi-static isothermal expansion of an ideal gas in a cylinder fitted with a frictionless
movable piston is
a) Reversible process
b) Irreversible process
3) State Kelvin Planck statement.
4) State Clausius statement.
5) Define reversible processes and irreversible processes of thermodynamics.
.

Answer key – 2
1) b
2) a
3) Kelvin-Planck statement states that We cannot construct any device like the heat engine that
operates on a cycle, absorbs the heat energy, and completely transforms this energy into an equal
amount of work. Some of the heat gets released into the atmosphere. Practically no device bears
100% thermal efficiency.
4) According to clausius It is nearly impossible for heat to move by itself from a temperature that is
lower in temperature to a reservoir that is at a higher temperature. That is we can say that the
transfer of heat can only occur spontaneously from high temperature to temperature. i.e No process
is possible whose sole result is the transfer of heat from a colder object to a hotter object without
any external work provided to do it in short we cannot construct a refrigerator that can operate
without any input work.
5) A thermodynamic process is said to be reversible if both the system and the surroundings return
to their original states, with no other change anywhere else in the universe. On the other hand an
irreversible process can be defined as a process in which the system and surrounding will not return
to their original condition once the process is initiated.
PREPARED BY MR. MOHIT SHARMA PGT (PHYSICS),KV HALDWANI CANTT. I SHIFT

UNIT-IX: Behaviour of Perfect gas and Kinetic theory

GIST OF THE CHAPTER-
Chapter–13: Kinetic Theory
Equation of state of a perfect gas, work done in compressing a gas.
Kinetic theory of gases - assumptions, concept of pressure. Kinetic interpretation of temperature; rms speed
of gas molecules; degrees of freedom, law of equi-partition of energy (statement only) and application to
specific heat capacities of gases; concept of mean free path, Avogadro's number.
MASTER CARD-
Boyle’s Law: At constant temperature volume of given mass of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure.

Charle’s Law: At constant pressure volume of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature.
*For 1° rise in temp.
𝑡
Vt = Vo(1 + 273.15)

Gay Lussac’s Law:At constant volume, pressure of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to its
absolute temp.
𝑃
= constant.
𝑇
𝑡
For 10C rise in temperature Pt= Po (1 + 273.15)

Ideal Gas Equation: for n mole of gas

PV=nRT,
for 1 mole , PV=RT
Universal gas constant: R = 8.31 J mol-1K-1
𝑅
Boltzmann constant: kB = 𝑁 where kB = Boltzmann constant, 𝑵𝑨 = Avogadro’s no.
𝐴

Ideal gas: A gas which obeys gas law strictly is an ideal or perfect gas. The molecules of such a gas are of
point size and there is no force of attraction between them.
Assumptions of Kinetic Theory of Gases
1. All gases consist of molecules which are rigid, elastic spheres identical in all respect for a given gas.
2. The size of a molecule is negligible as compared with the average distance between two molecules.
3. During the random motion, the molecules collide with one another and with the wall of the
vessel.The collisions are almost instantaneous.
4. The molecular density remains uniform throughout the gas.
5. The collisions are perfectly elastic in nature and there are no forces of attraction or repulsion between
them.
Pressure exerted by gas:
 Where: n=no. of molecules per unit volume.
m=mass of each molecule.

=mean of square speed.

V = Volume
M = mass of gas

Average Kinetic energy of a gas: If M is molecular mass and V is molecular volume and m is mass of each
molecule. Then
1. Mean K.E per mole of a gas,

2. Mean K.E per molecule of a gas,

⃗E = 1 mv
̅̅̅2 = 1
kBT
2 2

3. K.E of 1gram of gas,

1 3 RT
mv̅̅̅2 = M0 gram molecular weight
2 2 M0

Avogadro Law: Equal volume of all gases under similar condition of temp. and pressure contain equal
number of molecules.
Avogadro Number:
NA =6.0225 x 1023 mol -1
Graham’s Law of diffusion:

r = rate of diffusion

= density
Delton’s law of partial pressure: Total pressure exerted by a mixture of non-reacting gases occupying a
given volume is equal to the sum of partial pressures which gas would exert if it alone occupied the same
volume at given temp.
v1 +v2 +v3 +…+vn
Average Speed :-v
̅ =
n

8𝑘 𝑇
𝑏 8RT
v̅=√ 𝜋𝑚 = √𝜋𝑀
0

Root mean square:

Most probable speed:

Relation between vrms mp

:v̅ , ̅̅̅̅̅&v

Therefore:
Degree of freedom:
f = 3N-k
where , f = no. of degree of freedom.
N = no. of of atoms in a molecule. k = no. of independent relation between the atoms.
1. Monoatomic gas – 2 degree of freedom.
2. Diatomic gas – 5 degree of freedom.
Law of equipartion of energy: For any thermodynamical system in thermal equilibrium, the energy of the
system is equally divided amongst its various degree of freedom and energy associated with each degree of
1
freedom corresponding to each molecule is 2 K B T , where K B is the Boltzmann’s constant and T is
absolute temperature.
➢ The law of equipartition of energy holds good for all degrees of freedom whether translational ,
rotational or vibrational.
➢ A monoatomic gas molecule has only translational kinetic energy
Et =1/2mVx2 + 1/2mVy2 + 1/2mVz2 = 3/2KBT
So a monoatomic gas molecule has only three (translational) degrees of freedom.
➢ In addition to translational kinetic energy, a diatomic molecule has two rotational
Kinetic energies
Et + Er = 1/2mVx2 + 1/2mVy2 + 1/2mVz2 + 1/2IYWy2 + 1/2IzWz

Here the line joining the two atoms has been taken as x-axis about which there is no rotation. So, the degree
of freedom of a diatomic molecule is 5, it does not vibrate.
At very high temperature, vibration is also activated due to which two extra degree of freedom emerge from
vibrational energy. Hence at very high temperature degree of freedom of diatomic molecule is seven.
*(Each translational and rotational degree of freedom corresponds to one mole of absorption of energy
and has energy 1/2kBT).
Internal Energies & specific heats of monoatomic, diatomic& polyatomic gases:
1. If ‘f’ is degree of freedom then for a gas of polyatomic molecules energy associated with 1 mole of gas,
 f Cp 2
𝐶𝑝 = (1 + 2) 𝑅, γ = C = 1 +
v f

2. For a monoatomic gas f=3,

5
𝐶𝑝 = R, 𝛾 = 1.66
2
3. For a diatomic gas with no vibrational mode f=5, so

7
𝐶𝑝 = R, 𝛾 = 1.4
2
4. For a diatomic gas with vibrational mode f=7, so

9
Cp = R , 𝛾 = 1.28
2

Meanfree path: It is the average distance covered by a molecule between two successive collisions. It is
given by,
1
𝜆=
√2(𝑛𝜋𝑑2 )

Where,n is no. density and ‘d’ is diameter of the molecule.

Brownian Equation :-The zig-zag motion of gas molecules is Brownian motion which occurs due to
random collision of molecules.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (1Mark)
1. Which of the following statements is not in accordance with the assumptions made in kinetic theory
(a) The total volume of the molecules as compared to the volume of the container is negligible
(b) The collision between the molecules and the walls of the container are perfectly elastic
(c) The time of interaction between the molecules and the walls of the container is large
(d) Gases at low pressure and high temperature behave as an ideal gas.
Ans- c
2. Average kinetic energy of molecules is
(a) Directly proportional to square root of temperature
(b) Directly proportional to absolute temperature
(c) Independent of absolute temperature
(d) Inversely proportional to absolute temperature
Ans- b
3. The specific heat capacity of a gas in isothermal process is
(a) Zero
(b) Negative
(c) Remains constant
(d) Infinite
Ans- a
4. Mean square velocity of five molecules of velocities 2 m/s, 3 m/s, 4 m/s, 5 m/s and 6 m/s is
(a) 10 m2/s2
(b) 18 m2/s2
(c) 20 m2/s2
(d) 15 m2/s2
Ans- b
5. CP and CV denote the molar specific heats of a gas at constant pressure and at constant volume

respectively. If and CP - CV = R, then CV is equal to

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)
Ans- a
6. A gas is taken in a sealed container at 300 K. it is heated at constant volume to a temperature 600 K. The
mean K.E. of its molecules is
(a) Halved
(b) Doubled
(c) Tripled
(d) Quadrupled
Ans- b
7. R.m.s. velocity of a gas molecule of mass m at given temperature is proportional to
(a) m0
(b) m
(c)

(d)
Ans- d
8. The mean kinetic energy of one mole of a perfect gas at absolute temperature T is

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)
Ans- d
9. At constant volume temperature is increased then
(a) Collision on walls will be less
(b) Collision frequency will be increases
(c) Collision will be in straight line
(d) Collision will not change
Ans- b
10. A molecule of mass m moving with a velocity v makes 5 elastic collisions with a wall of the container
perpendicular to it per second. The change in its momentum per second will be
(a) mv
(b) 5 mv
(c)
(d) 10 mv
Ans- d
11. The pressure exerted in terms of total kinetic energy per unit volume (E) is
(a) 3/2 E
(b) E
(c) 2/3 E
(d) E
Ans- c
12. PV/3 = RT, V represents volume of
(a) Any amount of gas
(b) 2 moles of gas
(c) 3 moles of gas
(d) 4 moles of gas
Ans- c
13. Energy supplied to convert unit mass of substance from solid to liquid state at its melting point is called
(a) Latent heat of fusion
(b) Evaporation
(c) Solidification
(d) Latent heat of fission
Ans- c
14. The internal energy of one mole of an ideal gas depend upon
(a) Volume of gas
(b) Temperature of gas
(c) Nature of gas
(d) Density of gas
Ans- b
15. Moon has no atmosphere because
(a) It is far away from the surface of the earth
(b) Its surface temperature is 100 C
(c) The r.m.s. velocity of all the gas molecules is more than the escape velocity of the moon’s surface
(d) The escape velocity of the moon’s surface is more than the r.m.s velocity of all molecules
Ans- c
16. According to kinetic theory of gasses at absolute zero temperature
(a) Water freezes
(b) Liquid helium freezes
(c) Molecules motion stops
(d) Liquid hydrogen freezes
Ans- c
C
17. For an ideal gas, v is
Cp
(a) > 1
(b) < 1
(c) = 1
(d) >= 1
Ans- b
18. Which of the following properties of gas molecule is the one that is same for all ideal gases at a
particular temperature is
(a) Mass
(b) Velocity
(c) Momentum
(d) Kinetic energy
Ans- d
19. Which of the following is the unit of specific heat capacity?
(a) J kg/0c
(b) J/kg 0c
(c) kg 0c/J
(d) J kg/0c2
Ans- b
20. Following gases are kept at the same temperature. Which gas possesses maximum r.m.s. speed?
(a) Oxygen
(b) Nitrogen
(c) Hydrogen
(d) Carbon dioxide
Ans- c

CASE BASED QUESTIONS

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

The molecule of a monatomic gas has only three translational degrees of freedom. Thus, the average energy
of a molecule at temperature T is (3/2) kBT. The total internal energy of a mole of such a gas is U = (3/2)
RT. The molar specific heat at constant volume Cv is given by Cv = dU/dT = (3/2) R
For an ideal gas, Cp – Cv = R Where Cp is the molar specific heat at constant pressure. Thus, Cp = (5/2) R
1. For monatomic rigid molecules ratio of specific heats γ is
(a) 5/3
(b) 7/5
(c) 9/7
(d) None of these
2. For diatomic molecules ratio of specific heats γ is
(a) 5/3
(b) 7/5
(c) 9/7
(d) None of these
3. For triatomic molecules (with 7 degrees of freedom) ratio of specific heats γ is
(a) 5/3
(b) 7/5
(c) 9/7
(d) None of these
4. The value of Cp for diatomic molecules is
(a) (5/2) R
(b) (7/2) R
(c) (6/2) R
(d) (9/2) R
5. The value of Cv for triatomic molecule (with degrees of freedom 6) is
(a) (5/2) R
(b) (7/2) R
(c) (6/2) R
(d) (9/2) R
Ans. 1 2 3 4 5
a b c b c

DEGREE OF FREEDOM
No. of coordinate or independent quantities required to describe completely the position and configuration
of a dynamical system is known as no. of degree of freedom of system.
represent by f and expressed as
f = 3N-K
N = No. of particle in a system
K = No. of independent relation between the particle
Q.1 How much energy associate with each degree of freedom?
(a) KT (b) 1/2KT (c) 3/2 KT (d) zero
Q.2 Degree of freedom explain the ………….of the dynamical system?
(a) position (b) energy (c) configuration (d) all
Q.3 What is the degree of freedom of mono atomic gas?
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
Q.4 Which gas molecule have greater gas constant value (Helium, Nitrogen, Carbon-di-oxide)?
(a) Helium (b) Nitrogen (c) Carbon-di-oxide (d) all has same value.
Ans. 1 2 3 4
b b c d

ASSERTION & REASONING TYPE QUESTIONS

Choose the correct option from the following:
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false and R is also false
1. Assertion (A): Absolute zero is not the temperature corresponding to zero energy.
Reason (R): The temperature at which no molecular motion ceases is called absolute zero
temperature.
Ans. (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
2. Assertion (A): Mean free path of gas molecules varies inversely as density of the gas.
Reason (R): Mean free path of gas molecules is defined as the average distance travelled by a molecule
between two successive collisions.
Ans. (b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
3. Assertion (A): The root mean square velocity of molecules of a gas having Maxwellian distribution
of velocities is higher than their most probable velocity, at any temperature.
Reason (R): A very small number of molecules of a gas molecule which possess very large velocities.
Ans. (c) A is true but R is false.
4.Assertion (A): The internal energy of a real gas is function of both, temperature and volume.
Reason (R): Internal kinetic energy depends on temperature and internal potential energy depends on
volume.
Ans. (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
5. Assertion (A) : At room temperature, water does not sublimate from water to steam.
Reason(R): The critical point of water is much above the room temperature.
Ans. (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
6. Assertion (A):Specific heat of a gas at constant pressure (CP) is greater than its specific heat at
constant volume (CV).
Reason (R): At constant pressure, some heat is spent in expansion of the gas.
Ans. (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
7.Assertion (A): For an ideal gas, at constant temperature, the product of the pressure and volume is
constant.
Reason (R): The mean square velocity of the molecules is inversely proportional to mass.
Ans. (b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
8. Assertion (A):At low density, variables of gases P, V and T follows the equation PV = RT
Reason (R): At low density real gases are more closely to ideal gases.
Ans. (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
9. Assertion (A):The ratio of specific heat gas at constant pressure and specific heat at constant
volume for a diatomic gas is more than that for a monatomic gas.
Reason (R): The molecules of a monatomic gas have more degree of freedom than those of a
diatomic gas.
Ans. (d) A is false and R is also false
10. Assertion (A):For gas atom the number of degrees of freedom is 3.
C
Reason(R) : P = 
CV
Ans. (b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (1 Mark)

1. What type of motion is associated with the molecules of a gas?
Ans:- Brownian motion.
2. On which factors does the average kinetic energy of gas molecules depend?
Ans:- The average K.E. of a gas molecule depends only on the absolute temperature of
the gas and is directly proportional to it.
3. Why do the gases at low temperature and high pressure, show large deviations from
ideal behaviour?
Ans:- At low temperature and high pressure , the intermolecular attractions become
appreciable. So, the volume occupied by the gas molecules cannot be neglected in
comparison to the volume of the gas. Hence the real gases show large from ideal gas
behaviour.
4. Following fig. shows the variation of the product PV with respect to the pressure (P)
of given masses of three gases, A,B,C. The temperature is kept constant. State with
proper arguments which of these gases is ideal.

Ans:- Gas ‘C’ is ideal because PV is constant for it. That is gas ‘C’ obeys Boyle’s law
at all pressures.
5. When a gas is heated, its temperature increases. Explain it on the basis of
kinetic theory of gases.
Ans:- When a gas is heated, the root mean square velocity of its molecules
increases. As Vrms α T, so temperature of the gas increases.
6. The ratio of vapour densities of two gases at the same temperature is 8:9.
Compare the rms. velocity of their molecules?

7. Cooking gas containers are kept in a lorry moving with uniform speed. What will
be the effect on temperature of the gas molecules?
Ans:- As the lorry is moving with a uniform speed, there will be no change in the
translational motion or K.E. of the gas molecules. Hence the temperature of the gas
will remain same.
8. What is the mean translational kinetic energy of a perfect gas molecule at temperature T?
Ans:- A perfect gas molecule has only translational K.E. K.E = 3/2 kBT
9. Name two factors on which the degrees of freedom of a gas depend?
Ans:- (i) Atomicity of the gas molecule.
(ii) Shape of the molecule.
(iii) Temperature of gas.
10. Define absolute zero, according to kinetic interpretation of temperature?
Ans:- Absolute zero is the temperature at which all molecular motion ceases.
 SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (2 Mark)
Q1. A gas mixture consists of molecules of types A, B and C with masses mA, mB and mC
( mA > mB > mC)at constant temperature and pressure. Rank the three types of molecules in
decreasing order of (a) average K.E (b) rms speeds.
Ans1. (a) The average KE will be the same, as conditions of temperature and pressure are the same. (b)Now
as Vrms=√3PV/M=√3RT/M = √ 3 R T/m N = √ 3 k T/m where M = molar mass of the gas, m = mass of
each molecular of the gas R = gas constant
Clearly V rms ∝ √ 1/ m
As k = Boltzmann constant, T= absolute temperature (same for all) But mA>mB>mc
( Vrms ) A < ( Vrms ) B < ( Vrms ) C
∴ or ( V rms ) C > ( V rms ) B > ( V rms )A
Q2. Establish the relation between γ(=CP/CV) and degrees of freedom (n).
Ans 2. γ = CP/CV where, CP is the specific heat at constant pressure & CV is the specific heat at constant
volume.
U= (f/2) KB T where, U is the internal energy
f is the degree of freedom
KB is Boltzmann's constant
T is temperature.
E=U×N (N=no. of molecules, R=NKB) = (f/2) R T
Now, CV = (∂E/∂T) V = (f/2) R
CP − CV = R
CP = CV + R = R/2 (f + 2)
γ = CP/CV = (f+2)/f
γ f= f+2
f = 2/(γ−1)
Q3. At very low pressure and high temperature, the real gas behaves like ideal gas. Why?
Ans3. An ideal gas is one which has Zero volume of molecule and no intermolecular forces. Since
1. At very low pressure the volume of gas is large so that the volume of molecule is negligible
compared to volume of gas.
2. At very high temperature the kinetic energy of molecules is very large and effect of intermolecular
forces can be neglected. Hence real gases behave as an ideal gas at low pressure and high
temperature.
Q4. If a certain mass of gas is heated first in a small vessel of volume V1 and then in a large vessel of
volume V2. Draw the P - T graph for two cases?
Ans 4. From Perfect gas equation:- P = RT/V For a given temperature, Pα(1/V) therefore when the gas is
heated in a small vessel (Volume V1) , the pressure will increases more rapidly than when heated in a large
vessel (Volume V2). As a result, the slope of P – T graph will be more in case of small vessel than that of
large vessel.

Q5. Describe the significance of Kinetic Theory of Gases.

Ans5. The microscopic behaviour of gases is well accounted for by the kinetic theory of gases. This theory
successfully explained the diffusion of gases and Brownian Motion of smoke particles.
Q6. What are the basic postulates of kinetic theory of gases?
Ans6. The kinetic theory of gas is based on following postulates: The number of molecules in the gas is
large, and the average separation between them is large compared with their dimensions. The molecules
execute random motion and may change their direction of motion after every collision. The molecules make
elastic collisions with each other and with the walls of container. Molecules don’t exert force on each other
except during a collision.
Q7. Why does the pressure of gas in a car tyre increase when it is driven through some distance?
Ans7. When a car is driven through some distance the temperature of gas in the tyre increases due to friction
between road and tyre. As a result the velocity of the gas molecules increases and they start colliding with
the walls of container with higher velocities. Thus pressure of the tyre increases.
Q8.Why is the average velocity of the molecules in a gas zero but the average of the square of
velocities is not zero?
Ans8. The molecules of a gas are always in a random motion. The number of molecules moving in a certain
direction is equal to the number of molecules moving in opposite direction with same velocity. Thus their
average velocity is zero. But the average of square of velocities is not zero because square of negative values
becomes positive.”
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (3 MARK)
Q1. An oxygen cylinder of volume 30 litres has an initial gauge pressure of 15 atm and a temperature
of 270C. After some oxygen is withdrawn from the cylinder, the gauge pressure drops to 11 atm and
its temperature drops to 170C. Estimate the mass of oxygen taken out of the cylinder
(R=8.31Jmol−1K−1, molecular mass of O2=32u).
Ans1. Volume of oxygen, V1= 30 litres =30×10−3m3
Gauge pressure, P1= 15 atm =15×1.013×105Pa
Temperature, T1=27oC=300K Universal gas constant, R=8.314Jmol−1K−1 Let the initial number of moles of
oxygen gas in the cylinder be n1. The gas equation is given as:
P1V1=n1RT1 ∴n1=P1V1/RT1
=(15.195×105×30×10−3)/(8.314×300)=18.276
But n1=m1/M Where, m1= Initial mass of oxygen M = Molecular mass of oxygen = 32 g
∴m1=N1M=18.276×32=584.84g
After some oxygen is withdrawn from the cylinder, the pressure and temperature reduces. Volume, V2= 30
litres =30×10−3m3
Gauge pressure, P2= 11 atm =11×1.013×105Pa
Temperature, T2=17oC=290K
Let n2 be the number of moles of oxygen left in the cylinder. The gas equation is given as:
P2V2=n2RT2 ∴n2=P2V2/RT2
=(11.143×105×30×10−3)/(8.314×290)=13.86
But n2=m2/M Where, m2 is the mass of oxygen remaining in the cylinder ∴m2=n2×M=13.86×32=453.1g.
The mass of oxygen taken out of the cylinder is given by the relation: Initial mass of oxygen in the cylinder
– Final mass of oxygen in the cylinder =m1−m2
=584.84g–453.1g =131.74g =0.131kg Therefore, 0.131 kg of oxygen is taken out of the cylinder.

Q2. Two perfect gases at absolute temperature T1 and T2 are mixed. There is no loss of energy. Find
the temperature of the mixture if the masses of molecules are m1 and m2 and number of molecules is
n1 and n2.
Ans2. We know E = (3/2) nkT, k =Boltzmann's constant
∴(3/2)n1kT1+(3/2)n2kT2=(3/2)(n1+n2)kT , T = (n1T1+n2T2)/(n1+n2)

Q3.Show that average kinetic energy of translation per molecule of gas is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature of gas?
Ans3. According to kinetic theory of gases, the pressure P exerted by one mole of an ideal gas is P=(1/3)ρv2
where ρ is density of the gas. ∴P=(1/3)(M/V)v2, PV=(1/3)Mv2 But PV=RT for one mole of ideal gas.
∴(1/3)Mv2=RT, (1/3)(M/NA)v2=(R/NA)T=KBT, (1/2)mv2=(3/2)KBT ∴ (1/2)mv2 ∝ T
But (1/2) mv2 is average translational kinetic energy per molecule of a gas. Therefore, average kinetic
energy of molecule of an ideal gas is directly proportion to the absolute temperature of the gas.
Q4. Estimate the total number of air molecules (inclusive of oxygen, nitrogen, water vapour and other
constituents) in a room of capacity 25.0m3 at a temperature of 270C.
Ans4. Volume of the room, V=25.0m3, Temperature of the room, T=270C=300K,
Pressure in the room, P=1atm=1×1.013×105Pa.
The ideal gas equation relating pressure (P), Volume (V), and absolute temperature (T) can be written as:
PV=kBNT where, kB is Boltzmann constant =1.38×10−23m2kgs−2K−1. N is the number of air molecules in the
room.
∴N= PV / kBT =1.013×105×25/1.38×10−23×300 =6.11×1026 molecules. Therefore, the total number of air
molecules in the given room is 6.11×1026.

Q5.A tank of volume 0.3m3 contains 2 moles of Helium gas at 200C. Assuming the helium behave as an
ideal gas;
(a) Find the total internal energy of the system.
(b) Determine the r. m. s. speed of the atoms.
Ans5. (a) Given, n= No. of moles =2
T= Temperature =273+20=293K
R= Universal Gas constant =8.31J/mole.
So we know that, Total energy of the system =E=(3/2)nRT
Hence, E=(3/2)×n×8.31×293, E=7.30×103J
(b) Molecular Mass of helium =4g /mol
=4×10-3 Kg/mol
Now , Root Mean speed, Vrms=√(3RT/M)=√(3×8.31×293)/4×10−3
Vrms =1.35×103 m/s
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS (5 MARK)

Q1. What are the assumptions of kinetic theory of gas? Derive an expression for the pressure exerted
due to an ideal gas?
Ans1. The following are the assumptions of the kinetic theory of gases:
1) A gas is made up of a vast number of molecules that should all be elastic spheres and identical.
2) A gas's molecules are in a constant state of rapid and unpredictable mobility.
3) Gas molecules are extremely small in comparison to the distance between them.
4) There is no attraction or repulsion between the molecules.
5) Molecule collisions with one another and with the vessel's walls are perfectly elastic.
Consider a cubical vessel (of side l) with walls perfectly elastic as
in the figure. Let the vessel have one gram molecule of a gas with Y
its molecules in random motion.
Consider a molecule (mass m) moving with a velocity c, that can x
→
v
→
be resolved into three components u,v, and w in the direction of x–v

the edges of the cube along x,y,z axes. X

L
∴c2=u2+v2+w2 ........ (1) Z
Let us consider two faces of the cube, say P and Q, normal to
x−axis. When the molecule collides with the side Q with a velocity u, it rebounds with −u, while its other
components remain unchanged.
Change in momentum of the molecule due to this collision =−2mu, which is imparted to the wall per
collision.
The time taken by molecule to cover distance L=L/u
∴ after every interval of time 2L/u, the molecule will again collide with the wall Q, and the number of
collisions per unit time with the wall Q is equal to u/2L.
∴, Momentum imparted to the wall per unit time =2mu×(u/2L)=mu2/L (ignoring the negative sign).
The pressure exerted on the wall Q due to one molecule =(mu2/L)×(1/L2)= mu2/ L3
If the vessel contains N molecules with velocities u1,u2,u3,....un along x−axis, then the pressure exerted by
them on Q, say
P=(m/L3)(u12+u22+u32+...+un2)=(mN/V)( uˉ)2
where V is the volume of the vessel and (uˉ)2is the average value of u2 of all N molecules.
(uˉ)2=(u12+u22+u32+...+un2)/N
As the molecules move randomly,
(uˉ)2=(vˉ)2=(wˉ)2=(cˉ)2/3= where cˉ=√(c12+c22+c32+...+cn2)/N .........(2)
cˉ is called the root mean square velocity of the molecules.
∴P=(1/3)(mN(cˉ)2/V) .......(3)
This equation gives the pressure exerted by the gas on the walls of the vessel. It has the same value in any
direction because the molecules have no preference for direction.
We have ρ=mN/V

∴P=(1/3)ρ(cˉ)2
or P=(2/3)E where E=(1/2)ρ(cˉ)2 is called the mean kinetic energy per unit volume of the gas.

Q2. State law of equi-partition of energy. Calculate specific heat capacities of monoatomic, diatomic
and polyatomic molecules.
Ans2. According to the law of equipartition of energy, for any dynamic system in thermal equilibrium, the
total energy for the system is equally divided among the degree of freedom.
Specific heat capacity of monatomic gas
The molecules of a monatomic gas have 3 degrees of freedom.
The average energy of a molecule at temperature T is (3/2)KBT.
The total internal energy of a mole is: (3/2)KBT×NA.
The molar specific heat at constant volume Cv is
For an ideal gas,
Cv(monoatomic gas)=dU/dT=(3/2)RT
For an ideal gas, Cp−Cv=R
where Cp is molar specific heat at constant pressure.
Thus, Cp=(5/2)R
Specific heat capacity of diatomic gas
The molecules of a monatomic gas have 5 degrees of freedom, 3 translational and 2 rotational.
The average energy of a molecule at temperature T is (5/2)KBT .
The total internal energy of a mole is: (5/2)KBT×NA .
The molar specific heat at constant volume Cv is
For an ideal gas,
Cv(diatomic gas)= dU/dT=(5/2)RT
For an ideal gas, Cp−Cv=R
where Cp is molar specific heat at constant pressure.
Thus, Cp=(7/2)R
Specific heat capacity of polyatomic gas
In general, a polyatomic molecule has 3 translational, 3 rotational degrees of freedom and a certain number
(f) of vibrational modes.
According to the law of equipartition of energy, it is easily seen that one mole of such a gas has
U={(3/2)KBT+(3/2)KBT+f KBT)}NA
or Cv=(3+f)R, CP=(4+f)R

************************************THE END**************************************
 CHAPTER 14
OSCILLATIONS
Gist of the Chapter
 Periodic motion- Time period, frequency, displacement as a function of time, Periodic
functions and their applications
 Simple Harmonic Motion (S.H.M.) and its equations; Phase
 Oscillations of a loaded Spring- restoring force and force constant
 Energy in S.H.M. Kinetic and Potential Energies
 Simple Pendulum derivation of expression for its time period.
Periodic motion: a motion that repeats itself at regular intervals of time is called periodic
motion.

Time period: The smallest interval of time after which the motion is repeated is called its
period. Let us denote the period by the symbol T. Its SI unit is second.
Frequency: The reciprocal of T gives the number of repetitions that occur per unit time.
This quantity is called the frequency of the periodic motion. It is represented by the symbol
ν. The relation between ν and T is ν = 1/T . The unit of ν is thus s–1 or hertz
1 hertz = 1 Hz =1 oscillation per second =1s–1
Displacement: It refers to change with time of any physical property under consideration.
Example: 1. In case of rectilinear motion of a steel ball on a surface, the distance from the
starting point as a function of time is its position displacement.
For an oscillating simple pendulum, the angle from the vertical as a function of time may be
regarded as a displacement variable.
The voltage across a capacitor, changing with time in an AC circuit, is also a displacement
variable.
Pressure variations in time in the propagation of sound wave
The changing electric and magnetic fields in a light wave
The displacement can be represented by a mathematical function of time. In case of
periodic motion, this function is periodic (repeats its value in fixed interval of time) called
periodic function
f (t) = f (t+T), simplest periodic functions is given by f (t) = A cos ωt , ω = 2π / T
Further, a linear combination of sine and cosine functions like, f (t) = A sin ωt + B cos ωt is
also a periodic function with the same period T.
Any periodic function can be expressed as a superposition of sine and cosine functions of
different time periods with suitable coefficients.
Simple Harmonic Motion: S.H.M. simple harmonic motion (SHM) is not any periodic
motion but one in which displacement is a sinusoidal function of time.
The oscillatory motion is said to be simple harmonic if displacement x of the particle from
the origin varies with time as: x (t) = A cos(ω t + φ) ,where A, ω and φ are constants.

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION AND UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

The projection of uniform circular motion on a diameter of the circle follows simple
harmonic motion.

The projection of the position vector OP on the x-axis is given by x(t) = A cos (ωt + φ ),
which is the defining equation of SHM.
The projection of the motion of P on any diameter, say the y-axis. In that case, the
displacement y(t) of P′ on the y-axis is given by y = A sin (ωt + φ ) which is also an SHM of
the same amplitude as that of the projection on x-axis, but differing by a phase of π/2.
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION IN SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
v(t) = –ωA sin (ωt + φ ) = ω√ )
a (t) = –ω2A cos (ωt + φ) = –ω2x (t)

The force acting on a particle of mass m in SHM is F (t) = ma = –mω2 x (t)

F (t) = –k x (t) , where k = mω2 or ω =( k /m)1/2
Restoring force is always directed towards the mean position and directly proportional to
displacement from the mean position.
Oscillations of a loaded Spring:

The system when deformed (stretched or compressed), is subject to a restoring force, the
magnitude of which is proportional to the deformation or the displacement and acts in
opposite direction.
At any time t, if the displacement of the block from its mean position is x, the restoring
force F acting on the block is, F (x) = –k x. Where k, is called the spring constant,

√ and period T is given by, √

In first and second case k = k1 + k2, in third case 1 / k = 1 / k1 + 1 / k2
Energy in S.H.M. Kinetic and Potential Energies:
Both kinetic and potential energies of a particle in SHM vary between zero and their
maximum values.
The kinetic energy (K) is given by K= mv2 = m ω2A2sin2( ω t+φ )= kA2sin2( ω t+φ )

The potential energy (U) is given by U= kx2 = m ω2A2cos2( ω t+φ )= kA2cos2( ω t+φ )

Total energy E= K+U= kA2sin2( ω t+φ )+ kA2cos2( ω t+φ )= kA2 = m ω2A2 = constant

Simple Pendulum :
The radial force T-mg cosθ provides centripetal force but no torque about the support. The
tangential force mg sinθ provides the restoring torque.
τ = –L (mg sinθ ) This is the restoring torque that tends to reduce angular displacement
also, τ = I α , where I is the moment of inertia of the system about the support and α is the
angular acceleration.
Thus, I α = –m g sin θ L Or, α = sin θ
( as θ is small sin θ≈ θ)
α= θ = - ω2θ

ω2= = ( I= mL2)

T= 2π√

Question Bank
MCQ
1. An object of mass m, oscillating on the end of a spring with spring constant k, has
amplitude. Its maximum speed is:
A. A(k/m) B. A2(k/m) C. A(m/k) D. A(m/k)1/2
2. In simple harmonic motion, the displacement is maximum when the:
A. acceleration is zero B. velocity is maximum
C. velocity is zero D. kinetic energy is maximum
3. Frequency f and angular frequency ω are related by
A. f = πω B. f = 2πω C. f = ω/π D. f = ω/2π
4. A S.H.M. is represented by the equation y = 10 sin 20 π t. Its frequency is
A 10 Hz B 20 π Hz C 0.1 Hz D 20 Hz
5. A 3-kg block, attached to a spring, executes simple harmonic motion according to x = 2
cos(50t), where x is in meters and t is in seconds. The spring constant of the spring is:
A. 1N/m B. 100N/m C. 150N/m D. 7500N/m
6. Let U be the potential energy (with the zero at zero displacement) and K be the kinetic
energy of a simple harmonic oscillator. Uavg and Kavg are the average values over a cycle.
Then:
A. Uavg > Kavg B. Uavg < Kavg C. Uavg = Kavg D. K = 0 when U = 0
7. A simple harmonic oscillator consists of a particle of mass m and an ideal spring with
spring constant k. Particle oscillates with period T. If the spring is cut in half and used with
the same particle, the period will be:
A. 2T B. √2T C. T/√2 D. T
8. In simple harmonic motion, the restoring force must be proportional to the:
A. amplitude B. frequency C. velocity D. displacement
9. A body is executing S.H.M. When its displacement from the mean position is 4 cm and 5
cm, the corresponding velocity of the body is 10 cm/sec and 8 cm/sec. Then the time
period of the body is
A 2π sec B π/2 sec C πsec D 3 π/2 sec
10. The potential energy of a particle executing S.H.M. is 2.5 J, when its displacement is half
of amplitude. The total energy of the particle be
A 18 J B 10 J C 12 J D 2.5 J
11. For a particle executing S.H.M. the displacement x is given by x= Acos ωt. Identify the
graph which represents the variation of potential energy (P.E.) as a function of time t and
displacement x.

A I, III B II, IV C II, III D I, IV

12. The total energy of a particle, executing simple harmonic motion is
A independent of x B x2 C x D x1/2
Where, x is the displacement from the mean position.
13. The bob of a simple pendulum is a spherical hollow ball filled with water. A plugged
hole near the bottom of the oscillating bob gets suddenly unplugged. During observation,
till water is coming out, the time period of oscillation would
A first decrease and then increase to the original value
B first increase and then decrease to the original value
C increase towards a saturation value
D remain unchanged
14. In a simple harmonic oscillator, at the mean position
A kinetic energy is minimum, potential energy is maximum
B both kinetic and potential energies are maximum
C kinetic energy is maximum, potential energy is minimum
D both kinetic and potential energies are minimum
15. The length of a simple pendulum executing simple harmonic motion is increased by
21%. The percentage increase in the time period of the pendulum of increased length is
A 11% B 21% C 42% D 10%

Answers:
1. D 2. C 3. D 4. A 5. D 6. C 7. C 8. D 9. C 10. B 11. A 12. A 13 D 14.C 15. D
Very Short Answer Type Questions
1. What is the phase difference between velocity and displacement of particle executing
S.H.M.?
2. Two springs with spring constants K1=1500N/m and K2 = 3000N/m are stretched by the
same force. Then ratio of potential energy stored in springs will be____________.
3. On an average, a human heart is found to beat 75 times in a minute. Calculate its
frequency and period.
4. What provide the restoring force for simple harmonic oscillations in the following cases?
i) Simple pendulum ii) Spring
5. Two identical springs of constant k are connected in series and parallel as shown in
figure. A mass m is suspended from them. What will be the ratio of their frequencies of
vertical oscillation?

6. A pendulum clock is taken to lift moving down with the uniform velocity. Will it gain or
lose time?
7. What are two basic characteristics of S.H.M.?
8. A body oscillates with SHM according to the equation (in SI units), x = 5 cos *2π t + π/4+.
At t = 1.5 s, calculate the (a) displacement, (b) speed and (c) acceleration of the body.
9. Plot a graph between the i) time period (T) for a simple pendulum and its length (l) ii)
square of the time period (T2) and length (l) for a simple pendulum.
10. Two simple pendulum of length 5 m and 20 m respectively are given small linear
displacement in one direction at the same time. They will again be in the phase when the
pendulum of shorter length has completed __________ Oscillations?
11. A girl is swinging in the sitting position. How will the period of the swing change if she
stands up?
Short Answer Type Questions
1. The acceleration due to gravity on the surface of moon is 1.7 m/s2. What is the time
period of a simple pendulum on the moon if its time period is 3.5 sec on the earth?
2. A spring balance has a scale that reads 100 Kg. The length of the scale is 25 cm. A body,
suspended from this spring is when displaced and released, it oscillates with period of
0.60s. What is the weight of the body?
3. A particles moves such that its acceleration ‘a’ is given by a = -b x where x = displacement
from equilibrium position and b is a constant. Find the period of oscillation?
4. Which of the following relationships between the acceleration a and the displacement x
of a particle involve simple harmonic motion? Explain.
(a) a = 0.7x (b) a = -200x2 (c) a = -10x (d) a = 100x3
5. Show that the oscillations of a simple pendulum are simple harmonic in nature.
6. Which of the following functions of time represent (a) simple harmonic, (b) periodic but
not simple harmonic, and (c) non-periodic motion? Give period for each case of periodic
motion (ω is any positive constant):
(a) sin ωt – cos ωt (b) sin3 ωt
(c) 3 cos (π/4 – 2ωt) (d) cos ωt + cos 3ωt + cos 5ωt
(e) exp (–ω2 t 2 ) (f) 1 + ωt + ω2 t
7. Show that for a particle in linear simple harmonic motion, the average kinetic energy
over a period of oscillation, equals the average potential energy over the same period.
8. Show that in simple harmonic motion, the acceleration is directly proportional to its
displacement at the given instant.
9. A 5 kg collar is attached to a spring of spring constant 500 N m–1. It slides without
friction over a horizontal rod. The collar is displaced from its equilibrium position by 10.0
cm and released. Calculate
(a) the period of oscillation, (b) the maximum speed and
(c) maximum acceleration of the collar
10. The motion of a particle executing S.H.M. is given by x = 0.01 sin 100π (t + 0.05), where
x is in meters and time is in seconds. Then what will be time period?
 Long Answer Type Questions
1. A particle is in linear simple harmonic motion between two points, A and B, 10 cm
apart. Take the direction from A to B as the positive direction and give the signs of
velocity, acceleration and force on the particle when it is
(a) at the end A,
(b) at the end B,
(c) at the mid-point of AB going towards A,
(d) at 2 cm away from B going towards A,
(e) at 3 cm away from A going towards B, and
(f) at 4 cm away from B going towards A.
Ans.(a) Zero, Positive, Positive (b) Zero, Negative, Negative (c) Negative, Zero, Zero (d)
Negative, Negative, Negative (e) Zero, Positive, Positive (f) Negative, Negative, Negative
2. A spring having with a spring constant 1200 N is mounted on a horizontal table as
shown in Fig.

A mass of 3 kg is attached to the free end of the spring. The mass is then pulled
sideways to a distance of 2.0 cm and released. Determine (i) the frequency of
oscillations, (ii) maximum acceleration of the mass, and (iii) the maximum speed of the
mass.
3. A body describes simple harmonic motion with amplitude of 5 cm and a period of 0.2 s.
Find the acceleration and velocity of the body when the displacement is (a) 5 cm, (b) 3 cm,
(c) 0 cm.
4. Arrive at an expression for the time period of simple pendulum.
5. Derive an expression for kinetic and potential energy for a particle executing S.H.M.
Show that total energy in S.H.M. remain constant. Show it graphically.
ASSERTION & REASON QUESTIONS:
1. A - Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
2. B - Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A.
3. C - A is true but R is false.
4. D - A is false but R is true.
1. ASSERTION: When a girl sitting on a swing stands up, the periodic time of the swing
will decrease.
REASON: In the standing position of the girl, center of mass shift in upward direction
and the length of swing will decrease.
 2. ASSERTION: If a pendulum clock is taken to a mountain top, it loses time.
REASON: The value of acceleration due to gravity is high at mountain top than at
plane.
3. ASSERTION: In SHM, the velocity is maximum, when the acceleration is minimum.
REASON: Displacement and velocity in SHM differ in phase by π/2.
4. ASSERTION: In SHM, the acceleration is always directed towards the mean position.
REASON: In SHM, the body has to stop momentarily at the extreme position and
move back to the mean position.
5. ASSERTION: The amplitude of an oscillating pendulum decreases gradually with
time.
REASON: The frequency of pendulum decreases with time.
6. ASSERTION: The time period of a pendulum on a satellite orbiting the earth is
infinity
REASON: The time period is inversely proportional to √g
7. ASSERTION: All oscillatory motions are necessarily periodic motion but all periodic
motions are not oscillatory.
REASON: Simple pendulum is an example of oscillatory motion.
8. ASSERTION: The graph of total energy of a particle in SHM w.r.t. position is a straight
line with zero slope.
REASON: Total energy of particle in SHM remains constant throughout its motion.
9. ASSERTION: Soldiers are asked to break steps while crossing the bridge.
REASON: The frequency of marching maybe equal to the natural frequency of bridge
and may lead to resonance which can break the bridge.
10. ASSERTION: Damped oscillation indicates loss of energy.
REASON: The energy loss in damped oscillation maybe due to friction, air resistance
etc.

ANSWERS (ASSERTION & REASON QUESTIONS):

Q.NO. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ANS A C B B C B B A A B

CASE STUDY BASED QUESTIONS:

CASE 1. Motion of a Swing
You have noticed many objects have a tendency to return to their original location after they
have been moved slightly. You have probably also noticed most objects not only return to their
original position but continue too far, so that they may swing back and forth several times
before they come to rest. A playground swing is a convenient example for a discussion of this
kind of motion, because we have all ridden one, and more importantly, pushed one.
 This whole operation is periodic: each complete swing takes the same amount of time,
regardless of how far the swing moves. The amount of time it takes the swing to complete its
cycle depends on the length of the rope and nothing else. If you make a graph of the distance
the swing travels crossways with time, the result is a sine wave.

(i). Sana is sitting on the swing and then she stands on the moving swing, time taken by the
swing to complete one oscillation will
(A) increase
(B) decrease
(C) first increase then decrease
(D) remains same
(ii). The amplitude of swing executing SHM is 5cm. its acceleration at a distance 1cm from the
mean position is 4 cm/s2. What will be the maximum speed of the particle in cm/s?
(iii). Time period of pendulum having infinite length is
(A) infinte
(B) zero
(C) 84.6 min
(D) 24 hours
(iv). A girl is sitting on the swing whose time period of oscillation is t1 and then a child comes and
sit on her lap and now time period of oscillation is t2. In which case time period will be more?
CASE Simple Harmonic oscillation
2.
A particle is moving to and from about meant equilibrium position due to restoring force f
where f is given by
k is spring constant and y is displacement
y= A sinωt, velocity v= Aω cosωt, acceleration a= -ω2y = - ω2A sinωt
K.E.= ½ mv2 and P.E. = ½ ky2
 (i). the shortest distance travelled by a particle executing SHM from mean position in 2 seconds
is equal to ½ times its amplitude. Determine its time period.
(ii). In a SHM, when displacement is half of the amplitude, what is the ratio of the kinetic energy
to the potential energy
(A) 1/3 (B) 2 (C) 1/2 (D) 3
(iii). If a spring of mass 30 kg has spring constant 15 N/m, then its time period, is
(iv). What is the value of phase difference between instantaneous velocity and acceleration of a
particle executing SHM is
CASE Simple Pendulum:
3.
Simple pendulum moves to and from about its mean position due to restoring torque which is
always directed towards the mean position and proportional to angle subtended by the
pendulum with the vertical
τ α - kθ and thus executing simple harmonic motion

Time period depends on length of pendulum and gravity not on the mass of pendulum
(i). the length of a simple pendulum is increased by 44%. What is the percentage change in the
time period of the pendulum?
(ii). Pendulum clock placed at equator as compared to pendulum clock placed at poles will be
(A) slower
(B) faster
(C) reads same time
(D) not work at equator
(iii). For a simple pendulum the time period of one oscillation is given by
(iv). Two simple pendulums of time period 2.0 s and 2.1 s are made to vibrate simultaneously.
They are in phase initially. After how many vibrations they are in same phase?
CASE Periodic and Oscillatory motion
4.
A motion which repeats itself over and over again after a regular interval of time is called
periodic motion
A motion which repeats itself over and over again after a regular interval of time about its mean
position, such that it remains confined within two well defined limits (called extreme positions)
on the either side of the mean position is called oscillatory or vibrational motion
Periodic functions Any function that repeats its value at regular intervals of arguments and
those which can be represented by sine or cosine curve are called harmonic functions and those
which cannot be represented by single sine or cosine functions are called non harmonic
functions
Simple Harmonic motion are represented by harmonic functions

(i). displacement of the mass attached to spring from is mean position (in meter) is given by:
Y= 0.2sin (20πt + 2.5π) cos (20πt + 2.5π)
The motion of the loaded spring is
(A) periodic but not SHM
(B) non periodic
(C) simple harmonic motion with period 0.05 s
(D) simple harmonic motion with period 0.1 s
(ii). Which of the following functions represent periodic motion?
(A) e-ωt (B) sinωt+ cosωt (C) logωt (D)1/logωt
(iii). The function sin2ωt represents
(A) a simple harmonic motion with a time period 2π/ω
(B) a simple harmonic motion with a time period π/ω
(C) a periodic, but not simple harmonic motion with a time period 2π/ω
(D) a periodic, but not a simple harmonic motion with a time period 2π/ω
(iv). Distance and displacement moved by particle in SHM in one time period is
 waves

• Wave: Disturbance produced in material medium and propagating with a definite

speed in the medium without changing its form. While Wave motion is the migration
of energy(form of disturbance)from 1place to another without transfer of particle.

• Essential properties of media for propagation of mechanical waves Elasticity,

Inertia, Low damping.

• On the basis of vibrations of particles waves are of two type: Longitudinal

(particles of the medium oscillate along the direction of wave propagation) and
transverse (particles of the medium oscillate along the direction of wave propagation).

• On the basis of energy propagation waves are of two type: Progressive

wave(energy is propagate i.e. wave moves from one point of medium to another) and
stationary waves(energy is confined in a particular region)

• Displacement in a sinusoidal wave propagating in the positive x direction is given

by: where is A is the amplitude of the wave k is the
angular wave number, is the angular frequency is the phase and is
the phase constant or phase angle.

• Wavelength: of a progressive wave is the distance between two consecutive points

of the same phase at a given time. In a stationary wave, it is twice the distance
between two consecutive nodes or antinodes.

• Period T of oscillation of a wave is defined as the time any element of the medium
takes to move through one complete oscillation. It is related to the angular frequency
through the relation

• Speed of a progressive wave is given by: ,

• Speed of transverse wave on a stretched string/solid: the speed on a string with

tension T and linear mass density is √

• Speed of longitudinal wave through a fluid: the speed v of sound wave in a fluid
having bulk modulus B and density is √

The speed of a longitudinal wave through a solid rod: If young modulus y and
density is √

Speed of sound in gas: Laplace pointed out that sound travels through a gas under
adiabatic condition so, √
• Stationary wave or standing wave: ( )

• Beats: Periodic variation in the intensity of sound due to the superposition of two
sound waves of slightly different frequencies ( ) are called beats.

( ) ( )

( )
Time interval for maxima: ,Time interval for maxima: where,

n=0,1, 2,3,…and Time interval b/w two successive maxima and min.

• Reflection of stationary wave from an open boundary:

Antinode (Max.): , Node(min.): ( ) ,

So, the reflection from an open boundary the incident and reflected wave meet in
same phase at the end point and get added to each other. Hence an antinode is formed
at the boundary i.e. displacement is max. And twice the amplitude of the either wave.

• Reflection of a wave from a rigid boundary:

Antinode(Max.)- ( ) , Node(min.): ,where

• The Reflection from a rigid boundary incident and reflected wave meet opposite
phase at the end of boundary and hence node is formed at the boundary (net
displacement is 0).

• Organ pipes: Organ pipes are the musical instruments which are used for producing
musical sound by blowing air into the pipe. Longitudinal stationary waves are formed
on account of superimposing of incident and reflected longitudinal waves through the
air in the pipe. Organ pipe are of two types. Closed organ pipe, which are closed at
one end and open at the other and Open organ pipes which are open at both ends.

• Frequency of standing waves in closed organ pipes: The lowest frequency of

vibration is called the fundamental frequency. The note or sound so produced is called
fundamental note or 1st harmonic.

Frequency produced in nth normal mode of vibration of closed organ pipe would be-
 Hence different frequency produced in a closed organ pipe is in the ration
1:3:5:7…etc. ‘only odd harmonic are present in a closed organ pipe’

• Frequency of Standing wave in open organ pipes: In the simplest mode of

vibration there is one node in the middle and two antinodes at the ends of the pipe
This frequency is called fundamental frequency.

Frequency produced in nth normal mode of vibration of closed organ pipe would be-

Hence various frequency of an open organ pipe are in the ratio 1:2:3:4….etc.

“in open ended organ pipe both even and odd frequency are generated”.
Unit X: Oscillations and Waves

Chapter–15: Waves Wave motion: Transverse and longitudinal

waves, speed of travelling wave, displacement relation for a
progressive wave, principle of superposition of waves, reflection of
waves, standing waves in strings and organ pipes, fundamental mode
and harmonics, Beats.
 MCQs(1-marks each)
1 Water waves produced by a motorboat sailing in water are
(a) neither longitudinal nor transverse
(b) both longitudinal and transverse
(c) only longitudinal
(d) only transverse
Ans. (b) both longitudinal and transverse
Explanation: Water waves produced by a motorboat sailing in water are both
longitudinal and transverse, because the waves produce transverse as well as lateral
vibrations in the particles of the medium.
2 Sound waves of wavelength travelling in a medium with a speed of v m/s enter into
another medium where its speed in 2 m/s v . Wavelength of sound waves in the
second medium is
(a)
(b) /2
(c)
(d)
Ans. (c)
Explanation: Let the frequency in the first medium is and in the second medium
is
Frequency remains same in both the medium So,

and , and are wavelengths and speeds in first and second medium
respectively. So,
( )

3 Speed of sound wave in air

(a) is independent of temperature
(b) increases with pressure
(c) increases with increase in humidity
(d) decreases with increase in humidity
Ans: (c) increases with increase in humidity.
Explanation: Due to presence of moisture density of air decreases. We know that
speed of sound in air is given by √ For air and are constants.

√ , where is density of air.

where is density of dry air and is density of moist air. As ,
Hence, speed of sound wave in air increases with increase in
humidity.
4 Change in temperature of the medium changes
(a) frequency of sound waves
(b) amplitude of sound waves
 (c) wavelength of sound waves
(d) loudness of sound waves
Ans: (c) wavelength of sound waves.
Explanation: Speed of sound wave in a medium √ (where T is temperature of
the medium) Clearly, when temperature changes speed also changes. As,
where is frequency and is wavelength. Frequency remains fixed or As
does not change, so wavelength changes
5 With propagation of longitudinal waves through a medium, the quantity transmitted
is
(a) matter
(b) energy
(c) energy and matter
(d) energy, matter and momentum
Ans. (b) energy.
Explanation: Propagation of longitudinal waves through a medium leads to
transmission of energy through the medium without matter being transmitted. There
is no movement of matter (mass) and hence momentum.
6 Which of the following statements are true for wave motion?
(a) Mechanical transverse waves can propagate through all mediums
(b) Longitudinal waves can propagate through solids only
(c) Mechanical transverse waves can propagate through solids only
(d) Longitudinal waves can propagate through vacuum
Ans. (c) Mechanical transverse waves can propagate through solids only.
Explanation: When mechanical transverse wave propagates through a medium, the
constituent of the medium oscillate perpendicular to wave motion causing change in
shape. That is each, element of the medium is subjected to shearing stress. Solids and
strings have shear modulus that is why, sustain shearing stress. Fluids have no shape
of, their own, they yield to shearing stress. This is why transverse waves are possible
in solids and strings but not in fluids.
7 A sound wave is passing through air column in the form of compression and
rarefaction. In consecutive compressions and rarefactions,
(a) density remains constant
(b) Boyle’s law is obeyed
(c) bulk modulus of air oscillates
(d) there is no transfer of heat
Ans. (d) there is no transfer of heat.
Explanation: (a) Due to compression and rarefactions density of the medium (air)
changes. At compressed regions density is maximum and at rarefactions density is
minimum
(b) As density is changing, so Boyle’s law is not obeyed
(c) Bulk modulus remains same
(d) The time of compression and rarefaction is too small i.e., we can assume
adiabatic process and hence no transfer of heat
8 Equation of a plane progressive wave is given by ( ) .On
reflection from a denser medium its amplitude becomes 2/3 of the amplitude of the
incident wave. The equation of the reflected wave is
(a) ( )
(b) ( )
 (c) ( )
(d) ( )
Ans: (b) ( )
Explanation: amplitude of reflected wave
units
Incident wave: ( )
Reflected wave: ( )
(since denser medium phase changes by )
So, ( )
9 A string of mass 2.5 kg is under tension of 200 N. The length of the stretched string
is 20.0 m. If the transverse jerk is struck at one end of the string, the disturbance will
reach the other end in
(a) 1s
(b) 0.5s
(c) 2s
(d) data given is insufficient
Ans: (b) 0.5s
Explanation:
Mass m=2.5kg

√ √

10 A train whistling at constant frequency is moving towards a station at a constant

speed v. The train goes past a stationary observer on the station. The frequency n’ of
the sound as heard by the observer is plotted as a function of time t (figure). Identify
the expected curve.

Ans: (c)
11 Speed of sound wave in a fluid depends upon
(a) directly on density of the medium
(b) square of Bulk modulus of the medium
(c) inversly on the square root of density
(d) directly on the square root of bulk modulus of the medium
Ans: (c, d)
 Since √
12 During propagation of a plane progressive mechanical wave,
(a) all the particles are vibrating in the same phase
(b) amplitude of all the particles is equal
(c) particles of the medium executes SHM
(d) wave velocity depends upon the nature of the medium
Ans: (b, c, d)
13 The transverse displacement of a string (clamped at its both ends) is given by
. All the points on the string between two
consecutive nodes vibrate with
(a) same frequency
(b) same phase
(c) same energy
(d) different amplitude
Ans:a,b,c,d
14 Which of the following statement are true for a stationary waves?
(a) Every particle has a fixed amplitude which is different from the amplitude of its
nearest particle
(b) All the particles cross their mean position at the same time
(c) All the particles are oscillating with same amplitude
(d) There is no net transfer of energy across any plane
(e) There are some particles which are always at rest
Ans: (a, b, d, e)
15 At what temperature will the speed of sound in air be 3 times its value at 0°C?
(a) 1184°C
(b) 1148°C
(c) 2184°C
(d) 2148°C
Ans: t = 2184 °C
16 A sound wave is passing through air column in the form of compression and
rarefaction. In consecutive compressions and rarefactions,
(a) density remains constant
(b) Boyle’s law is obeyed
(c) bulk modulus of air oscillates
(d) there is no transfer of heat
Ans:(d)there is no transfer of heat
Explanation: There is no transfer of heat from compression to rarefaction as air is a
bad conductor of heat. And time of compression/rarefaction is too small.
17 A transverse wave is represented by y = Asin(wt – kx). For what value of the
wavelength is the wave velocity equal to the maximum particle velocity?
(a) πA /2
(b) πA
(c) 2πA
(d) A
Ans: (c) 2πA
18 A sound wave travels with a velocity of 300 m /s through a gas. 9 beats are produced
in 3 s when two waves pass through it simultaneously. If one of the waves has 2 m
wavelength, the wavelength of the other wave is
 (a) 1.98 m
(b) 2.04 m
(c) 3.15 m
(d) 0.99 m
Ans: (b) 2.04 m
19 According to Newton’s formula, the speed of sound in air at STP is (Take the mass
of 1 mole of air is 29 × 10–3 kg)
(a) 250 m/s
(b) 260 m/s
(c) 270 m/s
(d) 280 m/s
Ans: (d) 280 m/s
20 Sound waves of wavelength λ travelling in a medium with a speed of v enter into
another medium where its speed is 2 v. Wavelength of sound waves in the second
medium is
(a) λ
(b) λ/ 2
(c) 2 λ
(d) 4 λ
Ans: (c) 2 λ
Very short answer questions(2-marks each)
1 What are fundamental note and overtones?
2 What are the conditions for resonance of air column with a tuning fork?
3 List the factors affecting the speed of sound in a gaseous medium.
4 What are the basic properties required by a system to oscillate?
5 What is the : (a) distance moved (b) displacement of a particle executing SHM in one
vibration?
6 A simple harmonic motion is described by a = –16x where a is acceleration and x is
displacement in meter. What is the time-period ?
7 On what factors does the energy of a simple harmonically vibrating particle
depends?
8 How is the frequency of oscillation related with the frequency of change in the of
K.E and P.E of the body in S.H.M.?
9 Two simple pendulums of unequal length meet each other at mean position while
oscillating. What is their phase difference?
10 A sonometer wire is vibrating in resonance with a tuning fork. Keeping the tension
applied same, the length of the wire is doubled. Under what conditions would the
tuning fork still be is resonance with the wire?
11 An organ pipe of length L open at both ends is found to vibrate in its first harmonic
when sounded with a tuning fork of 480 Hz. What should be the length of a pipe
closed at one end, so that it also vibrates in its first harmonic with the same tuning
fork?
12 A tuning fork A, marked 512 Hz, produces 5 beats per second, where sounded with
another unmarked tuning fork B. If B is loaded with wax the number of beats is
again 5 per second. What is the frequency of the tuning fork B when not loaded?
13 Discuss the effect of following factors on the speed of sound : (a) Pressure (b)
Density (c) Humidity (d) Temperature
14 Two periodic waves of intensities I1 and I2 pass through a region at the same time in
the same direction. What is the sum of the maximum and minimum intensities?
15 (i) What kind of thermodynamical process occur in air, when a sound wave
propagates through it? (ii) The velocity of sound in a tube containing air at 27°C and
pressure of 76 cm of Hg is 330 m/s. What will be its velocity, when pressure is
increased to 152 cm of mercury and temperature is kept constant?
16 What are beats? Show that the number of beats produced per second is equal to the
difference in frequencies.
17 (i) How does the frequency of a tuning fork change, when the temperature is
increased? (ii) Is it necessary for beat production that amplitudes of two waves
should be exactly equal?
18 Explain principle of superposition of waves in brief.
19 Calculate the speed of sound in a gas in which two waves of lengths 100 cm and 101
cm produce 24 beats in 6 second.
20 Why and how Laplace corrected Newton’s formula for velocity of sound in gases ?
Short answer questions(3-marks each)
1 A string of mass 2.50 kg is under a tension of 200 N. The length of the
stretched string is 20.0 m. If the transverse jerk is struck at one end of the
string, how long does the disturbance take to reach the other end?
(answer: t=0.5s)
2 A stone dropped from the top of a tower of height 300 m high splashes into
the water of a pond near the base of the tower. When is the splash heard at the
top given that the speed of sound in air is 340 m s –1 ? (g= 9.8 m s –2 )
Answer: t=8.7 s
3 A steel wire has a length of 12.0 m and a mass of 2.10 kg. What should be the
tension in the wire so that speed of a transverse wave on the wire equals the
speed of sound in dry air at 20 °C = 343 m s –1 .
Answer: T= 2.06 × 10 4 N
4

Use the formula to explain why the speed of sound in air

(a) is independent of pressure,

(b) increases with temperature,

(c) increases with humidity

5 A bat is flitting about in a cave, navigating via ultrasonic beeps. Assume that the
sound emission frequency of the bat is 40 kHz. During one fast swoop directly
toward a flat wall surface, the bat is moving at 0.03 times the speed of sound in air.
What frequency does the bat hear reflected off the wall?
Ans:42.47Khz
6 A pipe 20 cm long is closed at one end. Which harmonic mode of the pipe is
resonantly excited by a 430 Hz source? Will the same source be in resonance with
the pipe if both ends are open? (Speed of sound in air is 340 ms-1).
Ans: first mode of vibration, n<1 in this case resonance position cannot be obtained
7 A steel rod 100 cm long is clamped at its middle. The fundamental frequency of
longitudinal vibrations of the rod is given to be 2.53 k Hz. What is the speed of
sound in steel?
NS:5.06*103m/s
8 The transverse displacement of a string (clamped at its two ends) is given by y(x, t) =
 0.06 sin 2π /3 x cos (120π t)
where x, y are in m and t in s. The length of the string is 1.5 m and its mass is 3 x 10-
2
kg. Answer the following:
(i) Does the function represent a travelling or a stationary wave?
(ii) Interpret the wave as a superimposition of two waves travelling in opposite
directions. What are the wavelength, frequency and speed of propagation of each
wave?
(iii) Determine the tension in the string.
Ans: stationary wave,60hz,648N
9 For the travelling harmonic wave
y(x, t) = 2.0 cos 2π (10t – 0.0080x + 0.35)
where x and y are in cm and t in s. Calculate the phase difference between oscillatory
motion of two points separated by a distance of
(a) 4 m (b) 0.5 m
(c) λ/2 (d) 3λ/4
Ans: (a)6.4 π radian,(b)0.8 πradian(c) πradian(d)3 π/2 radian
10 A transverse harmonic wave on a string is described by
y(x, t) = 3.0 sin (36 t + 0.018 x + π/4)
where x and y are in cm and t in s. The positive direction of x is from left to right.
(a) Is this a travelling wave or a stationary wave? If it is travelling, what are the
speed and direction of its propagation ?
(b) What are its amplitude and frequency?
(c) What is the initial phase at the origin?
(d) What is the least distance between two successive crests in the wave?
Ans:v=20m/s,A=0.03m,frequency =5.7HZphase= π/4,wavelength =3.5m
Long answer questions(5-marks each)
1 In the given progressive wave where y and x are in metre, t is in
second. What is the (a) amplitude? (b) wavelength? (c) frequency? (d) wave velocity? (e)
particle velocity amplitude?
2 A transverse harmonic wave on a string is described by y(x, t) = 3.0 sin (36 t + 0.018 x + /4)
where x and y are in cm and t in s. The positive direction of x is from left to right. (a) Is this a
travelling wave or a stationary wave? If it is travelling, what are the speed and direction of
its propagation? (b) What are its amplitude and frequency? (c) What is the initial phase at
the origin? (d) What is the least distance between two successive crests in the wave?
3 For the wave described by y(x, t) = 3.0 sin (36t + 0.018x + /4) Plot the displacement (y)
versus (t) graphs for x = 0, 2 and 4 cm. What are the shapes of these graphs? In which
aspects does the oscillatory motion in travelling wave differ from one point to another :
amplitude, frequency or phase?
4 The transverse displacement of a string (clamped at its two ends) is given by y(x, t) = 0.06
sin (2 /3) × cos 120 t where x, y are in m and t is in s. The length of the string is 1.5 m
and its mass is 3.0 × 10-2 kg. Answer the following (a) Does the function represent a
travelling or a stationary wave? (b) Interpret the wave as a superposition of two waves
travelling in opposite directions. What are the wavelength frequency and speed of
propagation of each wave? (c) Determine the tension in the string.
5 Given below are some functions of x and t to represent the displacement of an elastic
wave.
(i)
(ii) ( )
(iii)
(iv)
 State which of these represent (a) a travelling wave along- x-direction (b) a stationary wave
(c) beats (d) a travelling wave along- x-direction Given reasons for your answers.
Case study based questions
(A) Transverse waves forms if the particles of the medium vibrate at right angle to the direction
of wave motion energy propagation, the wave is called transverse wave. These are
propagated as crests and troughs. Longitudinal waves forms if the particles of the medium
vibrate in the direction of wave motion, the wave is called longitudinal. These are
propagated as compressions and rarefactions and wave is also known as pressure or
compressional wave. Wave on spring or sound waves in air are examples of longitudinal
waves.
1 Sound waves travel fastest in
(a) solids
(b) liquids
(c) gases
(d) vacuum
Ans: (a) : Sound waves travel fastest in solids
2 In a transverse wave, the particles of the medium
(a) vibrate in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the propagation
(b) vibrate in a direction parallel to the direction of the propagation
(c) move in circle
(d) move in ellipse.
Ans: (a) : In a transverse wave, the particles of the medium vibrate in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of the propagation
3 A transverse wave consists of (a) only crests
(b) only troughs
(c) both crests and troughs
(d) rarefactions and compressions
Ans: (c) : A transverse wave travels through a medium in the form of crests and troughs.
4 Ultrasonic waves produced by a vibrating quartz crystal are
(a) only longitudinal
(b) only transverse
(c) both longitudinal and transverse
(d) neither longitudinal nor transverse
Ans: (a) : Ultrasonic waves produced by a vibrating quartz crystal are longitudinal.
(B) Beat The phenomenon of regular variation in intensity of sound with time at a particular
position due to superposition of two sound waves of slightly different frequencies is called
beats. For waves ∴ y = 2a cos π (υ1 – υ2)t. sin π (υ1 + υ2)t is the required equation of beats.
Beat frequency is given by υbeat = υ1 – υ2 Beat period is given by
1 Which of the following phenomenon is used by the musicians to tune their musical
instruments?
(a) Interference
(b) Diffraction
(c) Beats
(d) Polarisation
Ans: (c) Beats
2 The phenomenon of beats can take place
(a) for longitudinal waves only
(b) for transverse wave only
(c) for sound waves only
(d) for both longitudinal and transverse waves
Ans: (d) for both longitudinal and transverse waves
3 P and Q are two wires whose fundamental frequencies are 256 Hz and 382 Hz respectively.
How many beats in two seconds will be heard by the third harmonic of A and second
harmonic of B?
(a) 4
(b) 8
(c) 16
(d) zero
Ans: (b) 8
4 When two waves of almost equal frequencies u1 and u2 reach at a point simultaneously,
the time interval between successive maxima is
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Ans: (d)
Assertion reason questions
For question numbers 1-5, two statements are given-one labelled Assertion (A) and the other
labelled Reason (R). Select the correct answer to these questions from the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d)
as given below. (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A (b) Both A and R are
true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A (c) A is true but R is false (d) A is false and R is also
false
1 Assertion (A) : The velocity of sound increases with increases in humidity.
Reason (R) : Velocity of sound does not depends upon the medium.
Ans: (c)
2 Assertion (A) : A vibrating tuning fork sounds louder when its stem is pressed against a desk
top.
Reason (R) : When a wave reaches another denser medium, part of the wave is reflected.
Ans:(c)
3 Assertion (A) : Longitudinal waves travel through air in an organ pipe.
Reason (R) : Air possesses only volume elasticity.
Ans:(a)
4 Assertion (A) : In a stationary wave, there is no transfer of energy.
Reason (R) : There is no onward motion of the disturbance from one particle to adjoining
particle in stationary wave. Waves 141
Ans:(b)
5 Assertion (A) : Particle velocity depends on time.
Reason (R) : For the propagation of wave motion, the medium must have the properties of
elasticity and inertia.
Ans:(b)