UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ

Lecture 10: Nuclear Instability and

Radioactivity

50 atoms/min
Tons mg/μg/pg
Discovery of X-rays in 1895

Wilhelm Röntgen

W. Röntgen receives the 1st Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901

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 Discovery of radioactivity (1896-1898)

metal screen uranium salts

with cut-out
design
photographic plate

Uranium rays ionize the air

and cause the discharge of
an electroscope
(1896 – uranium rays!)

H. Becquerel (50% of Novel Prize in 1903) ``in recognition of his extraordinary

services he has rendered by his discovery of spontaneous radioactivity´´
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Discovery of radioactivity (1896-1898)

Marie Sklodowska Curie

Notes aux Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences , April 1898

1898 – polonium and radium extracted. M. Curie calls the radiation

``radioactivity´´

Pierre Curie and Marie Curie (50%) ``in recognition of their extraordinary services
rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomenon discovered by
Professor Becquerel´´.
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1911: Nobel Prize in Chemistry

1935: Nobel Prize in Chemistry

Frédéric Joliot and Irène Joliot-Curie

Awarded jointly ``in recognition of their synthesis

of new radioactive elements´´

From natural radioactive decay of polonium 5

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Exponential decay of activity

Semi-logarithmic plot

Straight line with slope -λ

Linear plot

• Measure activity as function of time

by counting number of decays in a
sequence of short intervals Δt

• Method of measurement useful only

for half-lives not too short or too long

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2020 beam time on actinide isotopes (IGISOL)
232Th(p, X)Y, 65 MeV

Up to 9 neutrons evaporated

Pa-226 alphas with beam pulsing

Decay spectroscopy
experimental setup

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Sources of radiation contributing to average annual

dose in Europe

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Natural/background radiation exposure in Europe

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Stochastic health risk:

Radiation in daily life

Dose equivalent (Sievert)
USA – Roentgen equivalent man (rem)

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Spent reactor fuel = 10 billion billion Bq!!
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Radioactivity and the nuclear chart

Alpha-decay

β+ decay &
Electron
capture

β- decay

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Modern optical time projection studies

• Radioactive decay of 45Fe involving emission

of two protons from ground state.
• Strong emission of UV photons during avalanche
process
• Parallel wire-mesh electrodes in gaseous
medium (ionization chamber)
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Modern optical time projection studies II

2-proton emission
from 45Fe
2-proton emission
followed by βp

43Cr: β3p emission

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A variety of decay processes

• Relative intensities of competing decay modes specified by branching ratios

• Different decay modes can compete

• Partial half-life a convenient way to represent branching ratios

• HOWEVER! Activity is observed ONLY to decay with the total half life – decay law gives
the number of undecayed nuclei 
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Special case: daughter is stable (λ2=0)

60Ni (stable)

60Co (Τ1/2 = 5.272a)

Note: 60Co is used in Cobalt therapy – medical use of gamma rays to treat cancer

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What if the source contains 2 or more

radioactive nuclei?
Intercepts of both straight
lines on the vertical axis
give initial counting rates
for each component.

61Cu
64Cu

Such a mixture cannot be chemically separated! 16

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Production and decay

A1(t) ~R
for t>>t1/2 Beam off, nuclei
decay

A1 ~Rλ1t
for t<<t1/2

The number of radioactive 61Cu (3.4 hours half-life) atoms present in a Ni target
during and after bombardment with deuterons in a cyclotron.
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Secular equilibrium

𝜆1
𝑁2 𝑡 ≅ 𝑁0 (1 − 𝑒 −𝜆2 𝑡 )
𝜆2

Parent is so long-lived it decays at a constant rate.

As t becomes large, nuclei of type 2 decay at the same rate at which they are formed:
λ2N2 = λ1N1
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The 211Rn/211At generator

𝜆2 𝑁2 𝜆2
= (1 − 𝑒 − 𝜆2 −𝜆1 𝑡 )
𝜆1 𝑁1 𝜆2 − 𝜆1

211At,alpha emitter,
In such applications, the parent 211Rn is the ``cow´´
produced via decay of 211Rn
and the separation of the daughter is ``milking´´
- Targeted alpha therapy
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232Th 235U series

series 238U series

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238U series - 222Rn problem
214Pb 210Pb 206Pb

27 min 214Bi
22 y 210Bi
stable

20 min 5.0 d
218Po 214Po 210Po

3.0 min 164 μs 138 d

222Rn

3.8 d

226Ra
• 222Rn is a noble gas
1600 y • t1/2 = 3.8 d, long enough to escape into the
atmosphere
234Th 230Th
• t1/2 = 3.8 d, rel. short  rel. large λ
24 d 7.5∙104 y
234Pa  rel. large A = λN with small N
1.2 min 234U • 222Rn gas can get to the lungs  α-
238U 2.5∙105 y activities attached to sensitive cells
4.4∙109 y

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14C (t1/2 = 5730 yr, I.A. = 1×10-12)
Radio-carbon dating

Willard Frank Libby, 1948

Inst. Nuclear Studies, Univ. Of Chicago
1960 Chemistry Nobel Prize

Cosmic rays, spallation,

thermal neutrons

14N

oxidation
14CO 14C proton
14CO
2

Dating usually limited to ages of 50 kyr or younger.

``…for his method to use carbon-14 for age determination in archaeology, geology,
geophysics, and other branches of science”. 22