UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ

L15+L16: Electromagnetic Transitions

n Gamma-Ray Transitions
n Internal Conversion
n Gamma-Ray and Conversion Electron Spectroscopy
 meeting of the Société francaise de physique on May 18, 1900, he demonstrated that
intercepted
radium emitsbyrays
thethat
aluminium
areDiscovery foil no longer
non-deviable was symmetrically
and extremely penetrating.equivalent
These newtorays, the
Vol. 1 (1999)
non-intercepted Villard and
half-beam. It had of undergone
Gamma Rays an apparent refraction that 375
was
said Villard, were different from the radium rays observed so far. He went on to
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
accompanied
suggest
radiation
that the
The radiation
by extremely
formed
a strong diffuse
ofa fan penetrating
radioactive
of rays,
scattering.
bodies
the
rays, According by
discovered
is composed
symmetry axis
to him,
Villard,
of which
of
werethe
two distinct
was
transmitted
indeed
groups:atokind
normal one,
the
of consisting
X rays. Furthermore, as he pointed by out, the readily absorbed radium rays ("
surface
rays)
phenomenon
strahlen)
of
were
composed
of
the cathode
metal
analogous
the other one,for whose
previously
Duringrays of
the (!
cathode
rays
course
to
rays,
foil.

having
ofhad
the
nature
observed
is
Villard
rays,by
various
his already
deviable
is
pointed
non-deviable
as yet
albeit
work, Villard
J.with
Gamma Rays
a magnetic
out
cathode
unknown,
J. penetrating
that

powers
is
a muchWilhelm
Thomson,
noticedbythat
field
he
rays
and
had
non-deviable
thinner foil.
Wien,
through
in almost
by an
observed
(positive ions
electric
the
or
and apparently
and and
metals
every
others.
field;
same
Kanal-
The
opaque
experiment
deviable 18 rays) been shown Becquerel to be identical to a
thebodies.
photographic plate revealed traces of a non-refracted beam, which obviously
n Gamma rays discovered by Paul Villard in 1900
stream of electrons.
had been propagating
Villard concluded
in a straight
that
line.
‘‘on retrouverait ainsi les trois ray- 368 Leif Gerward Phys Perspect.
onnements des tubes de Crookes,’’ 16
i.e., the This
three beam
kinds of was superimposed
radiation on the
(ions, electrons
Thus, Becquerel
refracted beam, still hesitated
making it difficultto toaccept a third
interpret the distinct kind Next,
photographs. of radiation.
Villard The
tried Biographical Sketch1
n
to
He was trying to study the reflection and refraction
and X rays) known from experiments with cathode-ray tubes were all present
nature of the
deflect the non-refracted
non-deviable rays rays in wasa unknown
magnetic at thisbuttime,
field, and
wereaccording
in
to
radium rays. Thus, from the beginning, Villard gave a correctthey
interpretationunaffected.
of the Paul Villard was born in 1860 in a village near Lyon, France. In 1881 he entered
of cathode rays and “deviable rays from radium”
Becquerel there
Moreover,
three these were
components rays just penetrating
were
of radium
two types of
rays. Unfortunately,
radiation:
enough tohis deviable
affect and non-deviable
the photographic
discovery was largely over-plate the École Normale Supérieure in Paris. After his agrégation, which gave him the
license to teach at any secondary school financed by the government, Villard taught
radiation,
protected the latter admittedly with an unusually large range of penetrating
looked by byhisseveral layers of black paper as well as an aluminium foil. The rays
contempories. at various lycées in the province, and finally at the Lycée of Montpellier. Here he
n Found evidence (photographic plates) for rays which
powers.
were evenInable
a review paper,a published
to traverse 0.2-mm thick in Nature
lead foilonwhen
February
placed 21,in1901, Becquerel
the beam. Said established contact with the local university. He developed a strong predilection for
mentioned
Villard: Villard’s results only briefly:
were not possible to deviate:
Impact
I might add that recently Mr. Villard has proved the existence in the radium
Iradiation
think that of this
veryeffect is due to
penetrating raysthewhich
presence
are of
notnon-deviable rays, which
capable of deviation. 19 are less
Villard performed
absorbent his radium
than the ones [" experiments
rays] that have under the described
been watchful eyes
by Mr.of Becquerel.
Curie. . . . In
It
fact, both from
follows men reported
the factsonpresented
transmission above experiments
that the with radium rays
non-deviable radiation
emittedat the
by
This is a remarkably modest announcement of Villard’s discovery of a new type of
April
radium9, 1900, session
contain someof the
veryAcadémie
penetrating des Sciences. Becquerel found it necessary to
radiation with extraordinary properties. radiations,
The Curiescapable
seemedoftotraversing metal
treat Villard’s
repeat Villard’s
foils and experiment, and he delivered14 his comments three weeks later at the
findings withaffecting a photographic
more interest. As mentioned plate. above, they placed a stronger radium
April 30 meeting. He disputed the apparent refraction of ! rays. Regarding the very
n source at his disposal, thus enabling him to produce more detailed and reliable
Becquerel at first refused to believe the results:
penetrating rays, he simply denied their presence. He argued that
observations.
The Curies kindlyTheyplaced
also supported Villard’sradium
a much stronger interpretation
sample of at the penetrating
Villard’s raysand
disposal, as
a kind
three of X rays.
the weeks laterof
existence he these
presented
rays new
could andnotmore detailed
possibly results
have on theattention
escaped radium rays to
in the
Contrary
Académieto des
theexperiments common belief,
Sciences. His Villard
comparativedid not introduce
study of the the designation
penetrating 17 ‘‘gamma
power of !
of Mr. and Mrs. Curie, nor in my own experiments. . . .
rays.’’and
rays It ishischaracteristic
new type ofofrays, the weak
‘‘Sur le contemporary
rayonnementinterest in thesewas
du radium,’’ penetrating
read by
rays that they
Academy wentJules
unnamed for thenearly three meeting
years. The name 30,gamma rays was
This must member
be considered Violle
a very atnegative Monday
statement. on April
Gradually, 1900.
however, Becquerel
n Eventually the results became accepted, and the
probably
had Villard’s invented
to accept
by Rutherford,
experimental arrangement
the experimental
but I have
facts. Atwas
been the
theabout
Academy
unable
sameto as
session
determine
oninJune
where
his first they
radium
11, 1900, he
are explicitly named. Rutherford still used the descriptive
experiment but without the aluminium foil. The radiation from the radium sample form ‘‘rays nondeviable
term “gamma ray” was first used by Rutherford in
said:
in character,
was collimated butbyofa very
long20great
groovepenetrating
in a lead blockpower’’
andinsent
the consecutively
January 1903through
issue of two
the
Philosophical
1903: Magazine, but in the subsequent February issue,
photographic plates stacked on top of each other. The deviable rays were bent in# the trio !, " and
aappeared:
magnetic field before hitting the photographic plates.

Radium gives out three distinct types of radiation:

1. The ! rays, which are very easily absorbed by thin layers of matter, and which
give rise to the greater portion of the ionization of the gas observed under the
usual experimental conditions.
2. The " rays, which consist of negatively charged particles projected with high Fig. 1. Paul Villard. (Courtesy of the Archi!es de l’Académie des Sciences, 23, Quai de Conti, 75006
Paris, France.)
velocity, and which are similar in all respects to cathode rays produced in a
vacuum-tube. Paul Villard
3. The # rays, which are non-deviable by a magnetic field, and which are of a
very penetrating character.21

Marie Curie noted in her doctoral thesis that ‘‘one can distinguish between three
types of radiation, which I will denote by the letters !, " and #, following the
notation of Rutherford.’’22
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Electromagnetic Transitions
n α- and β-decay often populate excited states in daughter nucleus
n Also populate excited states through nuclear reactions
n Usually rapid (max. ≈nanosecond) decay to ground state
n (Mainly) Two competing electromagnetic processes:
– Emission of gamma-rays
– Internal Conversion
n Third process Internal Pair Formation (not dealt with here)

I. AHMAD, R. R. CHASMAN, AND P. R. FIELDS

255
FIG. 6. " decay scheme of Md, shown on the right side, and
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Electromagnetic Transitions
n Gamma-ray spectroscopy possibly most powerful technique in
Nuclear Structure studies:
– Discrete line spectra
– Energy of gamma-ray essentially same as transition energy
– Can obtain information on spin and parity of nuclear states
– Generally little or no absorption problems (later lectures)

n As we will see, conversion electron spectroscopy can be more

challenging, but is also a very powerful tool
n Usually assume that: Eγ=Ei-Ef, Ei, Ef energies of initial and final
states
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Typical Gamma-Ray Spectra
600

Kα
208 48 254
Pb( Ca,2n) No @ 219 MeV
500 JUROGAM, RITU and GREAT

400

+
8 →6

10 →8
Counts / keV

+
12 →10
+
Kβ

+
300

14 →12
+

+
+

+
6 →4

16 →14
+
200

18 →16
+

+
20 →18
+
22 →20
+

+
24 →22
+

+
100

+
0
100 200 300 400 500 600
Energy (keV)
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Typical Gamma-Ray Spectra
+
(14 )
(191)
(393) (13 – )
202.4(10)
(12 + ) 373.6(3)

184.4
{ 185.7
171.0(9)
–
60 362.2(4) (11 )
191.1(18)
+ 332.3(3)
(10 )
140.6(26)
–
325.6(7) (9 )
184.4(33)

191.1
197.0
281.0(3)
(8 + )
U X-Rays + 97.5

97.5(22)
(7 – )
283.6(18)

168.7
185.7(44) 221.7(4)
(6 + )

171.0
(5 – )
40 233.3(52) 197.0(41)
Counts / 0.5 keV

(4 + )

233.3
Pb X-Rays

168.7(100)
(2 + )
0+
(80.5)(129)

226
140.6

92
U
U X-Rays

283.6
20

(338,350)
(212)
202.4
(80.5)

221.7

281.0

(314)

332.3
325.6

373.6
362.2

393
0
50 150 250 350
Energy(keV)
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Basic Concepts
n Decay gamma-ray energies typically from keV to ~10 MeV

hc 2π c
Eγ = hν = =
λ λ
c = 197.327MeV. fm

n Typical wavelengths thus 105 – 100fm

n Compare
– Visible light 400-700 nm
– Nucleus 1-10 fm
– Atom 30000-300000 fm
n N.B. Inconsistencies in nomenclature:
– Z=102 (nobelium) K-X Rays (120-150 keV)
– X-rays from Synchrotron Sources – e.g. 1 MeV
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Energetics
n Stated earlier: Usually assume that: Eγ=Ei-Ef, Ei, Ef energies of
initial and final states
n Is this valid? What about recoil energy (c.f. alpha decay)?
n Energetics on board
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Classical Electromagnetic Radiation
n Clearly emission of radiation from nucleus needs quantum treatment
n Some understanding can be gained from looking at classical picture
n Constant distributions of charges and currents give static electric and
magnetic fields – field analysed in terms of multipole moments of
distribution – dipole, quadrupole, etc
n Remember earlier discussion of electric quadrupole and magnetic dipole
moments
n If charge and current distributions vary over time (sinusoidal with
frequency ω) – a radiation field is produced
n Radiation field can be analysed in terms of multipole character
n Consider dipole field
n (See Krane, pgs. 328-333)
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Classical Electromagnetic Radiation
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Classical Electromagnetic Radiation
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ

Angular Distribution
Classical electromagnetic radiation

Electric dipole
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Classical Electromagnetic Radiation
n Parity of radiation field:
L+1
π ( ML ) = (−1)
L
π ( EL ) = (−1)
n Radiated Power (Energy/Unit Time) P:
2 L+2
2 ( L +1) c %ω ( 2
P (σ L ) = 2 ' * !"m (σ L )#$
ε 0 L !"( 2L +1)!!#$ & c )
n See notes
n What about the quantum mechanical treatment?
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Quantum Treatment
n Replace multipole moments by multipole operators
– Operator changes nucleus from initial state ψi to final state ψf
– Simultaneously creates a photon of correct energy, parity and multipole order
n Decay probability governed by matrix element of multipole
operator m(σL):

m fi (σ L ) = ∫ ψ *f m (σ L ) ψi dv
– Integrated over volume of nucleus
– c.f. Fermi’s Golden Rule
n Energy radiated per unit time in photons each with energy Eγ= ħω
(i.e. probability of emission, i.e. decay constant):
2 L+1
P (σ L ) 2 ( L +1) % Eγ ( 2
λ (σ L ) = = 2 ' * !"m fi (σ L )#$
ω ε 0 L !"( 2L +1)!!#$ & c )
 EL tai ML
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ (2 + 1) = (2 + 1)(2 1) 3 1
( ) on (ajallisesti vaihtelevan) sähköisen tai magn. multipolimomentin
Calculation of Transition Rates
amplitudi (yleistetty multipolimomentti )
[ ] = energia/aika

2 L+1
P (σ L ) 2 ( L +1)
6.3 Siirtyminen kvanttimekaniikkaan % Eγ ( 2
λ (σ L”Kvantisoidaan
) = säteilyn lähde”= 2 ' * !"m fi (σ L )#$
ω ε 0 L !"(joka2Lmuuntaa
Multipolimomentti multipolioperaattori,
& c )
)!!#$alkutilasta
+1ytimen
lopputilaan ja luo tietyn energian, pariteetin ja multipoliasteen omaavan fotonin

Matriisielementti: 2
!"m fi (σ L )#$ = B (σ L )
( )= ( )

n B(σL) – reduced transition probability

Hajoamisvakio (siirtymätodennäköisyys)
todennäköisyys aikayksikköä kohden:
= energian omaavan fotonin emission

n Calculation of matrix element

( ) 2( requires
+ 1) wavefunctions of initial and
( )= = [ ( )]
[(2 + 1) ]
final state – complicated
n Make a simplification – assume
Tarvitaan alku- ja lopputilojen ( transition due to single proton
) aaltofunktiot
moving between two shell-model states:
Oletetaan yksihiukkasviritys
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Calculation of Transition Rates
n Approximation made by Victor Weisskopf:
2
e ! 3R L $
2
Bsp ( EL ) = # &
4π " L + 3 %
2
!  $
Bsp ( ML ) = 10 ## && Bsp ( EL )
" m p cR %

n R - nuclear radius (R=R0×A1/3), mp - mass of proton

n Get following expressions:
2 2
e ! 3 $ 2L 2 L/3
Bsp ( EL ) = # & ( R0 ) A
4π " L + 3 %
2
10 ! e $ ! 3 $
2
2 L−2 (2 L−2)/3
Bsp ( ML ) = ## && # & ( 0)
R A
π " 2m p c % " L + 3 %
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Weisskopf Estimates

n Transition rates in s-1,Eγ in MeV, R0=1.2 fm

n Notes:
– Increase in multipole order of one unit gives slower transition by factor about 105
– Electric transitions faster than magnetic transitions for given L
– High energy gamma ray transitions faster
n If transition rate much lower than Weisskopf estimate:
– Hindered transition (could be big structural difference between initial and final
state)
n If transition rate much faster than Weisskopf estimate:
– “Collective” transition (many more than one nucleon involved in transition)
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Weisskopf Estimates
 Multipolimomentti multipolioperaattori, joka muuntaa ytimen alkutilasta
lopputilaan ja luo tietyn energian, pariteetin ja multipoliasteen omaavan fotonin
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Matriisielementti:

(
Selection Rules
)= ( )

n Initial and final states have definite angular momentum and parity
Hajoamisvakio (siirtymätodennäköisyys) = energian omaavan fotonin emission
Photon must
n todennäköisyys connect
aikayksikköä kohden: the two and conserve parity and angular momentum

n Photons carry (exact ) integer

2( + 1) number of angular momentum units (ħ) and
( )= = [ ( )]
have definite parity [(2 + 1) ]

n Gives rise to selection rules (c.f. alpha decay)

Tarvitaan alku- ja lopputilojen ( ) aaltofunktiot
n N.B. Photon carries 1 unit of angular momentum (important consequences)
Oletetaan yksihiukkasviritys

6.4 Impulssimomentin ja pariteetin valintasäännöt

Sähkömagneettinen säteily ”siirtää” energiaa ja impulssimomenttia. Ii − I f ≤ L ≤ Ii + I f
Kvantisointi fotonilla energia, impulssimomentti ja pariteetti L+1
Δπ ( ML ) = (−1)
L L L+1
2 siirtymä fotonin impulssimomentti L, pariteetti (-1) tai (-1)
L
Siirtymä: i f Δπ ( EL ) = (−1)

= +

+ ( 0)
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Selection Rules

Radiation Name l=ΔI Δπ

Type
E1 electric dipole 1 yes
M1 magnetic dipole 1 no
E2 electric quadrupole 2 no
M2 magnetic quadrupole 2 yes
E3 electric octupole 3 yes
M3 magnetic octupole 3 no
E4 electric hexadecapole 4 no
M4 magnetic hexadecapole 4 yes
 L=1
sisällä vaihtelisi ei säteilyä. Vain
Jos Ii=If, niin alhaisin multipoli on L=1
UNIVERSITY
Muistisääntö ”EEE”= Ei OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
pariteetin muutosta: Even Electric

Selection Rules
L = 1 (dipoli),2 (kvadrupoli),3 (oktupoli),4 (heksadekapoli)

Käytännössä:
Esim. 2
Esim. 1 Esim. Esim. 3 Esim. 4 Esim. 5
Useita eri siirtymälaatuja:
M1, E2, M3, E4 L = 1, 2, 3, 4 ja = -1 ”yes” |2 0| 2+0 |1 0| 1+0 L=0
L=1,2,3,4 ja = +1 ”no” Siirtymä: E1, M2, E3 tai M4 L=2 ja = +1 ”no” L=1 ja = -1 ”yes” (
Weisskopf-arviot: (M1)
Siirtymä: M1, /E2,(E2) / E4
M3 tai (M3) / (E4) Vain E2 mahdollinen Vain E1 mahdollinen L= 1
1 / 10-3 / 10-10 / 10-13 M1,

Eli M1 ja E2 dominoivat M1/E2 sekoitus (muut voi unohtaa)

Esim.
Useita eri siirtymälaatuja: E1, M2, E3, M4
n Examples: see notes Esim. 5
Weisskopf-arviot: (E1) Esim./ 3 (M2) / (E3) / (M4)Esim. 4
n In practice, lowest 1 / multipolarities
10-7 / 10-10 / 10-17 dominate (Weisskopf estimates) L=0 monopolisiirtymä ei voi tapa
|2 0| 2+0 |1 0| 1+0 ( sisäinen konversio)
More examples
n Käytännössä vain E1. in notes L=2 ja = +1 ”no” L=1 ja = -1 ”yes” L= 1, 2, 3, 4 ja = +1 ”no”
Vain E2 mahdollinen Vain E1 mahdollinen M1, E2, M3, E4 mahdollisia

Esim.

Ei ole olemassa monopolisiirtymää (L=0), jossa emittoituu

fotoni (koska fotoni vie aina mennessään
Esim. 5 L > 0)
Esim.Klassisesti
4 monopoli on sähköinen varaus joka ei vaihtele
ajan funktionaWhat about
sisäinen this case?L=0 monopolisiirtymä ei voi tapahtua fotonin emission kautta
konversio
|1 0| 1+0 ( sisäinen konversio)
L=1 ja = -1 ”yes” L= 1, 2, 3, 4 ja = +1 ”no”
Vain E1 mahdollinen M1, E2, M3, E4 mahdollisia
 UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ
Examples: Weisskopf Estimates

3936.7

825.45
(13/2–) 3936.74
23/2(+) 3812.25

245.73
1132.46
19/2+ 2986.79

15/2+ 2741.05

13/2+ 1608.58

13/2+ T1/2=0.27 ns

9/2– 0
$
Yrast band

$ Eγ(2+->0+) = 86.8 keV 209

83Bi

$
 72 Nuclear instability Chap. 3

360
UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ B (E2) / B (E2) sp
98•
340

320

Transition 300

280

Rates 260

92T

80

60 44

J86
40

20
38 58 82
p

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
Mass number A
Figure 3.4 Ratios of reduced decay probabilities B(E2) to single-particle estimates based on
Equation (3.8) for 2± states in even—even nuclei, which are stable below A = 210. Numbers on
the figure indicate Z values for isotope sequences connected by solid lines. The large increases
correspond to quadrupole-deformed nuclei in the lanthanide (150 <A < 190) and actinide
(A > 230) regions. From Bohr and Mottleson (1975). Reproduced by permission of World
Scientific Publishing Co. Pte Ltd.