Physics SP025 Topic 3

TOPIC 3:
ELECTRIC CURRENT AND
DIRECT-CURRENT CIRCUITS

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Physics SP025 Topic 3

Overview:
Electric Current & Direct Current (DC) Circuit

Ohm’s law Variation of

Electrical Emf, Internal
& Resistivity Resistance &
Current Resistance &
Temperature
Potential difference
Drift velocity VαI
R=R0(1+T)
RA
Electric Current ρ=
l
V = Ԑ - Ir
dQ
I= Q = ne
dt
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Physics SP025 Topic 3
Overview:
Electric Current & Direct Current (DC) Circuit

Resistor in Kirchhoff’s Electrical Energy Potential

Potentiometer
Series & Rules and Power divider
Parallel
V 2
 1 l1
P = IV = I2 R = =
1st rule
R  2 l2
2nd rule
W = IVt
Iin= Iout  = IR
 R1 
V1 =  V
 R1 + R2 + .......Rn 
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Physics SP025 Topic 3

Learning Outcome:
3.1 Electrical current
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
(a) Describe microscopic model of current.
*Emphasise on the flow of free electrons in a metal. Include concept of
drift velocity.
(b) Define electric current, I =
dQ
dt

(c) Use electric current,

I=
dQ
Q = ne
dt

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Physics SP025 Topic 3

3.1 Electrical current

3.1.1 Electric current, I
 Consider a simple closed circuit consists of wires, a battery and a light bulb as
shown in Figure 3.1.

Fe


E Area, A I

Figure 3.1
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Physics SP025 Topic 3
 From the Figure 3.1,
⚫ Direction of electric field or electric current :
Positive to negative terminal
⚫ Direction of electron flows :
Negative to positive terminal
⚫ The electron accelerates because of the electric force acted on it.

 Electric Current is defined as the total (nett) charge, Q flowing through the
area per unit time, t.
Mathematically,
Q
I= average current
t
OR
dQ
I= instantaneous current
dt
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Physics SP025 Topic 3
 It is a base and scalar quantities.
 The S.I. unit of the electric current is the ampere (A).
 1 ampere of current is defined as one coulomb of charge passing through the
surface area in one second.
OR
1 coulomb
1 ampere = = 1 C s −1
1 second

Note:
If the charge move around a circuit in the same direction at all
times, the current is called direct current (dc), which is produced by
the battery.

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Physics SP025 Topic 3
3.1.2 Electrical conduction in metal
 In metal the charge carrier is free electrons and a lot of free electrons are
available in it.
 They move freely and randomly throughout the crystal lattice structure of the metal
but frequently interact with the lattices as shown in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2
 When the electric field is applied to the metal, the freely moving electron
experience an electric force and tend to drift with constant average velocity
(called drift velocity) towards a direction opposite to the direction of the field as
shown in Figure 3.3.

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Physics SP025 Topic 3

I
 
vd vd

E
Figure 3.3
 Then the electric current is flowing in the opposite direction of the
electron flows.

Note:
The magnitude of the drift velocity is much smaller
than the random velocities of the free electron.

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Physics SP025 Topic 3

3.1.4 Drift velocity of charges, vd

 Consider a metal rod of length L and cross-sectional area A, which is applied to
the electric field as shown in Figures 3.4.
L I
 
vd A vd


E
J
Figure 3.4
 Suppose there are n free electrons (charge carrier) per unit volume in the metal
rod, thus the number of free electron, n per unit volume is given by

n and V = AL
n' =
V
n n = n ' AL
n' =
AL 10
Physics SP025 Topic 3
 The total charge Q of the free electrons that pass through the
 area A along the rod is Q = ne
Q = ( n ' AL ) e (1)
 The time required for the electron moving along the rod is
L L
vd = t= (2)
t vd
Since Q = ( n ' AL ) e = n ' Aev
I=
 
d
t L
  where
 vd  I I : current
Since Current Density (Density of free electron), J =
A A: cross sectional area
Then the drift velocity vd is given by
I J
vd = OR
vd =
where n ' Ae n 'e
n ' : number of free electron(charge carrier) per unit volume
e : charge of the electron
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Physics SP025 Topic 3
Example 3.1:
A silver wire carries a current of 3.0 A. Determine
a. the number of electrons per second pass through the wire,
b. the amount of charge flows through a cross-sectional area of the
wire in 55 s.
(Given charge of electron, e = 1.60  10−19 C)
Solution : I = 3 . 0 A
a. By applying the equation of average current, thus
Q
I = and Q = Ne

I=
t
Ne
3 .0 =
(
N 1.60  10 −19 )
t N t 19
= 1.88  10 electrons s −1
t
b. Given t = 55 s , thus the amount of charge flows is given by
Q = It
Q = (3 . 0 )55 Q = 165 C 12
Physics SP025 Topic 3
Example 3.2:
Explain how electrical devices can begin operating almost immediately after
you switch on, even though the individual electrons in the wire may take
hours to reach the device.
Solution :
 Each electron in the wire affects its neighbours by exerting a force
on them, causing them to move.
 When electrons begin to move out of a battery or source their
motion sets up a propagating influence that moves through the
wire at nearly the speed of light, causing electrons everywhere in
the wire begin to move.

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Physics SP025 Topic 3

Learning Outcome:
3.2 Resistivity and Ohm’s law
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
(a) State and use Ohm’s law.
(b) Define and use resistivity,
RA
ρ=
l
(c) Sketch V-I graph (Experiment 2: Ohm’s Law)
(d) Verify Ohm’s law (Experiment 2: Ohm’s Law)
(e) Determine effective resistance of resistors in series and parallel by graphing
method (Experiment 2: Ohm’s Law)

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Physics SP025 Topic 3

3.2 Resistivity and Ohm’s law

3.2.1 Resistance, R
 is defined as a ratio of the potential difference across an electrical component to
the current passing through it.
Mathematically,
V
R= (3.1)
I
where V : potential difference (voltage)
I : current
 It is a measure of the component’s opposition to the flow of the electric charge.
 It is a scalar quantity and its unit is ohm ( ) or V A−1
 In general, the resistance of a metallic conductor increases with temperature.

Note:
If the temperature of the metallic conductor is constant hence its
resistance also constant.
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Physics SP025 Topic 3
3.2.2 Resistivity
Resistivity, 
 is defined as the resistance of a unit cross-sectional area per unit length of the
material.
Mathematically,
RA
ρ= (3.2)
l
where l : length of the material
A : cross - sectional area
 It is a scalar quantity and its unit is ohm meter ( m)
 It is a measure of a material’s ability to oppose the flow of an electric current.
 It also known as specific resistance.
 Resistivity depends on the type of the material and on the temperature.
 A good electric conductors have a very low resistivities and good insulators have
very high resistivities.

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Physics SP025 Topic 3

 From the eq. (3.2), the resistance of a conductor depends on the length and
cross-sectional area.
 Table 3.1 shows the resistivity for various materials at 20 C.

Material Resistivity,  (  m)
Silver 1.59  10−8
Copper 1.68  10−8
Aluminum 2.82  10−8
Gold 2.44  10−8
Glass 1010−1014
Table 3.1

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Physics SP025 Topic 3
Example 3.3:
Two wires P and Q with circular cross section are made of the same metal and have
equal length. If the resistance of wire P is three times greater than that of wire Q,
determine the ratio of their diameters.
Solution : ρ P = ρ Q = ρ ; l P = l Q = l
Given ρl
R P = 3R Q and R=
A 2
ρP lP ρQ lQ πd
=3 and A=
AP AQ 4
4 ρl  4 ρl 
= 3 
πd P
2  2 
 πd Q 
dQ dP 1
= 3 OR =
dP dQ 3
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Physics SP025 Topic 3
3.2.3 Ohm’s law
 States that the potential difference across a metallic conductor is proportional
to the current flowing through it if its temperature is constant.
Mathematically,

V I where T = c onstant
Then

V = IR (3.3)

where R : resistanc e of a c onduc tor

 Figures 3.5a, 3.5b, 3.5c and 3.5d show the potential difference V against current I
graphs for various materials.

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Physics SP025 Topic 3

V V V V

Gradient,
m=R

0 0
I 0
I I 0 I
Figure 3.5a: metal Figure 3.5b: semiconductor Figure 3.5c: carbon Figure 3.5d: electrolyte
Note:
 Some conductors have resistances which depend on the currents flowing
through them are known as Ohmic conductors and are said to obey Ohm’s
law.
 Meanwhile, non-ohmic conductors are the conductors where their resistance
depend only on the temperature.
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Physics SP025 Topic 3

Example 3.4:
A wire of length 50 m carries a current of 10.0 A. The potential difference across both end
of the wire is 2.1 V. Determine
a. the electric field intensity.
b. the resistance of the wire.
Solution : l = 50 m; I = 10.0 A; V = 2.1 V
a. The electric field intensity is
V = El
2.1 = E (50 )
E = 0.042 V m −1
b. From the ohm’s law, therefore
V = IR
2 .1 = 10 .0 R
R = 0 .21 
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Physics SP025 Topic 3
Exercise 3.1 :
1. A block in the shape of a rectangular solid has a cross-sectional area of 3.50 cm2
across its width, a front to rear length of 15.8 cm and a resistance of 935 . The
material of which the block is made has 5.33  1022 electrons m−3. A potential difference
of 35.8 V is maintained between its front and rear faces. Calculate
a. the current in the block,
b. the current density in the block,
c. the drift velocity of the electron,
d. the magnitude of the electric field in the block.
(Fundamentals of Physics,6th edition, Halliday, Resnick & Walker, Q24, p.631)
ANS. : 3.83  10−2 A; 109 A m−2; 1.28  10−2 m s−1; 227 V m−1

22
Physics SP025 Topic 3

2.

Figure 3.6

Figure 3.6 shows a rod in is made of two materials. Each conductor has a square
cross section and 3.00 mm on a side. The first material has a resistivity of 4.00  10–3
 m and is 25.0 cm long, while the second material has a resistivity of 6.00  10–3  m
and is 40.0 cm long. Determine the resistance between the ends of the rod.
(Physics for scientists and engineers,6th edition,Serway&Jewett, Q24, p.853)
ANS. : 378 

23
Physics SP025 Topic 3

3. A 2.0 m length of wire is made by welding the end of a 120 cm long silver wire to the
end of an 80 cm long copper wire. Each piece of wire is 0.60 mm in diameter. A
potential difference of 5.0 V is maintained between the ends of the 2.0 m composite
wire. Determine
a. the current in the copper and silver wires.
b. the magnitude of the electric field in copper and silver wires.
c. the potential difference between the ends of the silver section of wire.
(Given  (silver) is 1.47  10−8  m and  (copper) is 1.72  10−8  m)
(University physics,11th edition, Young&Freedman, Q25.56, p.976)
ANS. : 45 A; 2.76 V m−1, 2.33 V m−1; 2.79 V

24
Physics SP025 Topic 3

Learning Outcome:
3.3 Variation of resistance with temperature
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
(a) Explain the effect of temperature on electrical resistance in metals.

R = R 0 1 +  (T − T0 )
(b) Use

* α is at temperature 20⁰ C

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Physics SP025 Topic 3

3.3 Variation of resistance with temperature

3.3.1 Effect of temperature on resistance
Metal
 When the temperature increases, the number of free electrons per unit volume in
metal remains unchanged.
 Metal atoms in the crystal lattice vibrate with greater amplitude and cause the
number of collisions between the free electrons and metal atoms increase. Hence the
resistance in the metal increases.

26
Physics SP025 Topic 3
3.3.2 Temperature coefficient of resistivity, 
 is defined as a fractional increase in resistivity of a conductor per unit rise in
temperature.
OR
ρ
α= (3.4)
ρ0  T
where  ρ : change in the resistivit y
 T : temperat ure change = T − T 0
ρ 0 : initial resistivit y
 Since  = −0 then

ρ = ρ 0 (1 + α  T ) (3.5)

where ρ : final resistivit y

 The unit of  is C−1 OR K− 1.
 From the equation (3.6), the resistivity of a conductors varies approximately
linearly with temperature.
27
Physics SP025 Topic 3
 From the definition of resistivity, thus
ρR
then the equation (3.6) can be expressed as

R = R 0 (1 + α  T ) (3.6)

where R 0 : initial resistance

R : final resistanc e
 Table 3.2 shows the temperature coefficients of resistivity for various materials.

Material  (C−1)
Silver 4.10  10−3
Mercury 0.89  10−3
Iron 6.51  10−3
Aluminum 4.29  10−3
Copper 6.80  10−3
Table 3.2
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Physics SP025 Topic 3
 Figures 3.7a, 3.7b, 3.7c and 3.7d show the resistance R against
temperature T graphs for various materials.
R R

R0

0 T 0 T
Figure 3.7a : metal Figure 3.7b : semiconductor
R R

0 Tc T 0 T
Figure 3.7c : superconductor Figure 3.7d : carbon 29
Physics SP025 Topic 3
Example 3.5:
A copper wire has a resistance of 25 m at 20 C. When the wire is carrying a current, heat
produced by the current causes the temperature of the wire to increase by 27 C.
a. Calculate the change in the wire’s resistance.
b. If its original current was 10.0 mA and the potential difference
across wire remains constant, what is its final current?
(Given the temperature coefficient of resistivity for copper is 6.80  10−3 C−1)
Solution :
a. By using the equation for temperature variation of resistance, thus
R 0 = 25  10 − 3  ; T0 = 20  C;  T = 27  C

R = R 0 (1 + α  T )
R − R 0 = R 0 α  T and R − R 0 =  R
R = R0 α T
( )( )
R = 25  10 − 3 6 .80  10 − 3 (27 )
 R = 4 . 59  10 − 3 
30
Physics SP025 Topic 3

Solution : R 0 = 25  10 − 3  ; T0 = 20  C;  T = 27  C
−3
b. Given I 0 = 10 . 0  10 A
By using the equation for temperature variation of resistance,

( )
thus V V
R = R0 1 + αT where R= and R=
I I0
= (1 + αT )
V V
I I0
1
=
1
(
I 10 .0  10 −3
1 + 6 .) (
80  10 −3
) 
(27 )
I = 8 . 45  10 − 3 A

31
Physics SP025 Topic 3

Learning Outcome:
3.4 Electromotive force (emf), internal resistance and potential difference

At the end of this topic, students should be able to:

(a) Define emf,  and internal resistance, r of a battery.
(b) State factors that influence internal resistance.
(c) Explain the relationship between emf of a battery and potential difference
across the battery terminals.
(d) Use terminal voltage,
V = ε − Ir

32
Physics SP025 Topic 3

3.4 Electromotive force (emf), potential difference and

internal resistance
3.4.1 Emf,  and potential difference, V
 Consider a circuit consisting of a battery (cell) that is connected by wires to an external
resistor R as shown in Figure 3.8.
R

I Battery (cell) I
A ε r B

Figure 3.8

33
Physics SP025 Topic 3
 A current I flows from the terminal A to the terminal B.
 For the current to flow continuously from terminal A to B, a source of electromotive force
(e.m.f.),  is required such as battery to maintained the potential difference between point
A and point B.
 Electromotive force (emf), is defined as the energy provided by the source
(battery/cell) to each unit charge that flows through the external and internal
resistances.
 Terminal potential difference (voltage), V is defined as the work done in bringing a unit
(test) charge from the negative to the positive terminals of the battery through the
external resistance only.
 The unit for both e.m.f. and potential difference are volt (V).
 When the current I flows naturally from the battery there is an internal drop in potential
difference (voltage) equal to Ir. Thus the terminal potential difference (voltage), V is
given by

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Physics SP025 Topic 3

V = ε − Ir (3.7)

and V = IR

then
ε = I (R + r ) (3.8)

where ε : e.m.f.
V : terminal potential difference (voltage)
Ir : internal drop in potential difference O R V r
R : total external resistance
r : internal resistance of a cell (battery)
 Equation (3.8) is valid if the battery (cell) supplied the current to the circuit where
V ε
 For the battery without internal resistance or if no current flows in the circuit
(open circuit), then equation (3.8) can be written as
V =ε
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Physics SP025 Topic 3
3.4.2 Internal resistance of a battery, r
 is defined as the resistance of the chemicals inside the battery (cell) between the
poles and is given by

Vr when the cell (battery) is used.

I
where V : potential difference across internal resistance
r
I : current in the circuit
 The value of internal resistance depends on the type of chemical material in the
battery.
 The symbol of emf and internal resistance in the electrical circuit are shown in Figures
3.9a and 3.9b.
ε r r ε
OR

Figure 3.9a Figure 3.9b

36
Physics SP025 Topic 3

Example 3.6:
A battery has an emf of 9.0 V and an internal resistance of 6.0 . Determine
a. the potential difference across its terminals when it is supplying a current of 0.50 A,
b. the maximum current which the battery could supply.
Solution :
a. Given
ε = 9 . 0 V ; r = 6 . 0  I = 0 . 50 A
By applying the expression for emf, thus

ε = V + Ir
9 . 0 = V + (0 . 50 )(6 . 0 )
V = 6 .0 V
b. The current is maximum when the total external resistance, R =0,
ε = I (R + r )
therefore

9 . 0 = I max (0 + 6 . 0 )
I max = 1 . 5 A
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Physics SP025 Topic 3

Example 3.7:
A car battery has an emf of 12.0 V and an internal resistance of 1.0 . The external
resistor of resistance 5.0  is connected in series with the battery as shown in Figure 3.10.

r ε

A
Figure 3.10

Determine the reading of the ammeter and voltmeter if both meters are ideal.

38
Physics SP025 Topic 3
Solution : ε = 12 . 0 V ; r = 1 . 0  ; R = 5 . 0 
By applying the equation of e.m.f., the current in the circuit is
ε = I (R + r )
12 . 0 = I (5 . 0 + 1 . 0 )
I = 2 .0 A
Therefore the reading of the ammeter is 2.0 A.
The voltmeter measures the potential difference across the terminals of the battery
equal to the potential difference across the total external resistor, thus its reading is

V = IR
V = (2 . 0 )(5 . 0 )
V = 10 V

39
Physics SP025 Topic 3

Learning Outcome:
3.5 Resistors in series and parallel
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
(a) Determine the effective resistance of resistors in series and parallel.

40
Physics SP025 Topic 3

3.5 Resistors in series and parallel

3.5.1 Resistors in series
 The symbol of resistor in an electrical circuit can be shown in Figure 3.11.
R R
OR
Figure 3.11
 Consider three resistors are connected in series to the battery as shown in Figure 3.12.

R1 R2 R3

V1 V2 V3
I I
V

Figure 3.12
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Physics SP025 Topic 3
Characteristics of resistors in series
 The same current I flows through each resistor where

I = I1 = I 2 = I 3
 Assuming that the connecting wires have no resistance, the total potential difference,
V is given by
V = V1 + V 2 + V 3 (3.9)

 From the definition of resistance, thus

V1 = IR1 ;V 2 = IR 2 ;V 3 = IR3 ;V = IR eff
Substituting for V1, V2 , V3 and V in the eq. (3.10) gives
IR eff = IR1 + IR 2 + IR 3
R eff = R1 + R 2 + R 3 (3.10)

where R eff : effective (equivalen t) resistance

42
Physics SP025 Topic 3

3.5.2 Resistors in parallel

 Consider three resistors are connected in parallel to the battery as shown in Figures
3.13a and 3.13b.

I3 R3 I I3

I1 I2
V3
I2 R2 R2
V1 R V V3 R3
V2 V 1 2

I1 R1

V1 I
I I
V Figure 3.13b

Figure 3.13a
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Physics SP025 Topic 3
Characteristics of resistors in parallel
 There same potential difference, V across each resistor where

V = V1 = V 2 = V 3
 The charge is conserved, therefore the total current I in the circuit is given by

I = I1 + I 2 + I 3 (3.11)

 From the definition of resistance, thus

V V V V
I1 = ; I 2 = ; I 3 = ; I =
R1 R2 R3 Reff
Substituting for I1, I2 , I3 and I in the eq. (3.12) gives

V V V V 1 1 1 1
= + + = + + (3.12)
Reff R1 R2 R3 Reff R1 R2 R3
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Physics SP025 Topic 3

Example 3.8:
4 .0  12 

2 .0 

8 .0 V

Figure 3.14
For the circuit in Figure 3.14, calculate
a. the effective resistance of the circuit,
b. the current passes through the 12  resistor,
c. the potential difference across 4.0  resistor,
d. the power delivered by the battery.
The internal resistance of the battery may be ignored.

45
Physics SP025 Topic 3
Solution : R1 = 4 . 0  ; R 2 = 12  ; R 3 = 2 . 0  ; V = 8 . 0 V
a.
R1 R2 R12

R3 R3

V V

The resistors R1 and R2 are in series, thus R12 is

R12 = R1 + R 2 R12 = 4 . 0 + 12
R12 = 16 
Since R12 and R3 are in parallel, therefore Reff is given by
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + = +
Reff R12 R3 Reff 16 2
R eff = 1 . 78 
46
Physics SP025 Topic 3
Solution : R1 = 4 . 0  ; R 2 = 12  ; R 3 = 2 . 0  ; V = 8 . 0 V
b. Since R12 and R3 are in parallel, thus
V1 2 = V 3 = V = 8 . 0 V
Therefore the current passes through R2 is given by
V12 8 .0
I2 = I2 =
R12 16
I 2 = 0 .50 A
c. Since R1 and R2 are in series, thus
I 1 = I 2 = 0 . 50 A
Hence the potential difference across R1 is
V1 = I 1 R1 V1 = (0 . 50 )4 . 0
V1 = 2 .0 V
d. The power delivered by the battery is

P=
V2
P=
(8 .0 )
2

Reff 1.78
P = 36 . 0 W 47
Physics SP025 Topic 3
Example 3.9: 20 
A

10 
10  5 .0 

5 .0  Figure 3.15
B
For the circuit in Figure 3.15, calculate the effective resistance between the points A and B.
Solution : R = 5 . 0  ; R = 5 . 0  ; R = 10  ; R = 20  ; R = 10 
1 2 3 4 5

A A
R4 R4
R3 R3
R5 R1 R5 R12
R2
B B
48
Physics SP025 Topic 3
Solution : R1 = 5 . 0  ; R 2 = 5 . 0  ; R 3 = 10  ; R 4 = 20  ; R 5 = 10 
R1 and R2 are connected in series, thus R12 is
R12 = R1 + R 2 R1 2 = 5 . 0 + 5 . 0 = 10 
A Since R12 and R3 are connected in
R4
parallel , thus R123 is given by
1 1 1 1 1 1
R5 R123 = + = +
R123 R12 R3 R123 10 10
R123 = 5 . 0 
B
A R123 and R4 are connected in series ,
thus R1234 is given by
R5 R1234 R1 23 4 = R1 23 + R 4 R1234 = 5 . 0 + 20
R1234 = 25 
B 49
Physics SP025 Topic 3
Solution : R1 = 5 . 0  ; R 2 = 5 . 0  ; R 3 = 10  ; R 4 = 20  ; R 5 = 10 
A

Reff

B
Since R1234 and R5 are connected in parallel, therefore the effective resistance Reff
is given by
1 1 1
= +
Reff R1234 R5
1 1 1
= +
Reff 25 10
R eff = 7 . 14 
50
Physics SP025 Topic 3
Exercise 3.2 :
1. Determine the equivalent resistances of the resistors in Figures 3.16, 3.17 and 3.18.

2 .0  6 .0 
2 .0  10 
2 .0 
4 .0 
2 .0  6 .0 
8 .0 
Figure 3.16 Figure 3.17
16  20 
16 
9 .0 
Figure 3.18 6 .0 
ANS. : 0.80 ; 2.7 ; 8.0 
18 
51
Physics SP025 Topic 3

2.
1 .0  7 .1 

4 .5  3 .2 

r 12 V 5 .8 

Figure 3.19
The circuit in Figure 3.19 includes a battery with a finite internal resistance, r = 0.50 .
a. Determine the current flowing through the 7.1  and 3.2  resistors.
b. How much current flows through the battery?
c. What is the potential difference between the terminals of the battery?
(Physics,3th edition, James S. Walker, Q39, p.728)
ANS. : 1.1 A, 0.3 A; 1.4 A; 11.3 V

52
Physics SP025 Topic 3

3.
R R
ε
R R

Figure 3.20
Four identical resistors are connected to a battery as shown in Figure 3.20. When the
switch is open, the current through the battery is I0.
a. When the switch is closed, will the current through the battery increase, decrease
or stay the same? Explain.
b. Calculate the current that flows through the battery when the switch is closed, Give
your answer in terms of I0.
(Physics,3th edition, James S. Walker, Q45, p.728)
ANS. : U think
53
Physics SP025 Topic 3

Learning Outcome:
3.6 Kirchhoff’s Rules
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
(a) State and apply Kirchhoff’s Rules.
* maximum two closed circuit loops.
* * use calculator to solve the simultaneous equations.

54
Physics SP025 Topic 3

3.6 Kirchhoff’s rules

3.6.1 Kirchhoff’s first rule (junction or current rule)
 states the sum of the currents entering any junctions in a circuit must equal the
sum of the currents leaving that junction.
OR

I in = I out
(3.13)
 For example :
I1 I4
I3 I3
A B
I2 I5
Figure 3.24
I1 + I 2 = I 3 I3 = I4 + I5
I in = I out

55
Physics SP025 Topic 3

3.6.2 Kirchhoff’s second rule (loop or voltage rule)

 states in any loop, the sum of emfs is equal to the sum of the products of current
and resistance.
OR In any loop,

  =  IR (3.14)

Sign convention
 For emf, :
direction of loop direction of loop

ε ε
- +
+ε + -
−ε
56
Physics SP025 Topic 3
 For product of IR:
direction of loop direction of loop

R R
+ IR − IR
I I
3.6.3 Problem solving strategy (Kirchhoff’s Laws)
 Choose and labeling the current at each junction in the circuit given.
 Choose any one junction in the circuit and apply the Kirchhoff’s first law.
 Choose any two closed loops in the circuit and designate a direction (clockwise
OR anticlockwise) to travel around the loop in applying the Kirchhoff’s second
law.
 Solving the simultaneous equation to determine the unknown currents and
unknown variables.

57
Physics SP025 Topic 3
 For example, Consider a circuit is shown in Figure 3.21a.
E I1 ε1 R1 I1 F

Loop 1 I1
I1 ε2
I2 R2 I2
D Loop 3 A
I3 Loop 2 I 3
R3 ε3
C I3 I3 B
Figure 3.21a
⚫ At junction A or D (applying the Kirchhoff’s first law) :
I in = I out

I1 = I 2 + I 3 (1)
58
Physics SP025 Topic 3
⚫ For the closed loop (either clockwise or anticlockwise), apply the Kirchhoff’s second law.
 From Loop 1
FEDAF

E I1 ε1 R1 I1 F

Loop 1 I1
I1

I2 ε2 R2 I2
D A

Figure 3.21b

  =  IR
ε 1 + ε 2 = I 2 R 2 + I 1 R1 (2)

59
Physics SP025 Topic 3

 From Loop 2 ABCDA

I2 ε2 R2 I2
D A
I3 I3
Loop 2
ε3
C I3 R3 I3 B

Figure 3.21c

  =  IR
ε 2 − ε3 = I 2 R 2 − I 3 R3 (3)

60
Physics SP025 Topic 3
 From Loop 3 FECBF
E I1 ε1 R1 I1 F
Note:
From the calculation,
sometimes we get I1
I1
negative value of
current. This negative Loop 3
sign indicates that
the direction of the I3 I3
actual current is
R3 ε3
opposite to the
direction of the C
current drawn.
I3 I3 B
Figure 3.21d
ε 1 + ε 3 = I 3 R 3 + I 1 R1 (4)
⚫ By solving equation (1) and any two equations from the
closed loop, hence each current in the circuit can be
determined.
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Physics SP025 Topic 3

Example 3.10:

8 . 50  1 1.5 V , 2 

1 5.0 V , 4  6 .22 

15 . 1 

Figure 3.22

For the circuit in Figure 3.22, Determine the current and its direction in the circuit.

62
Physics SP025 Topic 3
Solution :
8 . 50  1 1.5 V , 2  I
I
1 5.0 V , 4  Loop 1 6 .22 

I I
15 . 1 
By applying the Kirchhoff’s 2nd law, thus

 ε =  IR
15 . 0 + 11 . 5 = 15 . 1 I + 6 . 22 I + 2 I + 8 . 50 I + 4 I
I = 0 . 74 A
(anticlockwise)

63
Physics SP025 Topic 3

Example 3.11:

3 .9  x 6 .7 
•

12 V 1 .2  9 .0 V
I1 9 .8  I I2
•
y
Figure 3.23
For the circuit in Figure 3.23, determine
a. the currents I1, I2 and I,
b. the potential difference across the 6.7  resistor,
c. the power dissipated from the 1.2  resistor.
d. the potential difference between the points x and y.
64
Physics SP025 Topic 3
Solution :
a. 3 . 9  I1 A I 2 6 .7 
I Loop 2
Loop 1
12 V 9 .0 V
1 .2 
9 . 8  I1 I I 2
B
At junction A, by using the Kirchhoff’s 1st law, thus

 
I in = I out U sec alculator
(3unknown)
I1 + I 2 = I (1 I1 + I 2 − I = 0
( a1)(b1)(c1) = ( d1)
By using the Kirchhoff’s 2nd law, )

 
From Loop 1: ε = IR 13 . 7 I 1 + 1 . 2 I = 12
12 = 3 . 9 I 1 + 1 . 2 I + 9 . 8 I 1
13 . 7 I 1 + 1 . 2 I = 12 13.7 I1 + 0 I 2 + 1.2 I = 12
(2)
( a 2)(b 2)(c 2) = ( d 2) 65
Physics SP025 Topic 3
Solution :
a. From Loop 2:
 ε =  IR
9 .0 = 6 .7 I 2 + 1 .2 I
0 I1 + 6.7 I 2 + 1.2 I = 9.0
6 .7 I 2 + 1 .2 I = 9 .0 (3)
( a3)(b3)(c3) = ( d 3)
By solving the simultaneous equations, we get
I 1 = 0 . 72 A; I 2 = 1 . 03 A; I = 1 . 75 A
b. The potential difference across the 6.7  resistor is given by
V = I2R
V = (1 .03 )6 . 7
V = 6 . 90 V
c. The power dissipated from the 1.2  resistor is
P = I 2R
P = (1 .75 ) (1 .2 )
2

P = 3 . 68 W
66
Physics SP025 Topic 3
Solution :
d. The potential difference between the points x and y is
12 V
I1 3 . 9  9 .8  I1
• • (Electron travels from y to x)
x y
Note:
V xy = V x − V y ▪ Direction of electron
= − 9 .8 I 1 + 12 − 3 .9 I 1 flows in the opposite
direction with current thus
= − 13 .7 I 1 + 12 +IR and vice versa.
= − 13 .7 (0 .72 ) + 12 ▪ Direction of electron

V xy = 2 .14 V
flows in the same direction
with emf thus + and vice
versa.

67
Physics SP025 Topic 3
Exercise 3.3 :
1. For a circuit in Figure 3.24,
ε1
I1
R1
ε2 R2
I2

R3
I Figure 3.24
Given 1= 8V, R2= 2 , R3= 3 , R1 = 1  and I = 3 A. Ignore the internal
resistance in each battery. Calculate
a. the currents I1 and I2.
b. the emf, 2.
ANS. : 1.0 A, 4.0 A; 17 V
68
Physics SP025 Topic 3

2. 4 .0 

4 .0  5 .0 V
5 .0 V

10 V 4 .0 

Figure 3.25
Determine the current in each resistor in the circuit shown in Figure 3.25.
(College Physics,6th edition, Wilson, Buffa & Lou, Q57, p.619)

ANS. : 3.75 A; 1.25 A; 1.25 A

69
Physics SP025 Topic 3

Learning Outcome:
3.7 Electrical energy and power
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
(a) Use power, ,
P = IV P=I R 2

and
V2 .(Known as power loss)
P=
R

(b) Use electrical energy, W = VIt

70
Physics SP025 Topic 3

3.7 Electrical energy and power

3.7.1 Electrical energy, E
 Consider a circuit consisting of a battery that is connected by wires to an electrical
device (such as a lamp, motor or battery being charged) as shown in Figure 3.26
where the potential different across that electrical device is V.

Electrical device
A B

I V I

Figure 3.26

71
Physics SP025 Topic 3
 A current I flows from the terminal A to the terminal B, if it flows for time t, the charge Q
which it carries from B to A is given by
Q = It
 Then the work done on this charge Q from B to A (equal to the electrical energy
supplied) is
W = QV
W = E = VIt (3.15)

 If the electrical device is passive resistor (device which convert all the electrical
energy supplied into heat), the heat dissipated H is given by

H = W = VIt
OR

H = I Rt 2 (3.16)
72
Physics SP025 Topic 3
3.7.2 Power, P
 is defined as the energy liberated per unit time in the electrical device.
 The electrical power P supplied to the electrical device is given by
W VIt
P= =
t t
 When the electric current flows through wire or passive resistor, hence the potential
difference across it is V = IR

then the electrical power can be written as P = IV (3.17)

P=I R 2 OR V2
P= (3.18)
R
 It is a scalar quantity and its unit is watts (W).

73
Physics SP025 Topic 3

Example 3.12:
r ε

Figure 3.27

In Figure 3.27, a battery has an emf of 12 V and an internal resistance of 1.0 .

Determine
a. the rate of energy transferred to electrical energy in the battery,
b. the rate of heat dissipated in the battery,
c. the amount of heat loss in the 5.0  resistor if the current flows through it for 20
minutes.

74
Physics SP025 Topic 3
Solution : ε = 12 . 0 V ; r = 1 . 0  ; R = 5 .0 
The current in the circuit is given by
ε = I (R + r ) 12 . 0 = I (5 . 0 + 1 . 0 )
I = 2 .0 A
a. The rate of energy transferred to electrical energy (power) in the
battery is P = Iε ( )(
P = 2 . 0 12 . 0 )
P = 24 W
b. The rate of heat dissipated due to the internal resistance is
P=I r P = (2 .0 ) (1 .0 )
2 2

P = 4 .0 W
( )
c. Given t = 20 60 = 1200 s
The amount of heat loss in the resistor is
H = I Rt H = (2 .0 ) (5 .0 )1200
2 2

H = 2 . 4  10 4 J
75
Physics SP025 Topic 3

3.7.3 Combination of cells

Cells in series
 Consider two cells are connected in series as shown in Figure
3.28.
ε1 r1 ε2 r2

Figure 3.28
 The total emf,  and the total internal resistance, r are given by
ε = ε1 + ε 2 (3.19)
and

Note:
r = r1 + r2 (3.20)

If one cell, e.m.f. 2 say, is turned round ‘in opposition’ to the

others, then ε = ε1 − ε 2 but the total internal resistance remains
unaltered.
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Physics SP025 Topic 3
Cells in parallel
 Consider two equal cells are connected in parallel as shown in
Figure 3.29. ε1 r1

ε1 r1

Figure 3.29
 The total emf,  and the total internal resistance, r are given by
ε = ε1 (3.16)

1 1 1
and = + (3.21)
Note: r r1 r1
If different cells are connected in parallel, there is no simple formula for the total
emf and the total internal resistance where Kirchhoff’s laws have to be used.
77
Physics SP025 Topic 3
Exercise 3.4 :
1. A wire of unknown composition has a resistance of 35.0  when immersed in the
water at 20.0 C. When the wire is placed in the boiling water, its resistance rises to
47.6 . Calculate the temperature on a hot day when the wire has a resistance of
37.8 .
(Physics,7th edition, Cutnell & Johnson, Q15, p.639)
ANS. : 37.8 C
2. a. A battery of emf 6.0 V is connected across a 10  resistor. If the potential
difference across the resistor is 5.0 V, determine
i. the current in the circuit,
ii. the internal resistance of the battery.
b. When a 1.5 V dry cell is short-circuited, a current of 3.0 A flows through the cell.
What is the internal resistance of the cell?
ANS. : 0.50 A, 2.0 ; 0.50 

78
Physics SP025 Topic 3
3. An electric toy of resistance 2.50  is operated by a dry cell of emf 1.50 V and an internal
resistance 0.25 .
a. What is the current does the toy drawn?
b. If the cell delivers a steady current for 6.00 hours, calculate the charge pass through
the toy.
c. Determine the energy was delivered to the toy.
ANS. : 0.55 A; 1.19  104 C; 16.3 kJ
4. A wire 5.0 m long and 3.0 mm in diameter has a resistance of 100 . A 15 V of potential
difference is applied across the wire. Determine
a. the current in the wire,
b. the resistivity of the wire,
c. the rate at which heat is being produced in the wire.
(College Physics,6th edition, Wilson, Buffa & Lou, Q75, p.589)
ANS. : 0.15 A; 1.40  10−4  m; 2.30 W

79
Physics SP025 Topic 3

Learning Outcome:
3.8 Potential Divider
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
 (a) Explain principle of potential divider.
 (b) Use equation of potential divider,

 R1 
V1 =  V
 R1 + R2 + .......Rn 
* maximum three resistors.

80
Physics SP025 Topic 3

3.8 Potential divider

 A potential divider produces an output voltage that is a fraction of the supply voltage V.
This is done by connecting two resistors in series as shown in Figure 3.30.
V

I I
R1 R2

V1 V2
Figure 3.30
 Since the current flowing through each resistor is the same, thus

V
I= V
Reff I=
R1 + R2
and R eff = R1 + R 2 81
Physics SP025 Topic 3
 Therefore, the potential difference (voltage) across R1 is given by
 R1 
V1 = IR1 V1 =  V (3.22)

 Similarly,  R1 + R2 
 R2 
V2 =  V (3.23)
 R1 + R2 
 Resistance R1 and R2 can be replaced by a uniform homogeneous wire as shown
in Figure 3.31.
V

I I
l1 l2 Figure 3.31
A C B
V1 V2 82
Physics SP025 Topic 3
 The total resistance, RAB in the wire is
ρl
R A B = R A C + R CB and R=
A
ρl1 ρl 2
RAB = +
A A
ρ
RAB = (l1 + l 2 )
A
 Since the current flowing through the wire is the same, thus
V
I=
RAB
V
I=
ρ
(l1 + l2 )
A

83
Physics SP025 Topic 3
 Therefore, the potential difference (voltage) across the wire with length l1 is given by
 
 V   ρl1 
V1 = IR A C V1 =    
ρ
 (l1 + l2 )   A 
A 
 l1 
V1 =  V (3.24)
 Similarly,  l1 + l2 
 l2 
V2 =  V (3.25)

Note:
 l1 + l2 
From Ohm’s law,
 ρl 
V = IR = I  
 A
V l 84
Physics SP025 Topic 3

Example 3.13:

8 000 

12 V

4 000  Vout

Figure 3.32
For the circuit in Figure 3.32,
a. calculate the output voltage.
b. If a voltmeter of resistance 4000  is connected across the output, determine the
reading of the voltmeter.

85
Physics SP025 Topic 3
Solution : R = 8000  ; R = 4000  ; V = 12 V
1 2
a. The output voltage is given by
 R2   4000 
Vout =  V Vout =  12
 R1 + R2   8000 + 4000 
V out = 4 . 0 V
b. The connection between the voltmeter and 4000  resistor is
parallel, thus the equivalent resistance is
1 1 1
= + R eq = 2000 
Req 4000 4000
Hence the new output voltage is given by
 2000 
Vout = 12
 8000 + 2000 
V out = 2 .4 V
Therefore the reading of the voltmeter is 2.4 V.
86
Physics SP025 Topic 3
Learning Outcome:
3.9 Potentiometer
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
(a) Explain principles of potentiometer and its applications.
(b) Use related equations for potentiometer,
 1 l1
=
 2 l2
(c) Determine internal resistance, r of a dry cell by using potentiometer.
(Experiment 3: Potentiometer)

87
Physics SP025 Topic 3
3.9 Potentiometer
 Consider a potentiometer circuit is shown in Figure 3.33.
V (Driver cell -accumulator)

I I
I C I
A B

G Jockey
+
Vx-
Figure 3.33
 The potentiometer is balanced when the jockey (sliding contact) is at such a position
on wire AB that there is no current through the galvanometer. Thus
Galvanometer reading = 0

88
Physics SP025 Topic 3
 When the potentiometer in balanced, the unknown voltage (potential difference
being measured) is equal to the voltage across AC.

Vx = VAC
 The applications or uses of potentiometer are to
⚫ compare the emfs of two cells.
⚫ measure an unknown emf of a cell.
⚫ measure the internal resistance of a cell.
Compare the emfs of two cells
 In this case, a potentiometer is set up as illustrated in Figure 3.34, in which AB is a wire
of uniform resistance and J is a sliding contact (jockey) onto the wire.
 An accumulator X maintains a steady current I through the wire AB.

89
Physics SP025 Topic 3
S(1)
X ε1 = V A C
ρl1
V A C = IR A C and RAC =
I l2 I A
l1
C D I  ρI 
A
I J
B
ε1 =  l1 (1)
 A
ε1
(1)
S
S(2)
ε2 G
IG = 0 ε 2 = VAD
(2)
ρl 2
Figure 3.34 V A D = IR A D and RAD =
A
 ρI 
ε 2 =  l 2 (2)
 A 90
Physics SP025 Topic 3
 By dividing eq. (1) and eq. (2) then
 ρI 
 l1
ε1  A  ε1 l1
= = (3.26)
ε2  ρI  ε2 l2
 l2
 A
Measure an unknown emf of a cell
 By using the same circuit shown in Figure 3.34, the value of unknown emf can be
determined if the cell 1 is replaced with a standard cell.
 A standard cell is one in which provides a constant and accurately known emf.

Thus the emf 2 can be calculated by using the equation (3.26).

91
Physics SP025 Topic 3
Measure the internal resistance of a cell
 Consider a potentiometer circuit as shown in Figure 3.35.

ε
S is opened:
I I ε1 = V A C
l0 I
C
A B
I J ρl0
V A C = IR A C and RAC =
A
ε1 r  ρI 
G
IG = 0 ε1 =  l0 (1)
 A
S
R
Figure 3.35
92
Physics SP025 Topic 3

ε S is closed:
V = VAD
ρl
I I V A D = IR A D and RAD =
l D I A
A B
I J
 ρI 
V =  l (2)
I1 ε1 r I1  A
G IG = 0
I1 ε1 = V + I 1 r
I1 ε1 − V V
S
I1 R r= and I1 =
I1 R
Figure 3.36  ε1 − V 
r = R (3)
 V 
93
Physics SP025 Topic 3
 By substituting eqs. (1) and (2) into the eq. (3), we get
 l0 − l 
r = R
 l 
 l0 
r =  − 1 R (4)
l 
 The value of internal resistance, r is determined by plotting the graph of 1/l
against 1/R .
⚫ Rearranging eq. (4) :
1 r1 1
=   +
l  l0  R l0

Then compare with y=m x+ c

94
Physics SP025 Topic 3

⚫ Therefore the graph is straight line as shown in Figure 3.37.

1
l

r
Gradient , m =
l0
1
l0
1
0 R
Figure 3.37

95
Physics SP025 Topic 3
Example 3.14:
Cells A and B and centre-zero galvanometer G are connected to a uniform wire OS using
jockeys X and Y as shown in 3.38.
A
The length of the uniform wire OS is 1.00 m and its
resistance is 12 .
X When OY is 75.0 cm, the galvanometer does not
O Y S show any deflection when OX= 50.0 cm. If Y touches
the end S of the wire, OX = 62.5 cm when the
galvanometer is balanced. The emf of the cell B is
B 1.0 V. Calculate
G
Figure 3.38
a. the potential difference across OY when OY = 75.0 cm,
b. the potential difference across OY when Y touches S and the
galvanometer is balanced,
c. the internal resistance of the cell A,
96
d. the emf of cell A.
Physics SP025 Topic 3
Solution : l O S = 1 . 00 m; R O S = 12  ; ε B = 1 .0 V
a. Given l O Y 1 = 0 . 75 m; l O X1 = 0 . 50 m
I1 εA I1 Since wire OS is uniform thus
 lOX1 
I1 l OY1 ROX1 =   ROS
l OX1  lOS 
X
O S  0.50 
I1 I1 Y ROX1 =  12 = 6.0 
 1.00 
εB  0.75 
and ROY1 = 
G =0 12 = 9.0 
 1.00 
When G = 0 (balance condition), thus
V O X1 = ε B and V O X1 = I 1 R O X1
I 1 R O X1 = ε B I 1 (6 . 0 ) = 1 . 0
I 1 = 0 . 17 A
97
Physics SP025 Topic 3
Solution : l O S = 1 . 00 m; R O S = 12  ; ε B = 1 . 0 V
a. Therefore the potential difference across OY is given by
VO Y 1 = I1 RO Y 1 V O Y 1 = (0 . 17 )9 . 0
V O Y 1 = 1 . 53 V
b. Given l O Y 2 = 1 . 00 m; l O X2 = 0 . 625 m
I2 εA I2 Since wire OS is uniform thus
 lOX 2 
I2 l OY2 ROX2 =   ROS
 lOS 
l OX2 X
S  0.625 
O
I2 I2 Y ROX2 =  12 = 7.5 
 1.00 
εB  1.00 
and ROY2 =  12 = 12 
G =0  1.00 

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Physics SP025 Topic 3
Solution : l O S = 1 . 00 m; R O S = 12  ; ε B = 1 .0 V
b. When G = 0 (balance condition), thus
V O X2 = ε B and V O X2 = I 2 R O X2
I 2 R O X2 = ε B I 2 (7 . 5 ) = 1 . 0
I 2 = 0 . 13 A
Therefore the potential difference across OY is given by
VOY2 = I 2 ROY2 V O Y 2 = (0 . 13 )12
V O Y 2 = 1 . 56 V
c. The emf of cell A is given by
ε A = I (R + r )
For case in the question (a) :
ε A = I 1 ( R O Y1 + r )
ε A = 0 . 17 (9 . 0 + r ) (1)

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Physics SP025 Topic 3
Solution : l O S = 1 . 00 m; R O S = 12  ; ε B = 1 .0 V
c. For case in the question (b) :
ε A = I 2 ( ROY 2 + r )
ε A = 0 . 13 (12 + r ) (2)

(1) = (2): 0 . 17 (9 . 0 + r ) = 0 . 13 (12 + r )

r = 0 . 65 
d. The emf of cell A is
ε A = 0 . 17 (9 . 0 + r )
ε A = 0 . 17 (9 . 0 + 0 . 65 )
ε A = 1 . 64 V

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Physics SP025 Topic 3
Exercise 3.5 :
1. In Figure 3.39, PQ is a uniform wire of length 1.0 m and
resistance 10.0 . 1 is an accumulator of emf 2.0 V and negligible internal
resistance. R1 is a 15  resistor and R2 is a 5.0  resistor
S1
ε1 R1 when S1 and S2 open, galvanometer G is balanced when QT
is 62.5 cm. When both S1 and S2 are closed, the balance
length is 10.0 cm. Calculate
a. the emf of cell 2.
Q T b. the internal resistance of cell 2.
P
c. the balance length QT when S2
ε2 is opened and S1 closed.
G d. the balance length QT when S1
is opened and S2 closed.

R2 Figure 3.39
S2

ANS. : 0.50 V; 7.5 ; 25.0 cm; 25.0 cm 101

Physics SP025 Topic 3
2. A potentiometer with slide-wire of length 100 cm and resistance of 5.0 , is connected to
a driver cell of emf 2.0 V and negligible internal resistance. Calculate
a. the length of the potentiometer wire needed to balance a potential difference of 1.5 V,
b. the resistance which must be connected in series with the slide-wire to give a
potential difference of 7.0 mV across the whole wire,
c. the emf  of a dry cell which is balanced by 80 cm of the wire, setup as in part (b).

ANS. : 75.0 cm; 1424 ; 5.6 mV

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Physics SP025 Topic 3

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