UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ

A variety of decay processes

• Relative intensities of competing

decay
modes specified by branching ratios

• Different decay modes can compete

• Partial half-life a convenient way to

represent branching ratios

• HOWEVER! Activity is observed ONLY

to decay with the total half life – decay
law gives the number of undecayed
nuclei J
1
 Uranium Radiation and Electrical Conductionproduced. 109
UNIVERSITY
capillary canalOF
aboutJYVÄSKYLÄ
one half millimetre in diameter,
116 Prof. E. Rutherford on Uranium Radiation and
the

L13 - Alpha Decay

absorption of water is as great as 18 per cent. of the volume
contained per hour. In finely porous rock correspondingly
larger absorptions Thickness are to ofbe Aluminium
anticipated.foil Again, "0005 cm. the tempera-
tures and pressures given in the above experimenes would be
more than :Numberreachedofby, a column
Layers Leakof per water
min. in penetrating a few
n Decay process in which alpha the
miles below of the
Aluminium
earth sfoil.
surface. scale-divisions,
Finally, particle (4He) is spontaneously
l~tio. of water
action emitted from nucleus
on silicates will be accelerated in proportion as higher
temperatures are entered with increasing 182 terrestrial depth.
Eventually, therefore, heat must be evolved 77 more "42 rapidly than
it is conducted away. 2 33 "43
n Rutherford With the investigated
above 3proviso, one may radiation from
reasonably conclude
14"6
"44 uranium
that and
the action of hot water on rock within the earth constitutes a
2012 2012

"65
first furnace
usedwhose the efficiency
terms
4
12
“alpha”
increases in 9"4 and degree
marked “beta” withinthe1899
depth of the seat of reaction below sea-level. 7
11 October

n http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14786449908621245
Brown University~
Providence, U.S.A.foil in this case was about "0005 cm. thick,
11 October

The aluminium
so that after the passage of the radiation through "002 cm. of
aluminium the intensity of the radiation is reduced to about
at 05:09

VIII.
-~ Uranium Radiation and the Electrical Conduction pro-
2 0 of its value. The addition of a thickness of "001 cm. of
duced by has
aluminium it. only
By E.a small effect in M.A.,
RUTHERFORD, cuttingB.Sc.,down]brmerly
the rate
at 05:09

leak. Science
of185t Scholar,is,Coutts
The intensity however, Trotter
again Student,
reduced to Trinity
about
Library]

College, Cambridge; McDonald 2Professor

half of its value after passing through an additional thickness of .Dhysics,
ofMcGill
"05 cm., University, Montreal ~ to 100 sheets of aluminium
which corresponds
Library]

foil.
H E remarkable
experimentsradiation emitted by uranium and itsis
T These show that the uranium radiation
by [CERN

compounds has been studied by its

complex, and that there are present at least two distinct types discoverer, Becquerel,
and the results of his
of radiationwone thatinvestigations
is very readilyonabsorbed, the nature whichandwillpro-be
by [CERN

perties of the radiation have been given

termed for convenience the ~ radiation, and the other of a in a series of papers
the Comptes
inmore penetrative Rendust.
character, He showedwhich will that the
be radiation,
termed the con-/~
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tinuously
radiation. emitted from uranium compounds, has the power
of passing
The characterthrough considerable
of the ~ radiation thicknesses
seems to of be metals
independent and
other
of the nature of the filter through which it has passed. aIt
opaque substances; it has the power of acting on
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n Rutherfordwas foundalso
photographic
electrification
thatplate
to
measured
and ofofdischarging
radiation
an equal
the same
degree.
the mass
positive
intensity
The gas
andof
and
through
tonegative
charge
the same
which
ratio
penetrative power was obtained by cutting off the a radiation
– Hypothesis
the radiation
by thin that
sheetspasses alpha
is madeparticles
of aluminium, atinfoil,
temporary orwere doubly
conductor
paper. The f~ ofcharged
electri- helium ions
radiation
city
passesandthrough
preserves all its
thepower
substancesof discharging
tried with electrification
far greater facility for
n Rutherford
athan
shortthe and
time after Thomas
the source of Royds
radiation
a radiation. For example, a plate of thin cover- proved
has been hypothesis
removed. in
The results of Becquerel showed that
glass placed over the uranium reduced the rate of leak to ~o RSntgen and uranium
1908 radiations
-of http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14786440808636511
its value; werethe very B similar
radiation, in however,
their power passedof penetrating
through it
solid
with bodies
hardly and
any producing
loss of conduction in a gas exposed to
intensity.
– Measurement
them; Some there of
butexperiments was emission
an
with essential spectrum
Edifferent
313 difference
thicknessesbetween the two
of aluminium
types of radiation. He found that uranium
seem to show, as far as the results go, that the B radiation radiation couldis
beof refracted and polarized,
an approximately homogeneouswhile nocharacter.
definite results showing
The following
table . Spectrum
X*XCommunicated
I Vgives some byof of the
Prof. the Radium
$. results
ft. Emanation.
F.R.S.for theByfl radiation
obtained
Thomson, Prof. E .
t RUT~ER~OaD,
from C. uranium
R. 1896, pp. F.R.S.,
oxide
420, :501~ and689,
- - 559, 762, 1086M.Sc.,
T. ROYDS, ; 1897, pp. Beyer
438,Fellow,
800,
University of Manchester *.
[Plates X. & XI.]
l t I E first determination of the spectrum of the radium
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Why emission of alpha particles?
n Apart from alpha decay - emission of nucleons is rare process. What is special
about alpha decay?
n Binding energy of alpha particle – on board

n Coulomb repulsion process: force proportional to Z2

– important in heavy (higher-Z) nuclei
n Spontaneous emission – energy released from nucleus
n What are conditions for this to occur?
n Define Q-value – on board
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Why emission of alpha particles?
n Coulomb repulsion process: force proportional to Z2
– important in heavy (higher-Z) nuclei
n Spontaneous emission – energy released from nucleus
n What are conditions for this to occur?
n Define Q-value – on board

A A−4
Z XN → Y
Z−2 N−2 + 24 He2
Qα = ( mX − mY − mα ) c 2
n Q > 0 for spontaneous emission, in above case only alpha emission possible
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Which nuclei are alpha emitters?

n Heyde, Basic Ideas and Concepts in Nuclear Physics, Pg. 108

UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Which nuclei are alpha emitters?
Alpha-decay

β+ decay
Electron
capture

β- decay

n In many nuclei with 150<A<190 and A>190 alpha decay is energetically possible
n Many of them do not decay by alpha emission
n Also some nuclei close to 100Sn, N=84
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Alpha Decay Kinematics
n Conservation of energy and momentum, see board notes
 Esim.
232
Th
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ T1/2 = 1.4 1010 y Q = 4.08 MeV
Alpha Decay
218
Th Energy
T1/2 = 1.0 10Systematics
-7
s Q = 9.85 MeV

n N.B. Only even-even cases shown, odd-even and odd-odd nuclei may deviate from
this behaviour, to be discussed later

Q-arvot paljon pienempiä

 UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Geiger-Nuttall Law
Ranges of a particles from Radioactive Substances.
types of rays. On the basis of this assumption the whole
613
618 Dr. H. Geiger and Mr. J. M. :Nuttall o~ the Ranges
number of ions produced by a/3 particle of high speed per em. It has been already pointed out by Rutherford* in 1907 that
of its path at atmospheric pressure is 67. possibly a relation exists between these quantities. It
appeared that the range of the a particles was greater the
n Relationship between range and “period of transformation” investigated by Geiger and
Our thanks are due to Professor Rutherford for his help smaller the period of transformation of the substance. There
Nuttall
and interest ininthese
1911experiments. were, however, several products for which this relation did
not seem to hold.
Physical Laboratories. In order to find any possible relation between the range
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14786441008637156
n The Victoria University, Manchester.
and the period we have plotted in fig. 3 the logarithms of
Fig. 3.
LVI [. The Ranges of the a particles from Various Radioactive +6
Substances and a Relation between Range and .Period of
Downloaded by [CERN Library] at 08:08 14 October 2012

~lrans]ormation. By H. GnmEa, Ph.D., and J. M.

Downloaded by [CERN Library] at 08:08 14 October 2012

NUTTALL, B Sc., University of Manchester*.

Ii. e.T byactive

is well known that the a particles from different radio-
substances are characterized by their ranges,
the distance through which they can travel in air at
atmospheric pressure. This was first pointed out by Bragg,
an(] the ranges of a number of products have been deter-
o
mined by him and his co-workers. The method applied by
Bragg to determine the ranges is well known. By means of
a set of parallel tubes placed directly above the active plate
a rays ~ith practically parallel paths were obtained. The
ionization produced by these rays was measured at different
distances in a shallow ionization vessel, and the distance in
air at which the ionization just disappeared was taken as the ~-I0 . . . . .
range of the a particles.
It was shown by Rutherford theft at the same distance
o
from the source at which the a particles fail to produce ioni-
zation they also lose their power of producing scintillations. -1~
The observation of the scintillations at different distances
from the source theretbre presents another way of deter-
mining the ranges of the a particles, and this method has /.~
frequently been made use of by Hahn and other observers. 94 .~ "6 "7 -B
It appears, however, that the scintillations method gives Logarithms of ranges.
somewhatTransformation
smaller valuesof the
for Radioactive
the ranges Emanations. 621
than the ionization
method. the transformation constants of the different products against
possible explanation of the reason why no substance has been
Great difficulty has been experienced in the determination
found emitting a rays of range shorter than 2"58 cm. For
the logarithms of the corresponding ranges for the pr,-
of the ranges of of
theu very inactivewhich
substances n 209 in the uranimn-radium series and in the actilliu,,
c.f. Bi alpha decay discovered 2002/3
ducts
example, the life substance emitteduranium
a rays and
of
thorium. In these cases, the methods
range 1 cm. would be so long, and consequently its mentioned above are
trans-
series. The data from which these curves are plotted are
not applicable. n T =1.9 x 10 years 19
given in the following table. For convenien,.'e th3 initial
formation so slow,Estimates of thewould
that its activity ranges be of thesethe
beyond products
limits 1/2
were, however, made by Bragg~,
or' detection by present methods. but more accurate values velocity of expulsion is added as well as the halt:value period
Experiments are at present
and the transformation constant. The ranges are reduced to
* C~.mmunicated by Prof.in progress with
E. Rutherford, the view of
F.R.S. 0 ~ centigrade.
determining t W.
withH. accuracy
Bragg, Phil. Mag.
the xi. p. of
ranges 754the
(1906).
products which
are yetMag.
_Phil. uncertain.
S. 6. Vol.The
22. result
No. 130.of such a complete 2investi-
Oct. 1911. S
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Alpha Decay Energy Systematics
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Coulomb Barrier
n Alpha-particle emission is a barrier penetration problem
n How does a Coulomb barrier keep a charged particle in the nucleus?

n E = kinetic + potential
n For given E, proton has less kinetic energy
n Nuclear forces on n and p “leaving” nucleus equal
n Proton has lower K.E., therefore more easily
stopped

n Theoretical description of alpha decay requires

barrier penetration probability to be calculated
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
204 Theory of Alpha Decay
Zur Q u a n t e n t h e o r i e d e s A t o m k e r n e s .
Second Series February sgzg

THE
Pol. 33, ¹. z

Von G. G a m o w ~ z. Zt. in GSttingen.

Mit 5 Abbildungen. (Eingegangen am 2. August 1928.)
PHYSICAL REVIEW
Es wird der Versuch gemacht, die Prozesse der a-Ausstrahlung auf Grund der
Wellenmeehanik n~her zu untersuchen und den experimentell festgestel]ten Zu- QUANTUM MECHANICS AND RADIOACTIVE DISINTEGRATION'
sammenhang zwisehen Zerfallskonstante und Energie der a-Partikel theoretisch zu BY R. %. GURNEY AND E. U. CQNDoN
erhalCen.
ABSTRACT

w 1. Es ist schon ~tters* die Vermutung ausgesproehen worden,
dal] im Atomkern die nichtcoulombschen Anzlehungskr~fte eine sehr
wiehtige Rolle spielen, lJber die Natur dieser KrKfte kSnnen wir viele
ttypothesen macken.
Es kSnnen die Anziehungen zwisehen den magnetischen Momenten
der einzelnen Kernbauelemente oder die yon elektriseher und magne-
fischer Polarisation herriihren-
U \
den Krafte sein.
Jedenfalls nehmen diese
Krgfte mit waehsender Ent-
fernung yore Kern sehr schnell
ab, und nur in unmittelbarer
Nahe des Kernes fiberwiegen
sie den Einflul] der C o u l o m b -
schen Kraft.
Aus Experimenten fiber
E!
Zerstreuung der ~-Strahlen
Fig. 1. k~nnen wir schliel]en, dal], far
sehwere Elemente, die An-
ziehungskr~fte bis zu einer Entfernung ~ 10 -12 em noch nicht merklich
sin& So kSnnen wir das auf Fig. 1 gezeichnete Bild far den Verlauf
der potentiellen Energie annehmen.
n R.W.Gurney and E.U.Condon, Nature
Application of quantum mechanics to a simple model of the nucleus gives the
phenomenon of radioactive disintegration. The statistical nature of the quantum
mechanics gives directly disintegration as a chance phenomenon without any special
hypothesis. )i contains a presentation of those features of quantum mechanics which
are here used and gives a simple calculation of the disintegration constant. $2 dis-
cusses the qualitative application of the model to the nucleus. $3 presents quantitative
calculations amounting to a theoretical interpretation of the Geiger-Nuttall relation
between the rate of disintegration and the energy of the emitted a-particle. In getting
this relation one arrives at the rather remarkable conclusion that the law of force
between emitted e-particle and the rest of the nucleus is substantially the same in all
the atoms even where the decay rates stand in the ratio 10". $4 calls attention to the
natural way in which the paradoxical results of Rutherford and Chadwick on the
scattering of fast O.-particles by uranium receive explanation with the model here used.
(5 discusses certain limitations inherent in the methods employed.
HE study of radioacitivity itself together with the application of it as a
working source of high speed helium nuclei and electrons has played a
fundamental role in the development of quantum physics. The scattering
experiments of Rutherford and his associates gave the picture of the nuclear
atom on which all of the success of modern atomic theory depends. Bohr's
formulation of quantum postulates to be applied to such a model was a great
step in the extension of knowledge of atomic structure and finally culminated
in 1925 in the discovery by Heisenberg and by Schrodinger of a reformula-
tion of mechanical laws which has subsequently proved extremely powerful
Condon
in handling atomic structure problems. In this development of the last
fifteen years little advance has been made on the problem of the structure of
the nucleus.
It seems, however, that the new quantum mechanics has had sufhcient
success to justify the hope that it is competent to carry out an effective
attack on the problem. The quantum mechanics has in it just those statistical
elements which would seem appropriate to an explanation of the phenomenon

G. Gamow, Z. Phys. 51, 204 (1928)

n Hier bedeutet ~'" die Entfernung, bis zu weleher experimentell nach- 122,
' An account439of this (1928)
work was first published in Nature for September 22, 1928. In a
number of the Zeitschrift fur Physik (51, 204, 1928) received here two weeks ago there appears
gewiesen ist, daft Coulombsche Anziehung allein existiert. Von ~" be-
ginnen die Abweiehungen ( r ' ist unbekannt und viel]eicht viel klelner R.W.Gurney
n asented
paper by Gamow
in
who
our letter and which and
is here treatedE.U.Condon,
in Phys.
has arrived quite independently at the same basic idea as was pre-
detail. Reports of this paper were alsogiven
at the Schenectady meeting of the National Academy of Sciences on November 20, 1928 and
als r " ) und b e i r o hat die U-Kurve ein Maximum. Far ~, ~ r o herrschen at theRev. 33,
Minneapolis 127
meeting (1929)
of the American Physical Society on December 1, 1928.
schon die Anziehungskrafte ,:or, in diesem Geblet w~irde das Teilchen 127
den Kernrest wie ein Satellit umkreisen.
 4.4. Alfahajoamisen teoriaa
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Taustalla: Geiger-Nuttall laki ja kv. mekaaninen selitys (1928)
Theory of Alpha Decay
Oletetaan, että alfa-hiukkanen on
muodostunut ytimen sisällä ja se
liikkuu tytärytimessä l=0 tilalla

Alueet:
I Alfa siroaa ytimen sisällä
II Potentiaalivalli
III Vapaa alfa-hiukkanen

Kommentteja:
Klassisesti pot. vallin vankina
n “One-body Kv. mekaaninen
model” – see Kranetodennäköisyys vallin läpäisyyn
n Three regions of interest
n Toimii molempiin
Alpha is preformed suuntiin
in nucleus (is this (alfahajoaminen vs. -sieppaus)
n r < a, classically allowed region
reasonable?) n a < r < b, potential barrier B > Q
n Alpha moves in spherical region defined n r > b, classically permitted outside
by daughter nucleus barrier
Hajoamisvakio voidaan kirjoittaa muodossa = fP
n Q is disintegration energy
n Radius a, sum of alpha and daughter radii
missä n Finite probability alpha can tunnel
n r < a, inside nucleus throughRbarrier
f on taajuus, jolla alfa löytyy säteellä
n More on board
P on vallin läpäisy todennäköisyys
 UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
λ = f.p Theory of Alpha Decay
p = e−2G
2m 2Z D e 2 ( Qα Qα " Qα % +
G= *arccos − $1− ' -
 Qα 4πε 0 *)
2
B B# B & -,

n Example: 226Th
n Qalpha = 6.452 MeV
n B = 26.53 MeV
n G ≈ 27.33
n T1/2 ≈ 60 seconds
n Actual 1854 seconds

n Reproduces trend to within 1-2 orders over 20 orders of magnitude

n Sensitivity to radius
n Changing radius by 4% gives factor of 5 in half-life!
n Sensitivity means method can be used to determine r
n How can we improve our model? What else should we take into account?
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Angular Momentum and Parity
n Simple model neglects possible change in spin and parity between initial and
final state
n Initial state spin Ii
n Final state spin If
n Angular momentum (spin) difference must be removed by the alpha particle
n Range of values between Ii+If to | Ii-If |
n Alpha particle has two protons and two neutrons with spins coupled to zero
n Therefore, total angular momentum is purely orbital, lα
n Parity change associated with emission: lα
(−1)
n Leads to angular momentum selection rule in alpha decay:
n If initial and final parities are the same, lα must be even
n If initial and final parities are the different, lα must be odd
kutila i voiUNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
populoida useita lopputiloja f
Angular Momentum and Parity - Example
riippuva
r)
n Additional centrifugal barrier
ytyy kuin l(l+1)
n Decay to excited states
ta affected in two ways
n Additional l(l+1) term
n Reduced Q value
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Angular Momentum and Parity - Example

n Note decay into rotational band, structural differences, 2- and 3+ states

UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Deformation Effects

n Emission enhanced from poles

n Angular distribution measurement
n Nuclear spin must be aligned
n Low temperature (0.01K)
n High magnetic field
n NICOLE expt. At CERN
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Deformation Effects