Topic 4: Moral Development Theories

Catherine B. Allayban

INTRODUCTION
“A man is the sum of his actions, of what he has done, of what he can do, nothing else”.
- Mahatma Gandhi
Moral development focuses on the emergence,
change, and understanding of morality from infancy
through adulthood. Morality develops across a lifetime
and is influenced by an individual's experiences and their
behaviour when faced with moral issues through different
periods' physical and cognitive development. In short,
morality concerns an individual's growing sense of what
is right and wrong; it is for this reason that young
children have different moral judgement and character
than that of a grown adult. Morality in itself is often a
synonym for "rightness" or "goodness". It refers to a
certain code of conduct that is derived from one's culture,
religion or personal philosophy that guides one's actions,
behaviours and thoughts. This term is related to
psychology. There are other types of development such as
social development, physical development and cognitive
development.
https://www.tes.com/lessons/ntgwSfQ7ve_BXg/moral-and-social-development

After studying this topic, you will be able to:

1. explain the meaning of morality and its implications on the development of children;
2. analyse the psychological basis of moral development according to theories of Piaget,
Kohlberg, Turiel and Gilligan;
3. apply the knowledge acquired on moral development in your educational practices.

LET’S START

Quotations on Morality
The following are quotations on Morality. Read all of them and pick 2 that appeals to you the
most. In a short paragraph, explain your ideas or interpretation of the quotation.
1. “Compassion is the basis of morality.” ― Arthur Schopenhauer
2. “I am free, no matter what rules surround me. If I find them tolerable, I tolerate them; if I find
them too obnoxious, I break them. I am free because I know that I alone am morally responsible
for everything I do.”― Robert A. Heinlei
3. “Waste no more time arguing about what a good man should be. Be one.”― Marcus Aurelius,
Meditations
4. “Do not be too moral. You may cheat yourself out of much life so. Aim above morality. Be not
simply good, be good for something.”― Henry David Thoreau
5. “Real integrity is doing the right thing, knowing that nobody’s going to know whether you did it
or not.”― Oprah Winfrey
6. “To educate a person in the mind but not in morals is to educate a menace to society.”―
Theodore Roosevelt

1.1. Piaget

“The goal of education is not to increase the amount of knowledge but to create the
possibilities for a child to invent and discover, to create men who are capable of doing
new things”. – Jean Piaget

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
1. explain Piaget's theory of moral development
2. define and use key terms correctly
3. describe the sassumptions of Piaget's theory
Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, explored how
children developed moral reasoning. He rejected the idea
that children learn and internalize the rules and morals of
society by being given the rules and forced to adhere to
them. Through his research on how children formed their
judgments about moral behavior, he recognized that
children learn morality best by having to deal with others
in groups. He reasoned that there was a process by which
children conform to society's norms of what is right and
wrong, and that the process was active rather than
passive.
Piaget found two main differences in how children
thought about moral behavior. Very young children's
thinking is based on how actions affected them or what
the results of an action were. For example, young children
will say that when trying to reach a forbidden cookie jar, breaking 10 cups is worse than breaking
one. They also recognize the sanctity of rules. For example, they understand that they cannot make
up new rules to a game; they have to play by what the rule book says or what is commonly known
to be the rules. Piaget called this "moral realism with objective responsibility." It explains why
young children are concerned with outcomes rather than intentions. Older children look at motives
behind actions rather than consequences of actions. They are also able to examine rules,
determining whether they are fair or not, and apply these rules and their modifications to situations
requiring negotiation, assuring that everyone affected by the rules is treated fairly. Piaget felt that
the best moral learning came from these cooperative decision-making and problem-solving events.
He also believed that children developed moral reasoning quickly and at an early age.

LET’S START
Do you think of yourself as a logical individual? Just how logical are you? Try your
logical reasoning abilities in the following exercise.
 Take a moment to solve the following three problems:
1. In the margin are ten wooden beads. Eight are brown
and two are white. Are there more brown beads or more
wooden beads?
2. If all children are human beings,
And if all human beings are living creatures,
Then must all children be living creatures?
3. If all children are basketballs,
And if all basketballs are jellybeans,
Then must all children be jellybeans?

 LET’S LEARN
Do This!
a. Start the video lesson Piaget's Moral Development Theory. Instruct students to take
notes as the lesson plays via YouTube link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=trLFUxqQX3k

Piaget's Theory of Moral Development

According to Piaget's original formulation,

children between the ages of 5 and 10 years see the
world through the lens of a "heteronomous"
(other-directed) morality.
In this moral understanding, rules handed
down by authority figures (such as parents, teachers
and government leaders) are seen as absolute and
unbreakable.
Basically, children accept that authority
figures have godlike powers, and are able to make
rules that last forever, do not change, and must be
followed. Children's reasoning regarding why these
rules should be followed is generally based squarely upon their appreciation of consequences associated
with breaking the rules. As breaking the rules tends to lead to negative personal consequences, most
children follow the rules as a way to avoid being punished.
Children's appreciation of morality changes towards the end of middle childhood as a result of
their recently developed ability to view situations from other people's perspectives. As children develop
the ability to put themselves into someone else's shoes, their appreciation of morality becomes more
autonomous (self-directed) and less black and white and absolutist in nature.
Piaget called this expanded appreciation a "morality of cooperation". Starting at about age 10
or 11 and continuing through adolescence, children will have generally begun to view moral rules as
socially-agreed upon guidelines designed to benefit the group. Children using this frame of reference
still feel that it is important to follow rules, but these rules are viewed as complex, somewhat negotiable
guidelines that are meant to improve everyone's lives. Children realize that making choices about
following the rules should be based on something more than fear of negative personal consequences or
desire for individual gain. Decisions affect everyone; and can benefit and/or hurt everyone.
 https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fslideplayer.com%2Fslide%2F3053676%2F&psig=AOvVaw0PCm

LET’S ASSES YOUR UNDERSTANDING

On your own activity…
Consider the following Story, who is right or wrong? WHY?

If you are 6: Which girl do you think was more bad, Olivia or Melissa?

If you are 10: Which girl do you think was more bad, Olivia or Melissa?

One day, a girl named Olivia was playing with her mommy. Olivia decided that it would be fun
to have a tea party with her mommy and her dolls. So, Olivia went into the kitchen and got a
box of crackers and six tea cups. Olivia carefully arranged the tea cups on a tray, but while she
reached for the box of crackers, the tray accidentally slipped out of her hands and the six cups
smashed into pieces on the floor.
Another girl, one named Melissa, was playing with her daddy. Melissa wanted to play marching
band in the kitchen by clanging pot lids together. When her daddy said the he didn’t want to
play marching band because it was too loud, Melissa became very upset. She was so angry that
she grabbed a cup off the counter and threw it onto the floor, smashing it into pieces.

1.2. Kohlberg
“Right action tends to be defined in terms of general individual rights and standards that have
been critically examined and agreed upon by the whole society”. --Lawrence Kohlberg
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
1. Explain the stages of moral development
2. Analyze a person’s level of moral reasoning based on his responses to moral dilemmas.
3. Cite how the theory of moral development can be applied to your work as a teacher later on.

Moral development is an important part of the socialization

process. The term refers to the way people learn what society
considered to be “good” and “bad,” which is important for a smoothly
functioning society. Moral development prevents people from acting
on unchecked urges, instead considering what is right for society and
good for others.
Lawrence Kohlberg (1927–1987) was interested in how
people learn to decide what is right and what is wrong. To understand
this topic, he developed a theory of moral development that includes
three levels: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional.

LET’S START

Read the moral dilemma below.

Andre, 17, has been saving up money to buy a ticket for this concert of rock band. His parents
have discouraged him from going as the concert will surely be with rowdy crowd. The band is notorious
for having out-of-control audience who somehow manages to get drunk and stoned during the concert.
Andre agreed not to watch anymore. But a day before the concert, Denis, 15- year old brother of Andre,
saw a corner of what appeared to be a concert ticket showing in the pocket of Andre’s bag. Denis
examined it and confirmed it was indeed a ticket. Looking at Andre’s bag, Denis also found an extra
shirt and 2 sticks of marijuana. So he figured Andre will go to the concert after all. That night, Andre
told his parents that he was spending tomorrow night at a classmate’s house for a school requirement.
Then later that evening, he told Denis his plan to go to concert. Denis didn’t say anything, but he found
it difficult to sleep that night, thinking whether to tell their parents or not.
If you are Denis, what would you do?
Why would you do that?
What were the things you considered in deciding what to do?

 LET’S LEARN
Do This!
a. Start the video lesson Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development. Instruct students to take notes as
the lesson plays via this link https://study.com/academy/lesson/kohlbergs-stages-of-moral-
development.html

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Level 1 - Pre-conventional morality
At the pre-conventional level (most nine-year-olds and younger, some over nine), we don’t have a
personal code of morality. Instead, our moral code is shaped by the standards of adults and the
consequences of following or breaking their rules.
Authority is outside the individual and reasoning is based on the physical consequences of actions.

• Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is good in order to

avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong.
• Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage, children recognize that there is not just
one right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different
viewpoints.
Level 2 - Conventional morality
At the conventional level (most adolescents and adults), we begin to internalize the moral standards of
valued adult role models.
Authority is internalized but not questioned, and reasoning is based on the norms of the group to which
the person belongs.
•Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good in order to be seen as
being a good person by others. Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others.
• Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. The child/individual becomes aware of the wider
rules of society, so judgments concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid
guilt.
Level 3 - Post-conventional morality
Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on individual
rights and justice. According to Kohlberg this level of moral reasoning is as far as most people get.
Only 10-15% are capable of the kind of abstract thinking necessary for stage 5 or 6 (post-conventional
morality). That is to say, most people take their moral views from those around them and only a
minority think through ethical principles for themselves.
• Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes aware that
while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they will
work against the interest of particular individuals.
The issues are not always clear-cut. For example, in Heinz’s dilemma, the protection of life is
more important than breaking the law against stealing.
• Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed their own set of moral
guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone.
E.g., human rights, justice, and equality. The person will be prepared to act to defend these
principles even if it means going against the rest of society in the process and having to pay the
consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment. Kohlberg doubted few people reached this
stage.
 https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fexploringyourmind.com%2Fkohlbergs-theory-of-moral-

LET’S ASSES YOUR UNDERSTANDING

MAKING A MORAL DECISION
Following is a hypothetical example illustrating how people think or behave in the face of a
dilemma. Read the text and accomplish the tasks that follow.
Allan is dying of cancer and is in extreme pain. His brother, Dr. Frank, knows the agony that he
is going through and feels so much pity for him. Dr. Frank is aware that there is no hope for his brother
to live much longer and that any time at any day, he will go. One day, Dr. Frank has witnessed Allan’s
great, discomfort and struggle. Wanted to end Allan’s suffering, he is tempted to remove his brother’s
life support. Dr Frank is torn between his role as a brother and as a Doctor. He loves Allan and wishes
that his suffering would end. On the other hand, Dr. Frank faithfully adheres to medical ethics.
A. Answer the following questions:
You will be graded based on the following criteria:

Quality of Content 5
Insights, Analysis and Synthesis 3
Organization of thoughts and clarity 2_
Total 10
1. If you were Dr. Frank, what would you have done?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
2. Cite your reasons for your decision and identify the corresponding orientation according
to Kohlberg’s theory.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
 B. State the level of reasoning of the following hypothetical reasons for Dr. Frank’s
decision.
1. He could not have removed the life support because he believes in the value of human life.
____________________________________________________
2. He could have removed the life support because he loves his brother and pities him.
___________________________________________________
3. He could not have removed the life support because he just wants to let things happen as they
come.
___________________________________________________
4. He could not have removed the life support because he is afraid he might be stripped of his
license to practice.
___________________________________________________
5. He could not have removed the life support because he is aware of society’s values.
___________________________________________________
C. Write your philosophy of life by considering the following points and share your output
with someone close to you.
 Goal in life
 What you hold dear and important in your life
 What you expect to happen in your life in about 10 years
 What ways, mechanism or strategies you should do to achieve your goal

1.3. Turiel
“Even very young children can distinguish moral rules from what are dictated by conventions and
are accepted ways of doing things”. – Elliot Turiel
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
1. Explain Turiel’s Moral Rules
2. Differentiate the three Domains Theory of Elliot Turiel;
3. Determine the implications of Turiel’s Moral Rules in relation to real-life scenarios

 LET’S LEARN
Do This!
a. Start the video lesson Turiel’s Theory of Moral Development. Instruct students to take notes as
the lesson plays via this Youtube link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vW2KAuhy0fk
Elliot Turiel holds the Jerome A. Hutto Chair in the Graduate
School of Education at the University of California, Berkeley. He has
served as the President of the Jean Piaget Society. He has been a
Guggenheim Fellow, a National Institute of Mental Health Fellow, and a
Fellow of the Van Leer Jerusalem Foundation.
His research focuses on social and moral development. He has
formulated a theory of domains of social development involving the
development of moral judgments (based on concepts of welfare, justice,
and rights) and their distinction, throughout development, from
understandings of the conventions and customs of societies – as well as
from arenas of personal jurisdiction.
Social domain theory was formulated by Elliot Turiel(1978,1979,1983).

There are three main components involved:

Moral Issues: Perspective judgements about how individuals ought to behave.

Social Conventions: Arbitrary, agreed upon rules and norms that structure social interactions.
 Psychological Concepts: Include personal as well as prudential issues (safety, comfort and
health).

Social Domain Theory

 Kids associate behavior through experiences; whether or not they will be punished.
 Moral rules
• rules people follow because the decisions that an individual
makes affects others; maintaining human rights
 Conventional rules
• Societal rule (standing in line, when to be quiet)
 Cultures around the world hold similar basic morals, but different
conventional

Morality in Teaching
 Base on universal features of human moral understanding
 Moral education should guide the students to build up the correct outlook of the world, life and
evaluation, consistently improve their socialistic consciousness so as to lay a solid foundation for
them to become a rising generation having lofty ideas, moral integrity, knowledge and culture
Critiques
 Most domain theory research didn’t take into account the children’s difficulty in evaluating
intentionality
 Some cultures don’t distinguish between manners and morals

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.slideshare.net%2Fdrburwell%2Felliot-turiel-

LET’S ASSES YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Briefly describe or tell something about the following: Choose 5 to answer. You will be graded
based on the following criteria:
Quality of Content 5
Insights, Analysis and Synthesis 3
Organization of thoughts and clarity 2_
Total 10
Social Domain Theory of Moral Development
1. Elliot Turiel
 2. Moral Issues
3. Social Conventions
4. Psychological Concepts
5. Promoting moral development
6. Engage children in discussions about moral issues
7. Foster a climate of religious tolerance
8. Service Learning
9. Get children and adolescents actively involved in community service

1.4. Gilligan

“The hardest times for me were not when people challenged what I said, but when I felt my
voice was not heard”. -Carol Gilligan

Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this lesson, students will be able to:

1. define 'morals'
2. summarize Carol Gilligan's theory of moral development
3. list examples for each stage of Gilligan's theory

 LET’S LEARN
Do This!
a. Start the video lesson Carol Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development. Instruct
students to take notes as the lesson plays via this Youtube link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HctzZwwueL4

CAROL GILLIGAN & MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Carol Gilligan was a research assistant for the great

theorist of moral development, Lawrence Kohlberg. Gilligan
became independent and began to criticize some of Kohlberg’s
work.
Her opinions were presented in her famous book, " In a
different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s
Development " which was published in 1982.

Gilligan criticized Kohlberg’s work on two things:

 She felt that Kohlberg only studied “privileged, white men

and boys.”
Gilligan said that this caused a biased opinion against
women.
 She felt that, in Kohlberg ' s stage theory of moral
development, the male view of individual rights and rules was
considered a higher at stage 4 against women at stage 3 disregarding women's point of view of
development in terms of its caring effect on human relationships.
Gilligan’s goal was to prove that women are not “moral midgets”, she was going against many
psychological opinions.
 another famous theorist, Freud thought women’s moral sense was stunted because they stayed
attached to their mothers.
 another great theorist, Erik Erickson, thought the tasks of development were separation from
mother and the family, If women did not succeed in this scale, then they were obviously lacking.
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
 Her theory is divided into three stages of moral development beginning from " selfish, to social
or conventional morality, and finally to post conventional or principled morality.”
 Women must learn to deal to their own interests and to the interests of others.
 She thinks that women hesitate to judge because they see the complexities of relationships.

1. Pre Conventional
-Person only cares for themselves in order to ensure survival
-This is how everyone is as children
In this transitional phase, the person’s attitude is considered selfish, and the person sees the
connection between themselves and others.
2. Conventional
-Responsibility
-More care shown for other people.
-Gilligan says this is shown in the role of Mother and Wife
-Situation sometimes carries on to ignoring needs of self.
In this transitional phase, tensions between responsibility of caring for others and caring for self
are faced.
3. Post Conventional
-Acceptance of the principle of care for self and others is shown.
-Some people never reach this level.

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.slideshare.net%2Fsneha1112%2Fa-different-voice-by-carol-
 https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fstudy.com%2Facademy%2Flesson%2Fcarol-gilligans-theory-of-moral-

GILLIGAN' S THEORY AND SOCIETY

 Gilligan's ideas are against the struggle of women against our society's idea of their “gender-
determined " role.
 According to Gilligan, women can gain personal independence after they forget about the idea that
their proper role is to overcome their interests to the interests of their husbands, children, or other people
they care about.
 Gilligan says that in our society women really like to help others, however they should care just as
much about themselves as the do about others.

GILLIGAN'S THEORY AND EDUCATION

Carol Gilligan's theory helps both men and women in seeing each other in a different perspective.
 In terms of education everyone should focus on it and everyone's need for education is
important.
 A person should not put the needs of others in front of their own, especially in the case of
education

GILLIGAN'S THEORY AND THE WORKPLACE

 A person could undergo this process of "the ethic of care "when entering a new job.

 The conventional stage is shown when the job is just acquired, and a good impression is trying to
be made.
 This is followed by the conventional stage, which can be seen after developing relationships with
colleagues.
 This might be followed by the post conventional stage when care for oneself and another
colleague might be equal. (Not everyone reaches the post conventional stage)

LET’S ASSES YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Choose 5 questions to answer. You will be graded based on the following criteria:
Quality of Content 5
Insights, Analysis and Synthesis 3
Organization of thoughts and clarity 2_
Total 10
 1. Compare and Contrast
a. Gilligan vs Kohlberg
b. Care based morality vs Justice based morality
2. According to Gilligan, who is most likely to associate morality with obligations, rights, and
justice?
3. According to Gilligan who is most likely to see more requirements emerging from the needs of
others within the context of a relationship?
4. According to Gilligan what is the moral orientation of females called?
5. Explain her theory of the stages of moral development along with examples to illustrate each
stage
6. Is there a more productive way to approach the difference between male and female perspectives
on morality?
7. Do you use Kohlberg's justice perspective or Gilligan's care perspective most in your own moral
reasoning? Illustrate with an example.

Topic 5: Current Research and Pedagogical Applications on Social and Emotional Development
Catherine B. Allayban

What Research Tells Us about Social-Emotional Development

Research has shown social-emotional development is critical in early childhood for future
success and is the foundation for learning (Rock & Crow, 2017). Children who learn appropriate social-
emotional skills are known to do better in school because of their ability to develop healthy
relationships, learn from others, and problem solve, therefore decreasing the likelihood of demonstrating
behavioural concerns.
Development of appropriate and healthy social-emotional skills has lasting effects beyond
childhood, such as increased health, success, and confidence into
adulthood. Strong parent-child relationships are extremely critical to
healthy social emotional skills, which early interventionists can help to
support in order to ensure better outcomes for the child and family.
Watch the video below for information about the importance of
interactions between parents and their child.
https://vimeo.com/119255263
(https://www.zerotothree.org/espanol/social-and-emotional-
development)
Check for Understanding:
1. How do social-emotional skills impact overall development?
2. Who are the most influential people in developing a child's social-
emotional skills?
3. What can you do to support developing these relationships in
working with families?

RESEARCH

a. Download the research article entitled Social‐emotional competence: An essential factor for

promoting positive adjustment and reducing risk in school children by Domitrovich, C. E.,
Durlak, J. A., Staley, K. C., & Weissberg, R. P. (2017). Child development, 88(2), 408-416. It
can be accessed thru the link https://srcd.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/cdev.12739
b. Read the research article on Social-Emotional and Approaches to Learning Skill Development In the lens
of School Readiness by Lauren Zbyszinski It can be accessed thru the link
https://repository.asu.edu/attachments/150668/content/Zbyszinski_asu_0010E_14773.pdf
 c. Read research articles that is related to the current researches on the application and implication
on socio-emotional development theories to teaching child and adolescent learners. Choose one
that appeals most to you.

Summarize each research by using the matrix below.

UNIT SUMMARY

Read This!
Unit 4 encompasses the different concepts and theories explaining the social and emotional
development of children and adolescents. This includes psychoanalytic, psychosocial, social learning,
hierarchy of needs, ERG, theory of needs, two factor, reinforcement, expectancy, goal setting and self-
determination theory. Likewise, the moral development theories by piaget, kohlberg, turiel and gillingan
was also elucidated; and the last topic in this unit dwelled on the current research and pedagocical
application which shows that a strong social and emotional foundation in early childhood powerfully
impacts children’s later positive attitudes and behaviors, academic performance, career path, and adult
health outcomes.
Furthermore, in this unit, you were oriented to understand better the concepts of social and
emotional development of children and adolescents

REFLECTION

Reflect on the practices of your past teachers. Which ones encouraged your social and
emotional development as an adolescent and which ones did not. As a future teacher, what lessons have
you learned from your past teachers regarding ways of enhancing adolescents’ social and emotional
development?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
 ______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Unit References/Sources:
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http://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/Bandura2000.pdf
Bandura, A., Caprara, G. V., Barbaranelli, C., Pastorelli, C., & Regalia, C. (2001).Sociocognitive self-
regulatory mechanisms governing transgressive behavior.Journal of Personality and Social
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Baumeister, Roy F. “The Self.” Advanced Social Psychology: The State of the Science, edited by Roy F.
Baumeister and Eli J. Finkel, Oxford University Press, 2010, pp. 139-175.
Cherry, K. (2012). What Is Self-Efficacy?InAbout.com.
http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/self_efficacy.htm
Cherry, K. (2012).Bandura's Famous Experiment on Aggression. InAbout.com.
http://psychology.about.com/od/classicpsychologystudies/a/bobo-doll-experiment.htm
Cherry, Kendra. “What is Self-Determination Theory.” Verywell Mind, 26 October 2018.
https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-self-determination-theory-2795387
Cherry,K. (2012). Social Learning Theory: An Overview of Bandura's Social Learning Theory.
InAbout.com. http://psychology.about.com/od/developmentalpsychology/a/sociallearning.htm
Collins, A. W. (2003). More than myth: The developmental significance of romantic relationships
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Dweck, C. S. (1986). 'Motivational processes affecting learning.'American Psychologist, 41(10), 1040-
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Isaac, R. G., Zerbe, W. J., & Pitt, D. C. (2001). Leadership and motivation: The effective application of
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Ivancevich, John M., Robert Konopaske, and Michael T. Matteson. Organizational Behavior and
Management. 7th ed. Boston: Irwin/McGraw-Hill, 2004.
James, A., & James, A. (2012). Key concepts in childhood studies (2nd ed.). London:
Kearsley, G. (Aug 2012). Social Learning Theory (A. Bandura). The Theory into Practice Database.
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http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/social- learning.html
Lawler III, E. E., & Suttle, J. L. (1973). Expectancy theory and job behavior. Organizational behavior
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