Heat Transfer Engineering

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uhte20

A Critical Review on Mechanical Heat Switches for

Engineering and Space Applications

Banka Raghu Ram, Vinit Malik, Bukke Kiran Naik & Kishore Singh Patel

To cite this article: Banka Raghu Ram, Vinit Malik, Bukke Kiran Naik & Kishore Singh Patel
(2022): A Critical Review on Mechanical Heat Switches for Engineering and Space Applications,
Heat Transfer Engineering, DOI: 10.1080/01457632.2022.2148348

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/01457632.2022.2148348

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A Critical Review on Mechanical Heat Switches for Engineering and Space Applications

Banka Raghu Rama, Vinit Malika,b, Bukke Kiran Naika,b, and Kishore Singh Patela*

a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Rourkela,

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Odisha, India

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b
Sustainable Thermal Energy Systems Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

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National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Rourkela, Odisha, India
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*CONTACT: Assistant Professor Kishore Singh Patel, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Rourkela, Odisha – 769008, India. E-mail:

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patelks@nitrkl.ac.in
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Abstract

Thermal switches are typically used to regulate the heat flow between two surfaces. They are

broadly categorized as mechanical, gas-gap, superconducting, and magneto-resistive heat

switches. Among these, the mechanical heat switches can be used in a wide temperature

range of 5 K - 400 K. Based on different actuation methods, the mechanical heat switches can

be further subclassified in piezoelectric actuated, paraffin wax, differential thermal

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expansion, and shape memory alloy type of heat switches. This work presents a broad

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overview of different kinds of mechanical heat switches and compares their performances as

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well as physical parameters. The review suggests that differential thermal expansion types

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can enforce approximately 30 times extra contact force, whereas the shape memory heat
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switches have the highest switching ratio among the other types of mechanical heat switches.

Moreover, the paraffin wax types of heat switches have minimum response time, while the
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piezo-electric types are relatively poor in performance due to the lesser contact area.
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Introduction
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The heat switches are the key components of many spaces and cryogenic systems [1]. They
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primarily control the heat flow between two contact surfaces [2]. Theoretically, the heat switches
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facilitate complete thermal isolation in the OFF condition, while in the ON condition, they allow
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maximum heat to be transferred between the two surfaces [1-5]. Most of the thermal/heat switches

that function in space-grade temperature ranges are passively actuated devices that can self-regulate

their conductance without the assistance of any controller inputs [3]. In principle, the heat switches

thermally disconnect the two surfaces when no cooling/heating is required and act as thermal

resistance [6]. In short, thermal switches are devices that can switch between good thermal

conductors and good thermal insulators as per the demand [7]. When placed in a heat-conduction

2
path between the heat source and heat sink or radiator, the regulation of thermal conductance helps

in maintaining the temperature of the components without the need for any external active cooling

or heating medium [8]. Thus, they reduce heat loads of the cooling/heating systems by thermally

disconnecting the components.

Mechanical (MHS), gas-gap (GGHS), superconducting (SCHS), and magneto-resistive

(MRHS) heat switches are the broad classifications of heat switches [1, 3-8]. The switching ratio of

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MHS are determined by the contact force between two surfaces, but the switching ratio of a GGHS

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is determined by the level of vacuum formed between the two interlocking components [9]. The

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phase transition in an SCHS reduces thermal conductivity [10,11], whereas, in an MRHS, the

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introduction of an external magnetic field modulates the electronic contribution of thermal
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conductivity [12], and liquid crystal is used to transfer heat between two surfaces; the role of heat

transfer can be adjusted by adjusting the strength of the electric field in liquid crystal thermal
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switch [13]. Thus, modulating the overall heat transfer rate in the presence of the magnetic field.

The thermal switch acts as an on/off mechanism for heat transfer between the hot and cold
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reservoirs by changing the thermal conductivity from the OFF state (Koff) when the switch is open
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to a larger value of ON thermal conductivity (Kon) state when the switch is closed [1]. The selection
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criteria, desired properties, operating range, and type of actuation method of different heat switches

are discussed as follows,

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Selection criteria

The essential criteria in the selection of heat switches are switching ratio, actuation method, size,

weight, structural soundness, reliability, and time of actuation as per their use in both space and

cryogenic applications [13-15].

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Desired properties

The primary characteristic of heat switches is that the thermal conductivity of heat switches should

be theoretically zero during the off position [14]. However, a good heat switch should have a

minimum thermal conductivity of around 1W/K in its Kon position and can be operated with

minimum actuation power [16]. Moreover, the switching ratio should be high (>100). The other

desired properties are design compactness (length 5 cm), noiseless operations, lightweight, with

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no corrosion, and few moving components [17].

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Operating temperature range-based classifications of heat switches

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The previously discussed categorization of MHS, GGHS, SCHS, and MRHS is based on their

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functioning. However, these heat switches can also be subclassified in several other ways. One of
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the major classifications is based on their operating temperature range. For example, the MHS can

operate in both cryogenic temperature and normal/ room temperature range. The classifications of
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MHS based on their operating range can be seen in Figure 1(a). As can be seen, temperature range-

based classification starts from absolute zero (0 K) to 123 K for the low/cryogenic temperature
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range, and normal temperature ranges cover above 123 K [18]. The term cryogenics is derived from
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the Greek words "kryos" (frost) and "genics" (to produce). The term cryogenics means the
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production and behavior of the material at ultra-low temperatures. The temperature range-based

classification helps identify the appropriate heat switches which can be operated in the chosen
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temperature range as different material shows their transition from gas to liquid and liquid to solid

state at different temperatures.

Actuation method-based classification

The heat switches can also be subclassified based on their method of actuation. This includes the

active and passive modes of actuations (Figure 1(b)). The passively actuated devices are the ones

4
that can self-actuate and regulate their conductance instead of the requirement of any external

controller inputs [19]. Usually, the Kon to Koff state actuation of the passive heat switches are

triggered because of the response heat switches to temperature change in the specified range. In

contrast to this, the actively actuated heat switches need an external sensor and external actuation

power to actuate the heat switch at a specific temperature range [20-22]. The electrical signal is the

commonly used external input power for such types of heat switches [21]. An external actuation

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mechanism can either be driven with the help of a motor or manually to enable actuation. The

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required forces to establish the mechanical contact between the two surfaces can also be driven

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with the help of hydraulic/pneumatic operations, where the employed working fluid could be either

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liquid helium or compressed gas for the low temperature’s operations [23]. As same as heat
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switches, the MHS can also be broadly classified as passively actuated, and actively actuated is

represented in Figure 1(c).

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In this study, a state-of-art review on MHS is presented. Specifically, the work covers the

operating principle, advantages/disadvantages, and design parameters/guidelines of different MHS

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such as piezoelectric actuated (PZA) heat switches, paraffin wax (PFW) heat switches, shape
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memory alloy (SMA) heat switches, and differential thermal expansion (DTE) heat switches. This
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review further discusses about MHS's applicability in various engineering/space applications and

compares their performances [20].

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The detailed structure of this review paper is portrayed as follows, (a) describes about

definitions and broad classifications of different types of heat switches; (b) details about selection

criteria, desired properties, operating temperature range, actuation methods, and classifications in

heat switches [21]; (c) hysteresis, advantages, limitations, various applications, and performance

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indices of MHS [22]; (d) provides a glance on working principle, performance criterion, material

characterization and critical design features of individual MHS [23].

Mechanical Heat Switches

MHS controls heat flow by setting a mechanism that can thermally connect and disconnect the two

surfaces [18-23]. The contact between two metallic or non-metallic surfaces can be controlled

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using the active/passive mode of actuation. In MHS, a moveable surface thermally connects and

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disconnects the two parts. The thermal switches turn into the ON condition when the two surfaces

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are thermally contacted using some movable mechanism [22]. Similarly, the OFF state prevails

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when the surfaces are mechanically disconnected. The contact between two highly conductive

surfaces demands a high contact force or pressure, which should be periodically connected and
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disconnected during the operation [15]. This high contact force will also exert greater mechanical
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stresses on every component of MHS. Therefore, a tougher and thus more hefty construction is

required than for a GGHS or SCHS. The MHS in contrast to the GGHS is simple to manufacture
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and can be turned to actuate/operate at desired temperature range [16].

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Advantages of Mechanical Heat Switches

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The advantages of MHS over other heat switches are that there is negligible conductivity in their
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off position [19]. They can operate in both cryogenics and room/normal temperature range, and
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their conductivity cut-off point can easily be reset in any desired temperature range. Moreover, the

MHS is less difficult to manufacture, more versatile, and heat leakage is minimal in the off state

[20]. The MHS also has a fast response and short switching time between the ON to OFF state.

Most of the MHS are corrosion-proof and have a nearly zero creep susceptibility [20]. This means

the solid material can resist the tendency of a material to slowly deform over a long period of

stress. Some of the actively controlled MHS come with extra sensors and actuator components that

6
reduce the overall complexity of the system and ensure a high heat transfer ratio (switching ratio)

during the conductivity open and closed states. In addition, the MHS has an ideal strength-to-

weight ratio, clean, spark-free, and quite operational qualities [22-24]. The zero-gravity setup of

MHS with controllable acceleration device is cheap and they occupy less floor space. They also

have high heat conductivity in the closed state because of the strong contact pressures, great

operational reliability, efficiency, and ability to perform in repetitive cycles [24].

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Limitations/disadvantages of Mechanical Heat Switches

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The major disadvantage of MHS over the other heat switches are that they have moving parts, so

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the chances of wear and tear are high, and it requires regular maintenance [24]. Some MHS require

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a considerable external power supply to exert the required contact force in their Kon position. The
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MHS used in NASA’s Mars and Moon mission requires a vacuum environment [4], and it cannot

operate in an extremely low-temperature (milli-Kelvin) range.

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Application of Mechanical Heat Switches

The thermal switches or heat switches were invented in the early 1960s, primarily for the use on
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Mariner lunar mission [6]. Since then, the MHS has been employed in various space and high-end
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technical applications. Thermal switches have long been used successfully in single-stage magnetic
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freezers and have recently been developed for multi-stage demagnetization refrigerators [15]. Some

other examples of popular MHS applications are as follows: the DTE devices are employed in the
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James Webb space telescope [16], and the heat pipes based on SMA heat switches are used in lunar

and Mars missions to disperse heat from the cryogenic tank into space during the night cycle and

provide insulation during the day cycle [17]. Similarly, a PFW heat switch was installed on the

spirit and opportunity Mars rover in the United States, to control the heat of the battery system [23].

The propulsive small expendable deployer system uses PFW-based thermal switch technology [24].

7
The jet propulsion laboratory Mars 03 Rover uses a thermal switch as a standard [24]. The SMA

heat switch-based retractable construction was installed in the solar panels for NASA's Hubble

space telescope, which helped in opening the solar cell cover glass for NASA's Mars pathfinder

rover [22]. The SMA-based actuator is used in the gas analyzer (Ptolemy) of the Rosetta spacecraft

mission, which was meant to cut comets of the European space agency [24].

Performance indices

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Switching Ratio

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The ratio of heat conduction between Kon and Koff is defined as a switching ratio [2]. The switching

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ratio for any heat switch (the relative ON and OFF conductance) is an important dimensionless

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performance parameter. The switching ratio (S) is generally defined as,

S=
an (1)

Table 1 summarizes the switching ratio formulations of different types of MHS and
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expresses them in terms of intermediate temperature readings recorded at different sectional points
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of the respective heat switches. Similarly, the exact value of thermal conductivity during the Kon
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and Koff state at a specified temperature and switching ratio based on those values for different heat
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switches are summarized in Table 2 [25-28]. The variation of switching ratio with temperature for
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different MHS is shown in Figure 2(a).

Contact Force during the Kon condition

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Contact force is the force generated by MHS to establish physical contact between two metallic or

non-metallic surfaces during the thermal conductivity ON condition [9]. The contact force to

connect the two surfaces can be generated using different actuation methods, such as electrical

power, hydraulic actuation, pneumatic actuation, or self-contraction or expansion during the

temperature change [8]. The role of contact force is important in Kon parameterization, and

8
regulation of heat loss to the surrounding. From the contact force and contact pressure compression

plot (Figure 2(b)) for different MHS, we can say that DTE is having the highest applied contact

force. The high contact force can be linked with the higher conductivity of the heat switch.

Therefore, the DTE shows a higher heat transfer rate in its ON state, whereas SMA heat switches

have the lowest heat transfer rate compared to other types of MHS [18].

Contact Pressure during the Kon condition

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When two metallic or non-metallic surfaces come into contact, MHS generates pressure. It is the

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ultimate pressure generated on the contact surfaces due to applied force. Notably, the different

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types of MHS have different contact surface areas and orientations. Therefore, the contact force

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and subsequent contact pressure cannot be rationalized for each heat switch [19]. The exerted
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contact pressure in different MHS and corresponding contact forces are shown in Figure 2(b). The

contact pressure parameter is used to select contact material, which will thermally connect the two
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surfaces [23]. The connecting material must have the strength to bare the applied force without

failure.
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Initial Gap
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The gap is the maximum allowed spacing between the movable connecting surface and the
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stationary surface that needs to separate to cut off the thermal connection during the Koff position

[15]. It is important to maintain a prescribed initial gap between the two surfaces to ensure zero
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conductance in its off state and completely isolate them thermally. This initial gap for distinct MHS

can be decided based on experimental iterations. The variation of initial gaps for distinct MHS is

shown in Figure 3(a).

Contact Area

The contact area refers to the surface area of two metallic or non-metallic contact plates/surfaces.

9
From Fourier's basic heat transfer law, it can be understood that the total heat transfer rate is

proportional to the contact area. This suggests that the contact area should be as large as possible to

achieve higher heat transfer in the Kon condition [22]. However, the restrictions in the surface area

come into the picture due to the other design parameters, which ultimately decide the optimal size

of the contact surface. Figure 3(b) shows the variation in contact areas for different MHS.

Mass

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The utility of MHS in high-grade space applications comes up with a stringent requirement of a

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light and compact build. Therefore, the smaller thermal switches are preferable in space missions

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[23]. The mass of the thermal switch plays an important role in the total weight of the spacecraft.

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Figure 3(c) shows a comparison of different MHS masses.

Actuation Time
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The Actuation time is the duration taken up by the thermal switch to switch between ON and OFF
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positions. The activation time is an important factor in the selection and design of any heat

switches. A good heat switch must immediately respond to the temperature changes and switch
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between Kon to Koff position, immediately [24]. The comparison of time of actuation for different
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MHS is shown in Figure 3(d). The operating time depends to some extent on various factors such
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as the material selected, the type of application, and the environmental conditions of the MHS.

Size
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In general, compactness and structural rigidity are the desirable criteria of any heat switch.

However, when it comes to space application, compactness is one of the critical criteria in the

selection of types of heat switches. Therefore, the HS should be as small as possible, and the height

should be limited to a 50mm range [19].

10
Type of Mechanical Heat Switches

There are different types of MHS such as PZA heat switches, PFW heat switches, SMA

heat switches, and DTE heat switches. The details of these MHS are elaborated in the following

sections.

Piezo-Electric Actuated Heat Switch

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One of the popularly used actively actuated types of MHS is the PZA heat switch. It can operate in

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both cryogenic and room temperatures range. Piezoelectric materials are widely used in a variety of

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electrical and mechanical equipment and devices, such as ultrasonic generators, filters, sensors, and

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actuators [25, 29]. Jahromi and Sullivan [25] have designed and tested the thermal conductivity of

the PZA heat switch at the 4 K-10 K temperature range with the help of a positioner and reported
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the switching ratios of around 100 with the maximum exerted contact force of 8 N [25]. Because of
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its capacity to function at a wide cryogenic range, the PZA is an appealing alternative technology to

a GGHS. In addition, the PZA is mechanically robust and does not require an airtight seal. The
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schematic and structural details of the PZA thermal switch are shown in Figure 4(a).
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The actuation mechanism of PZA heat with potential changes is shown in Figure 4(b). Here,

the lower plate slides up until the upper plate is mechanically touched in response to the positive
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voltage of the positioner. In this configuration, the switch is closed, and heat can be transferred
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between the two plates. During the Koff state, the negative voltage needs to be applied to the

piezoelectric positioner. The positioner experience compressive force in the presence of negative

voltage, and thus, the separation in mechanical contact between the plates happens [25]. In this

way, the Kon to Koff switching of PZA thermal switches is performed. As can be seen in Figure 4(a),

even in the Koff state, some heat flows from the warm storage to the cold storage are happening

through the structural column. To counter this problem and achieve nearly zero heat transfer rate in

11
the OFF state, the column was made of G10 hollow rods, and the plate was attached to Vespel SP1

insulation. While to achieve the maximum thermal conductivity in the ON state, the upper and

lower plates were made of ultra-high purity (99.999%) copper [25, 29]. The detailed material

specification of PZA-based thermal switches is given in Table 3 [25].

The characterization of the PZA heat switch is performed by inserting a small thermometer

in each section to individually measure the temperature of the reservoir and maintain the

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temperature with the proportional integral derivative controller [25]. Two-wire resistance

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measurement was used to check for contact between the plates. No continuity was detected when

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the switch was open. At S∼100 and S∼200, the lowest and highest temperatures of 4 K and 10 K

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are observed, respectively [25].

Paraffin Wax Heat Switch

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The PFW heat switch is a passively actuated MHS. The typical operating range of PFW is the

room/normal temperature. The PFW thermal switch was primarily developed in 2003 to control the
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temperature of the Mars rover battery. This thermal switch was placed on the rover battery and
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radiator to prevent heat transfer. In 2003, NASA dispatched two identical rovers to Mars as part of

the Mars exploration rover mission [24]. The rover's battery temperature is controlled by a PFW
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heat switch during the rover's voyage to Mars. Considering the properties of PFW, the Starsky’s
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Research Corporation developed this type of switch a few years ago before the Mars mission [24].

When the PFW is heated and melted, the contact plate is pushed away due to the volume

expansion of the PFW. This leads to the contact between the heat source and heat sink plates; thus,

the switch turns into the ON condition. The phase shift of PFW from solid to liquid demands

substantial heat additions, which will be absorbed in the form of latent heat. This function adds

thermal capacitance to PFW-based heat switches and enhances their thermal-control capabilities

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[22]. The volume expansion mechanism of PFW with temperature change is shown in Figure 5(a).

At the actuation point, the PFW usually stays in a semi-solid state. The complete phase change

from solid to liquid required a large amount of energy input. Because the system is over-attenuated,

this behavior attenuates the response, allowing the switch to operate in a smooth and controlled

manner without switching perpetually when there is a fluctuation in heat load [30]. The contact

surfaces of the PFW-based thermal switches are made of a copper contact plate and an aluminum

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alloy radiator plate, where the first one will be connected to the PFW actuator via a flexible

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laminated copper piece. Mirror polishing is used on the surfaces of the contact copper plate and

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radiator plates to reduce the thermal contact resistance between the two plates [30].

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When the thermal switch is off, there is a small gap (less than 0.5 mm) between the contact
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plate and the radiator plate. The weight of a PFW filled piston-cylinder is less than 1g, which slides

as PFW expands. This PFW-filled cylinder part is loaded with a counterbalancing spring, which
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helps them to slide back and returned to its original position when the thermal switch is in an OFF

state [24]. The schematics of the PFW filled sliding mechanism during the thermal conductivity
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ON and OFF states are shown in Figure 5(b), respectively. The thermal expansion of PFW
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sometimes generates off the design expansion and exerts a high load during the ON state. To avoid
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overload in the system, the PFW-based heat switches also come up with an additional spring

mechanism. The flexible portion (Figure 5(b)) morphs in response to the PFW actuator's
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movement. This also serves connector which facilitates strong thermal conductivity between the

radiator and hot-side plates [22, 24, 25, 29, 30]. To lower the OFF thermal conductivity, the

titanium alloy is used as a support structure. Table 4(a) represents the details of components

employed and materials used in the PFW heat switch [24, 26, 30-33].

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Shape Memory Alloy Heat Switch

Another type of passively actuated MHS is the SMA-based heat switch. It operates in the cryogenic

temperature range. Benafan et al. [26] have developed heat pipe-based thermal switches using

SMA [31]. These switches were developed for cryogenic applications during expeditions to the

Moon and Mars missions. The main purpose of developed SMA heat switches was to dissipate heat

from the cryogenic tank into space during the night cycle and provide insulation during the day

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cycle [32-34]. NASA Kennedy Space Centre researchers conducted research to combine innovative

SMA material systems with methodologies for managing heat flow in the 4 K to 400 K temperature

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range [34]. Similarly, the SMA heat switch was also used in small-satellite thermal control systems,

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which was primarily developed by the Naval Research Laboratory, USA. The schematic
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arrangement of a typical heat-pipe based SMA heat switch is shown in Figure 6(a).

The SMA is used as an actuator element in the thermal switches because they have the
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unique functioning of sensing the temperature changes and regaining their shape against external

loads (such as preload springs). SMA undergoes a solid phase shift from a martensite crystal
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structure to an austenite crystal structure at a given temperature within the temperature range [27].
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The change in the lattice structure of an SMA material is shown in Figure 7(a). The shame-memory
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materials can serve both sensory and actuation functioning by intrinsically sensing a change in

temperature and regaining the actual shape against external load due to the temperature-induced
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phase transition [34]. In general, SMA is used in the form of wire, springs, tubes, or cylinders to

actuate any machine components. SMAs can recover against large loads with the recovery up to 8

percent of their original shape by undergoing a temperature-induced phase transition [4]. This

strain recovery can occur in the presence of enormous forces, leading to their usage as actuators.

This phase shift usually occurs in nitinol (NiTi)-SMA material, where the lattice structure changes

14
from the martensite phase of the monoclinic system to the so-called austenite phase of the cubic

system [35]. The schematics of this phase change are shown in Figure 7(b). When iron is

introduced into the NiTi system, the martensitic transformation occurs at a comparatively lower

temperature than the only NiTi alloy, resulting in the creation of an intermediate rhombohedral

trigonal phase. Typically, there is hysteresis between the forward and reverse transformations [35].

The components and materials required for SMA heat switch operation are tabulated in Table 4(b).

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Transformation hysteresis is caused because of the dissipation of elastic strain energy, the

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frictional resistance to interfacial motion, and other dissipation processes. Temperature hysteresis is

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as low as 1.5 K for the cubic to rhombohedral trigonal phase transformation, whereas it can exceed

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10 K for the cubic to monoclinic martensitic transformation [35]. The low transformation hysteresis
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helps build the actuators that can operate over a limited temperature range. For this, unlike the

straight elements such as thin strips and wires, the SMA should have spiral shaped SMA springs
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that can help compensate for this structural limitation and achieve longer strokes. Another

advantage of coil springs is that they have a more uniform stress distribution than a bending mode
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in ribbon or a strip shape arrangement, which has a higher stress concentration at the center of the
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element. Non-uniform stress distribution within the element can also shorten the fatigue life of the
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heat switch [27, 35]. A typical helically arranged SMA switch is shown in Figure 6(b).
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Differential Thermal Expansion Heat Switch

DTE is a type of passively operated MHS. As the name suggests, the DTE material exhibit

different thermal expansion in different temperate range. This type of heat switch operates at a low-

temperature range. Dietrich et al. [16] have developed one of the best DTE that has been made of

ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene thermoplastics in a single focal plane array detector. This

material is used to design the two DTE devices that can operate at a temperature of approximately

15
100 K. As the DTE is a passive type of heat switch, no external power is required for their

switching operations. This property improves the reliability of developed thermal switches and

facilitates simple and sturdy mechanical design. Similarly, Marland et al. [36-38] have developed

several DTE devices that can operate between the temperature range of 30 K to100 K. These types

of DTE were used in the James Webb Space Telescope. The working principle of DTE type of heat

switches utilizes the fact that different metals have a different thermal expansion coefficient. As a

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result of this, one portion shrinks more than the other during the temperature shift. Differences in

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shrinking with temperature change facilitate the device to make or break the thermal contact [28,

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36, 38, 39].

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Using the basic principle of DTE, the DTE heat switch is designed in such a way that by
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adding a heater to the central tube, the switch may be actively turned off. Although the DTE can be

actuated passively, adding the external heat source will significantly reduce the transition time from
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ON to OFF state [40]. When the central stainless-steel tube is heated, it expands, and a gap between

the beryllium cylinder and the beryllium endplate has been created. The whole DTE system is kept
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inside a vacuum encloser [38]. Conduction through this gap is significantly minimized because of
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the presence of vacuum, thus the DTE provides excellent thermal insulation at the OFF state.
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As can be seen in the schematic arrangement of DTE heat switches (Figure 8), the central

tube started cooling as it has been connected with the cryocooled through the beryllium endplate.
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The central tube, which is made of stainless-steel has a higher thermal coefficient of

expansion/contraction than the beryllium. As a result of this, the central stainless-steel tube will

contract more during the cooling cycle. This leads to fill the gap between the beryllium cylinder

and beryllium endplate (Figure 8) and the DTE turns into the ON state [40]. Some work also refers

to the DTE heat switches as a coefficient of thermal-expansion switch. Like the beryllium and

16
stainless-steel based DTE switches, the Invar (4J32) and aluminum combination can also be used

for heat switches application [28]. This Invar-Aluminum combination is also known as the second

generation of DTE heat switches, as this combination has higher thermal efficiency, lightweight,

and higher switching ratio compared to the beryllium-stainless steel combination. In cryogenic

systems, the Guo et al. [39] have used double direction DTE. It means, the DTE central tube can be

expanded and contracted in both front and back directions. In contrast, the previously explained

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DTE mechanism is fixed with the bottom plate (Figure 8) and allows to expand/contract with

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temperature change only along the front direction [40].

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Conclusions

In this article, a broad range of MHS is discussed. Initially, an in-depth review of different
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types of MHS such as the PZA, PFW, DTE, and SMA-based heat switches is presented.
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Specifically, this review work comprises the working principles, advantages/disadvantages, and

applications of the above-mentioned heat switches. Apart from this, a quantitative comparison of
d

performance parameters, such as the thermal conductivity ON and OFF ratio (switching ratio),
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contact force and pressure, operating temperature range, total size to weight ratio, the initial gap
pt

between two plates, and the actuation times are specified. Further, the critical review on MHS
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highlighted that the DTE type heat switches impose approximately 30 times higher contact force
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than the other MHS. As a result, the DTE has a reduced thermal contact resistance and higher heat

switching ratio as compared to other MHS. Moreover, the wider operating temperature range of

DTE-based switches (5 K-100 K) makes it an appropriate choice for various space and general

engineering applications.

17
Nomenclature

DTE differential thermal expansion

GGHS gas-gap heat switch

I DC power supply current intensity (A)

K conductance (W/mK)

MHS mechanical heat switch

t
MRHS magneto-resistive heat switch

ip
NiTi nitinol alloy

cr
PZA piezo-electric actuated

us
PFW paraffin wax

heat flux rate (W/m2)

̇
an
S switching ratio
M
SCHS superconducting heat switch

SMA shape memory alloy

ed

T temperature (K)
pt

V voltage of DC power supply (V)

ce

Greek symbols

 correction factor range from 0.7 – 0.9

Ac

δT temperature change (K)

Subscripts

1-12 indicates thermocouple readings from 1 to 12

Al aluminum

B cryocooler cold plate

18
C upper and lower plate contact

cold cold surface

CP contact part

FP flexible part

hot hot surface

L lower plate to cryocooler

t
on on state

ip
off off state

cr
U upper plate

us
Acknowledgement
an
Authors thank ICFAMMT -2022 organizing committee for providing an opportunity to showcase
M
our research work on heat switches for engineering and space applications.
e d
pt
ce
Ac

19
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t
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ip
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cr
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ip
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t
ip
cr
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an
M
e d
pt
ce
Ac

25
Table 1. Switching ratio formulation for different types of MHS.

Type of
Kon Koff
MHS

PZA The joint conductance (KC)on is When switch is in opened state, (KC)off = 0

calculated when the switch is in the If TU = TL,

closed state, ̇ U = KU (TU-TB)

t
If TU = TL + δT, ̇ L = KL (TL-TB)

ip
̇ U = KU (TU-TB) + KC (TU-TL)

cr
̇ L = KL (TL-TB)

us
If TL = TU + δT,

̇ U = KU (TU-TB)
an
̇ L = KL (TL-TB) + KC (TL-TU)
M
PFW Kon = ̇ / (T2 – T6) Koff = ̇ / (T2–T6)
d

Common equation,
e

̇ = KAl (T7 – T8)

pt

where, ̇ is measured in both on/off states

ce

for calculating Kon and Koff respectively.

The thermal conductance of the contact

Ac

part,

KCP = ̇ / (T5 – T6)

The thermal conductance of flexible parts,

KFP = ̇ / (T3 – T4)

26
DTE Kon = Koff =
̇ ̇

Common formulae,

Thot =

Tcold =

̇ = VI

t
where, ̇ Thot and Tcold were measured in

ip
both on/off states for calculating Kon and

cr
Koff respectively.

us
an
M
ed
pt
ce
Ac

27
Table 2. Switching ratio, thermal conductivity in ON/OFF state, and temperature for different

types of MHS [25-28].

Type of MHS Switch ON Switch OFF

Temp. (K) Kon (W/K) Temp. Koff S

(K) (W/K)

PZA Heat Switch 200 1.04 10 0.0052 200

PFW Heat Switch 335 1.6 321 0.0125 128

t
ip
DTE Heat Switch 100 1.21 0.1 0.003 403.34

cr
SMA Heat Switch 293 0.5 77 0.0007 715

us
an
M
e d
pt
ce
Ac

28
Table 3. Specifications, dimensions, and materials for the PZA [25].

Lower and Lower and

Parts Upper Upper Support columns Actuating element

conductor insulator

Pure Copper high-pressure fiberglass

Materials Vespel SP-1 attocube ANPz101
(99.99%) laminate G-10

t
ip
1.45 cm2 area A square 6.3mm outer dia.,

cr
Dimensions on each side of block of 7mm 4.3mm long, and
-

us
the plate thickness 3.2mm inner dia.

an
M
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pt
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29
Table 4. Components and materials of (a) PFW and (b) SMA heat switches [24, 26, 30-33].

(a) PFW heat switch

Component Material

Contact Part Copper

Radiator Plate Aluminum Alloy

Support Structure Titanium Alloy

t
ip
Spring Low Alloy Steel

cr
Actuating Element PFW

(b) SMA heat switch

us
Component Material

Actuating Element
an NiTi

Stationary and Moving Plates Oxygen-Free Pure Copper

M
Support Rods and Bushings Beryllium Copper
d

Bias Spring Austenitic stainless steels with a nickel content greater than 7%.
e

Bias Spring Holders Brass

pt

Spring Seats Polytetrafluoroethylene

ce

Grease Indium Foil and Apiezon® N

Ac

30
 t
ip
(a) Operating conditions of heat switches

cr
us
an
M
e d
pt

(b) Method of actuation of heat switches

ce
Ac

(c) Method of actuation of MHS

Figure 1. Classification of heat switches and MHS.

31
 t
ip
cr
(a) Comparison of switching ratio variations with temperature change

us
an
M
e d
pt
ce
Ac

(b) Comparison of contact force and pressure variations

Figure 2. Performance comparison of different types of MHS.

32
 t
ip
cr
(a) (b)

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an
M
e d
pt

(c) (d)
ce

Figure 3. Performance comparison of distinct MHS based on (a) initial gap between the contact
Ac

surface, (b) contact area of mating between the two surfaces/plates, (c) overall mass of MHS

systems, and (d) time required for actuation between Kon to Koff state.

33
 t
ip
cr
us
(a) Schematic of PZA adapted from literature [25]
an
M
e d
pt
ce
Ac

(b) Piezo-electric material is energized by the (left) positive voltage to turn heat switches into

ON state, and (right) negative voltage to turn into OFF state

Figure 4. Schematic and working procedure of PZA.

34
 t
ip
cr
us
(a) Variation of PFW volume with temperature change
an
M
e d
pt
ce
Ac

(b) Schematics of the PFW-filled sliding mechanism to illustrate the switch between thermal

conductivity ON and OFF states adapted from the literature [24]

Figure 5. Schematic and working procedure of PFW.

35
 t
ip
cr
us
(a) Schematic representation of heat-pipe based SMA heat switch
an
M
e d
pt
ce
Ac

(b) Typical helical arrangement of SMA heat switch adapted from literature [35]

Figure 6. Schematic and typical helical arrangement of SMA heat switch.

36
 t
ip
cr
us
(a) The changes in the lattice structure transformation of an SMA material
an
M
e d
pt
ce
Ac

(a) The changes in the lattice structure transformation of an SMA material

Figure 7. The schematic of transformation from martensite to austenite phase change and vice

versa.

37
 t
ip
cr
us
Figure 8. DTE heat switch with beryllium as cylinder and end piece and stainless steel as central
an
tube adapted from literature [37].
M
e d
pt
ce
Ac

38
Notes on contributors

Banka Raghu Ram received his M-Tech (2022) in Mechanical Engineering

from the National Institute of Technology (NIT) Rourkela. He received his

B-Tech in Mechanical Engineering from Avanthi Research and

Technological Academy (ARTB) Vizianagaram in 2020. Currently, he is

working on the ISRO project “Design and development of Magneto Resistive

t
Heat Switch”.

ip
cr
Vinit Malik received his M-Tech (2022) in Mechanical Engineering from the

us
National Institute of Technology (NIT) Rourkela. He received his B-Tech in
an
Mechanical Engineering from Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University in

2019. Currently, he is working on the ISRO project “Design and development

M
of Magneto Resistive Heat Switch”.
e d

Bukke Kiran Naik is an Assistant Professor in Mechanical Engineering

pt

Department at NIT Rourkela since 2020. He received both his Ph.D. (2019)
ce

and M-Tech (2014) from IIT Guwahati and B-Tech (2012) from JNTU

Anantapur in Mechanical Engineering. He worked as a Queen Elizabeth

Ac

Postdoctoral fellow at Simon Fraser University, Canada during 2019–2020

and as Project Engineer at IIT Guwahati in 2019. Further, he was selected as Young Indian

Scientist to the 6th BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) conclave 2021 in the

thematic area of Energy Solutions and he also received an INAE fellowship for working as a

visiting researcher at IIT Kanpur.

39
 Kishore Singh Patel is an Assistant Professor in Mechanical

Engineering Department at NIT Rourkela from 2020. He received his Ph.D.

in 2018 from IISc Bangalore, India. He has received JNCASR Central

Fellowship and fellowship from DRDO-CARS research grant during the

Postdoctoral research in between 2017 to 2020.

t
ip
cr
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