ERIKSON’S 8 STAGES OF EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Erik Erikson, the German child psychologist who settled in the United States in the 1930s, came up with the
eight psychosocial/emotional stages of development that cover a lifetime. He is also credited with formulating
the concept of the adolescent identity crisis.

AGE: Birth to 1 year

STAGE: Trust vs. mistrust

WHAT’S GOING ON
Children are learning to trust the world. Trust is fostered by consistency, continuity and sameness of
experience.

WHAT PARENTS CAN DO

If parents satisfy an infants needs consistently, the child will come to think of the world as safe and their
parents as dependable.

AGE: 2 – 3 years

STAGE: Autonomy vs. shame and doubt

WHAT’S GOING ON
Now that children trust their parents, they must exert their independence.

WHAT PARENTS CAN DO

If parents encourage children to do what they can do at their own pace, they develop a sense of autonomy. If
parents are impatient or they shame children for unacceptable behavior, self-doubt will develop.

AGE: 4 – 5 years

STAGE: Initiative vs. guilt

WHAT’S GOING ON
Growing ability to use language and take part in many physical activities sets the stage for initiative which
adds to autonomy.

WHAT PARENTS CAN DO

If parents take time to answer questions and give children freedom to explore and experiment, initiative will be
encouraged. If children are restricted or made to feel that their questions are a nuisance, they will feel guilty
about doing things on their own.

AGE: 6 – 11 years

STAGE: Industry vs. inferiority

WHAT’S GOING ON
As children enter school, their behavior is dominated by intellectual curiosity and performance. He develops a
sense of industry, knowing he gets recognition by producing things.

WHAT PARENTS CAN DO

If the child is encouraged to do things, finish tasks, and is praised for trying, then industry results. If the child
is derided or treated as bothersome, feelings of inferiority and inadequacy result.

AGE: 12 – 18 years

STAGE: Identity vs. role confusion

WHAT’S GOING ON
Adolescents are preparing to take a meaningful place in adult society. The danger at this stage is role
confusion: they have no idea of appropriate behavior that others will react to favorable.

WHAT PARENTS CAN DO

If adults show by their reactions that the child has succeeded in integrating roles so that she has a consistent
perception of self, healthy self-identity develops. Otherwise, the result is child role confusion.

AGE: Young Adulthood

STAGE: Intimacy vs. isolation

WHAT’S GOING ON
The young adult needs to form close and committed intimate relationships with other people.

WHAT PARENTS CAN DO

Parents can model the behavior that the child himself must adopt: the ability to commit to a relationship even
when it calls for sacrifices and compromises. Failure to do so leads to a sense of aloneness.

AGE: Middle age

STAGE: Generativity vs. stagnation

WHAT’S GOING ON
This is the period when they have children and raise them.

WHAT PARENTS CAN DO

Erikson considers this stage a time when we, not only raise our own children, but take action the is productive
and creative on behalf of younger generations generally. Those unable to do so become victims of stagnation
and self-absorption.

AGE: Old age

STAGE: Integrity vs. despair

WHAT’S GOING ON
Integrity is the acceptance of who one has become and what one has achieved in life. Despair expresses the
feeling that the time left is too short to start another life and try out alternate routes to integrity.

WHAT PARENTS CAN DO

At this stage, we are all on our own.

KOHLBERG’S 3 LEVELS OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Lawrence Kohlberg, an American psychologist who pioneered the study of moral development in the 1950s,
posited that moral reasoning developed through three levels and six stages. Kohlberg believed that progression
from one level to the next proceeded in a gradual fashion. He also acknowledged that the last stage was
essentially a theoretical ideal that is rarely encountered in real life. He asserted that most adult Americans
operate at Level 2, Conventional Morality, blindly conforming to existing social norms and authority.

LEVEL 1: Preconventional Morality: Young children may be well behaved but they do not yet understand
the conventions or rules of society. They interpret “good” and “bad” behavior in terms of physical
consequences, such as reward and punishment.

AGE: 1 -9 years

STAGE 1: Punishment-obedience orientation. Children’s behavior is guided by the belief that those in
authority have superior power and should be obeyed in order to avoid punishment and stay out of trouble.

STAGE 2: Instrumental relativist orientation. An action is judged to be right if it is instrumental in

satisfying one’s own needs or involves an even exchange. Obeying rules should bring some sort of reward in
return.

LEVEL 2: Conventional Morality: Children this age conform to the conventions of society because they are
the rules of society.

AGE: 9-20 years

STAGE 3: Good Boy- Nice Girl Orientation. The right action is the one that would be carried out by
someone whose behavior is likely to please or impress others.

STAGE 4: Law and Order orientation. To maintain the social order fixed rules must be established
and obeyed. It is essential to respect authority.

LEVEL 3: Post-conventional Morality: The moral principals that underlie the conventions of a society are
understood. Kohlberg believed that only a small percentage of adults reach this stage.

AGE: After 20 years

STAGE 5: Social Contract Orientation. Rules needed to maintain the social order should not be based
on blind obedience to authority but on mutual agreement. The rights of the individual must also be protected.
 STAGE 6: Universal Ethical Principle Orientation. Moral decisions should be made in terms of self-
chosen ethical principles. Once principles are chosen, they should be applied in consistent ways.

WHAT PARENTS CAN DO AT ALL STAGES:

* Remember that younger children will respond to moral conflicts differently from older children.

* Take opportunities at home, on the street, wherever they arise in the course of a day, to pose moral
dilemmas: “What if the man gave us too much change at the store? What would you do?”

* Approach moral discussions in an open, understanding way, so your child knows he can bring up questions
or try out answers without fear of being judged harshly.

* Invite your child to put herself in the position of individuals confronted by moral dilemmas you read about in
the newspapers or see on TV.

* Make up stories that involve moral dilemmas. The most famous moral dilemma that Kohlberg used was as
follows: A woman was dying of cancer. The one drug that might save her was available at a nearby druggist’s
store. It was selling for $2,000. (It actually cost the druggist $200.) The man tried to borrow enough money but
could not. He told the druggist his wife was dying, but the druggist would not reduce the price of the drug. The
husband broke into the druggist’s store and stole the drug. Should the husband have done that? If so, why? If
not, why?

PIAGET’S 4 STAGES OF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT

Piaget believed cognitive development followed a continuous but zig-zag pattern. Children don’t jump from
one stage to the next. They sometimes use a more advanced kind of thinking and other times revert to a more
primitive form. The sequence of progress is the same for all children. But each child proceeds at his or her own
rate.

AGE: 0-2 years

STAGE: Sensorimotor

WHAT’S GOING ON
Children acquire understanding primarily through sensory impressions and motor activities. Infants start by
exploring their own bodies and senses. After they can walk, they try to touch and manipulate everything so
they can develop, through trial-and-error, schemes that begin to explain their world.

WHAT PARENTS CAN DO

The most important thing you can to do to help your child at this stage is to create a safe environment for them
to explore. And you must be there to show them the love, consistent care, and affection that enable them to
build trust and a secure attachment.

AGE: 2-7 years

STAGE: Preoperational

WHAT’S GOING ON
For the first time, the child becomes able to use mental images, symbols and language in their thinking.
Imagination takes flight. They are still mostly ego-centric, but they become aware that others may see and feel
things differently. The preschooler is becoming capable of symbolic thought and reflective self-awareness. At
age three, they begin developing a sense of morality. They acquire the ability to conserve, but are unable to
mentally reverse actions.

WHAT PARENTS CAN DO

Talking and reading to your child continues to be as important in this stage as it was when s/he was an infant.
Though they are getting bigger, they still need physical affection. Hugs and verbal praise convey the
reassurance that they are loved and accepted. This will encourage healthy self-esteem and the confidence to
explore and learn. Discuss with them how to solve problems more systematically.

AGE: 7-11 years

STAGE: Concrete operations

WHAT’S GOING ON
Children have begun to think in symbols (“operations”), although their thought processes are still tied to
concrete objects and actions. They become less ego-centric and more able to see that others may think and feel
and see things differently. They become more logical in using language for problem-solving. Fantasy and
reality become separated. Reading opens up new worlds and new ways of coping with common situations.
Entering school allows them to learn about rules and cooperation. They make friends and form cliques, first
with informal rules, then later with stricter, more sharply-defined rules of belonging, behaving and dressing.
They are learning lessons of balancing their needs with others’. They are developing a sense of industry and a
sense of self-confidence or inferiority.

WHAT PARENTS CAN DO

Children need encouragement through the ups and downs of these years. If you let them know that you accept
them, no matter how they are doing in school or how they are being treated by other children, they will be able
to do better on both fronts. They need structure and consistent discipline at home to help them mature and
adapt to the challenges they face in the world with confidence.

AGE: 11-Adult

STAGE: Formal operations

WHAT’S GOING ON
Children are increasingly able to deal with abstract ideas. They understand general ethical principles, such as
fairness and justice. They can reason about rules and regulations. They are developing greater independence
and a sense of identity. They are becoming self-reflective. Friendships change: single-sex cliques give way to
coed groups and opposite-sex relationships.
WHAT PARENTS CAN DO
It is very important for parents to show that you are listening to them and supportive of them. This
demonstrates that you value their ideas and contributions. Acceptance is important, too – teenagers are easily
shamed and embarrassed at this age. Children expect a greater degree of equality in their relationships to their
parents: everyone needs to adapt and change. If you show them respect for their growing maturity, they will be
more likely to keep the lines of communication open between you during this period of enormous physical,
intellectual and emotional change.