GSM Message Controlled Home Appliances

A Project Report

Submitted by

Gourav Sharma (19BEL1015)

Manuj Sharma (19BEL1001)
Rohit Thakur (19BEL1004)

in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
Electrical Engineering

Chandigarh University
Nov. 2022
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “GSM Message Controlled Home Appliances”
is the bonafide work of “GOURAV SHARMA (19BEL1015), MANUJ
SHARMA (19BEL1001), ROHIT THAKUR (19BEL1004)” who carried out
the project work under my/our supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Dr. Ashutosh Tripathi Mrs. Rekha Devi

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT SUPERVISOR

Electrical Engineering Electrical Engineering

Submitted for the project viva-voce examination held on

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

Dr. Himani Goyal

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We wish to extend our thanks to our HOD Prof. Ashutosh Tripathi & project teacher Dr.
Himani Goyal, Chandigarh University for their guidance, insightful comments, and
constructive suggestions to improve the quality of the project work.

We would like to place on record our deep sense of gratitude to Mrs. Rekha Devi, Dept. of
Electrical Engineering, Chandigarh University, Gharuan, India for this generous guidance,
help, and useful suggestions
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Figures -----------------------------------------------------------------i

List of Tables ------------------------------------------------------------------ii

Abstract ------------------------------------------------------------------------iii

Graphical Abstract ----------------------------------------------------------iv

Abbreviations -----------------------------------------------------------------v

Chapter 1. Introduction ----------------------------------------------------1

1.1 Need Identification ------------------------------------------------------1

1.2 Identification of Problem ----------------------------------------------2

1.3. Identification of Task --------------------------------------------------3

1.4 Timeline -------------------------------------------------------------------4

1.5 Organization of the Report -------------------------------------------5

1.6 Project Title Finalization and Understanding --------------------5

Chapter 2. Background Study---------------------------------------------6

1.2 Timeline of the Reported Problem ----------------------------------6

2.2 Proposed Solution -------------------------------------------------------6

2.3 Bibliometric Analysis ---------------------------------------------------7

2.4 Review Summary --------------------------------------------------------14

2.5 Problem Definition ------------------------------------------------------15

2.6 Goals/Objectives ---------------------------------------------------------15

Chapter3. Design Process ---------------------------------------------------16

3.1 Evaluation and Selection of Features ---------------------------------16

3.2 Design Constraints -------------------------------------------------------16

3.3 Analysis and Features Finalization Subject to Constraints ------17

3.4 Design Flow -----------------------------------------------------------------17

3.5 Design Selection------------------------------------------------------------18

3.6 Methodology ---------------------------------------------------------------20

Chapter 4. Result Analysis and Validation-------------------------------21

4.1 Implementation of Solutions -------------------------------------------22

Chapter 5. Conclusion and Future Work--------------------------------64

5.1 Conclusion -----------------------------------------------------------------64

5.2 Future Work ---------------------------------------------------------------65

References ----------------------------------------------------------------------66
 List of Figures

Figure 2.1 Flow diagram of simulation.…………………………..12

Figure 2.2 Controllable appliances using GSM module..…………13
Figure 2.3 GSM Simulation.………………………………………14
Figure 3.1 Block diagram.…………………………………………20
Figure 4.1 Transformer.……………………………………………21
Figure 4.2 Ideal Power Equation.…………………………..………22
Figure 4.3 Voltage Regulator.…………………………………...…23
Figure 4.4 Block Diagram of voltage regulator.…...………………24
Figure 4.5 Rectifier.……………………………………………..…25
Figure 4.6 Capacitor charging and discharging……………………26
Figure 4.7 Pin Diagram.……………………………………………27
Figure 4.8 Reset circuit.……………………………………………30
Figure 4.9 Display.…………………………………...……….……32
Figure 4.10 Block Diagram.……………………..……….…………38
Figure 4.11 GSM module.…………………………………..………39
Figure 4.12 GSM Cell site.………………………………….………43
Figure 4.13 Relay.……………………………………………..……46
Figure 4.14 Relay.……………………………………………..……47
Figure 4.15 Relay Driver Circuit .…………………..………………50
Figure 4.16 Driver Circuit.……………………………………….…51
Figure 4.17 DC Relay Driver Circuit.………………………………53
Figure 4.18 AC Relay Driver Circuit.………………………………55
Figure 4.19 Relay Driver IC ULN2003.……………………………55
Figure 4.20 LED & Circuit Symbol.………………………………57
Figure 4.21 IN4007.…………………………………………..……59
Figure 4.22 Resistors.………………………………………………60
Figure 4.23 Capacitors.………………………………….…………62
Figure 4.24 Push Buttons.…………………………….……………63

i
 List of Tables

Table 1.1 Project Timeline ………………………………………………..4

Table 4.1 Rating of the voltage regulator ……………..…………………24
Table 4.2 Special features of AT89c51………..…………………………29
Table 4.3 Pin Description ……………………………………………..…33
Table 4.4 Commands ………………………………………………….…36

ii
 ABSTRACT

The development of home appliance control for smart home systems is presented in this report.
The prototype's main goal is to save electricity and develop a home automation system
with a GSM application controlled by message. Houses are now becoming smarte r
as technology has advanced. In modern homes, remotely controlled switches are
slowly replacing conventional switches as a component of a centralized control
system. Nowadays, it is difficult for the user to access standard wall switches
simply because they are dispersed across the house. The elderly or those with
physical limitations find it even more difficult to do so. A more convenient option
is presented by message-controlled home control systems using GSM technology.
Any standard handset can be employed for remote operation. It sends ON/OFF
instructions to a GSM device that receives the user's message signal and transmits
it to the microcontroller where loads are interfaced. The loads can be turned
ON/OFF using wireless technology by turning the desig nated remote switch on the
transmitter. This particular microcontroller belongs to the 8051 series.

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GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

iv
 ABBREVIATIONS

• GSM Global System for Mobile Communication.

• LAN Local Area Network
• SMS Short Message Service
• RACP Remote Appliance Control Protocol
• WAP Wireless Application Protocol
• AC Alternating Current
• DC Direct Current
• PEROM Programmable & Erasable Read-Only Memory
• PSEN Program Store Enable
• LCD Liquid Crystal Display
• GMSK Gaussian minimum shift keying

v
 CHAPTER 1.
INTRODUCTION

1.1. Need Identification

The "Smart Home" is a revolutionary concept that has grown in popularity as a result of the
development of electrical technology over the past 20 years. In keeping with the idea of the
"smart home," people have been seeking to automatically control and secure their home
equipment. Our household appliances can now be secured and controlled remotely thanks to
rapidly developing mobile communication technology and falling prices.

There haven't been many new additions suggested in the literature for machine-to-machine,
mobile-to-machine, or machine-to-mobile communication. These i include i designing i a i
mobile i system i with i wireless i LAN, i implementing i a i measurement i system i to i track
i the i quality i of i the i air i around i us i using i GPS, i GPRS i modem, i and i advanced i
RISC i machine, i developing i a i prototype i integrated i mobile i telemedicine i system i with
i sensors i attached i to i the i patient's i body i using i GSM i simulation, i designing i remote
i control i of i sensors i and i actuators i using i GSM i module, i and i developing i a i stand-
alone i human i temperature i and i blood i pressure i system i using i microcontroller. This
initiative is also connected to the efforts to receive SMS updates on the water level and
temperature. In this project, the MPLAB IDE and PIC 16F877 were used for development. The
project's objective was to keep track of a pool's water level and temperature. The mechanism
activates when the pool's temperature and water level exceed the recommended levels. The PIC
circuit will immediately establish a connection with the smartphone and send the user an alarm
message at the same moment. Based on these studies, we created a low-cost, straightforward
design process for an intelligent home system that makes use of machine-to-machine and
machine-to-mobile communication. First, using an interface that can be inserted into the GSM
modem unit, we created a general-purpose electronic circuit design that can operate and
monitor a range of home appliances. The design comprises a microcontroller, an adaption
circuit, a power circuit, and an RS232 interface. Then, as a test application for the designed
system, we attempted to create a prototype home appliance control system with devices. Voice
and data transfer services are available through mobile telephony. SMS and other improved

1
data rate services like GPRS and EDGE are used to send data. The latter two enable mobile
phones to access the internet. A telecommunications system called Short Message Service
(SMS) enables sending of brief (160 characters or less) text messages. The majority of digital
mobile phones have access to it. SMS messages can be sent by gadgets like computers and
microcontrollers that can communicate with mobile phones using AT Command-compatible
protocols. Our design is based on the potential for this feature.

1.2. Identification of Problem

Digital information has quickly changed how individuals conduct their lives. One of the
primary sources of electricity that is essential to modern life is electricity, hence its utilization
is crucial. Technology has been constantly evolving throughout the years, and as a result, new
methods are being created for the simpler, safer control of electrical devices for better power
management in homes and work environments.
When leaving their houses, the majority of people undoubtedly have a tendency to leave the
lights, fans, and other appliances on, which wastes energy and causes inefficiencies. Being
physically present in the home environment is not always possible, but there are many things
that may be done to reduce energy consumption. These wastes have a serious negative impact
on Ghana's industrial growth. As a result, it is necessary to expand the use of existing
technology to stop or lessen these energy wastes. Neglecting to turn off lights and other
electrical appliances can result in exorbitant electricity bills, the waste of vital power, and a
shorter lifespan for electrical equipment and appliances. The design and construction of a
centralized remote lighting and appliance control system for smart home applications using
GSM technology are shown in this study. This system typically significantly lowers the cost of
electricity usage. Utilizing a specialized user-friendly mobile application, this method is
executed. The intrusion detection, notification alerts, and alarm features are all implemented
by the same system.

In our everyday lives, electricity has become essential. It is impossible to imagine surviving
without power. It has just begun to function as a limiting source. We cannot allow even a small
fraction of it to be wasted. Any home appliance, such as a lightbulb, microwave, TV, or fan,
can be accessed remotely via a smartphone and turned off via SMS if we forget to turn it off.
Even if it's not always practicable, controlling the appliances even if you're not physically close
to the house can be important for a number of reasons. As a result, the inhabitants now have
control over the house thanks to the usage of a remote. If a simple mobile phone takes on the

2
crucial duty of controlling the smart home, then control is then possible from almost any
location on Earth, wherever people travel and reside. Today, a sizable population makes use of
mobile services. A system that allows for remote SMS control of household appliances can
therefore benefit a large population, something that would not be possible with some other
services like the Internet.
1.3. Identification of Task
The following objectives define the goals of this project.

a) To create a control system for a smart home application based on GSM.

b) To design a circuit that can instantly and automatically ascertain the status of each household
appliance connected to the control system.

c) To design a circuit that can use AT Commands to switch on and off the home appliance
automatically.

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1.4. Timeline

Table 1.1 Project Timeline

4
1.5. Organisation of the Report

This step includes the group members choosing the project's title as well as concept or subject.
With promises and correspondence from all parties involved, each component believes the
project's issue will succeed. Due to the fact that everyone can pick their own topic, this will
take significantly less time than seven days. Finding the ideal solution that appeals to everyone
may therefore take some time.

1.6. Project Title Finalization and Understanding

This step includes the group members choosing both the project's title and its theme or subject.
Each party is confident that the theme of the project will succeed with the cooperation and
correspondence of all parties. Since everyone gets to pick their own topic, this will take less
time than seven days. The process of coming up with a solution that everyone can agree on
may therefore take some time.

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 CHAPTERi2.
BACKGROUND STUDY

2.1. Timeline of the reported problem

Several iresearchers have iadopted icellular itechnologies ifor icontrolling ihome iappliances
ifrom ithe iremote iterminal. iA isystem iis idesigned ito icontrol ihome iappliances ion/off, ito
iregulate itheir ioutput ipower. iAn iobject-oriented iphilosophy iwas iproposed iby i(Nunes,
i2000) ifor ihome iautomation ithrough ithe iinternet. iLater iSOAP-Based iResidential
iManagement ifor iSmart iHome iSystems iwas idesigned iand iimplemented i(Perumal, iT.,
i2008). iThe iremote iAppliance iControl iProtocol i(RACP) iframework ihas ibeen iproposed
iand iimplemented ifor icontrolling imultimedia idevices ilike ivideo icameras i(Kouji iet. ial.,
i2001) iand iinfrared iremote icontrollers i(Eitaro iet. ial., i2001) iover ithe iInternet. iBluetooth
iwith ia imobile iphone ienabled iremote icontrol, ifault idiagnosis, iand isoftware iupdate ifor
ihome iappliances iin i(Kanna, i2003). iHowever, isolving ithe iBluetooth ilimitations iwith
iSMS-based ifeatures ifor icontrolling ihome ielectronic iappliances iis ia iprominent
iapproach. iThus, ithe imulti-agent iapproach iadded ia inew dimension ito ithe iresearch
istream ifor iGSM-SMS-based ismart ihomes.

2.2. Proposed Solutions

The iconcept iof ithe ismart ihome iis ian iemerging iissue iin ithe imodern itechnology-
dependent isociety. iRemote icontrol itechnologies iare iwidely iused ito icontrol ihousehold
ielectronic iappliances iwithout iwalking iup ito ithem. iControlling ihousehold iappliances
ithrough ia icomputer ican ialso ibe ia ipossible isolution. iHowever, iit icannot ifulfill ithe
icurrent idemand iwhich iis ito icontrol ithem ifrom iremote iplaces. iThe iadvantage iof
icellular icommunications ilike iGSM itechnology iis ia ipotential isolution ifor isuch iremote
icontrolling iactivities. iGSM iSMS itechnology ican ibe iused ito icontrol ihousehold
iappliances ifrom iremote iplaces. iWith ithese ihypotheses, ithree idifferent iapproaches ihave
ibeen iproposed iand iimplemented iin ithis ipaper. iFirstly, ihousehold iappliances iare
icontrolled iby ia iserver imobile iwhich iacts ias ia iremote icontrol. iSecondly, iGSM-SMS
imessaging itechnology iis iused ito icontrol ithem ifrom iremote iplaces iand ifinally, ito

6
iprovide ia imultiple iagents ienvironment. iThis ipaper idiscusses ithe idesign iand
iimplementation iissues iof isuch ia ismart ihome.

2.3. Bibliometric Analysis

Technology development is at the forefront of modern science. Every day, new products with
various features are released. Smartphones of today are capable of incredibly sophisticated
tasks. People want to be able to finish all tasks with a few keystrokes and button presses. Home
automation is a result of technical development.

The primary goal of this iproject iis ito icreate ia ihome iautomation isystem iwith ia iGSM
iapplication ithat iis imessage-controlled. iHomes iare ibecoming ismarter ias itechnology
iadvances. iModern ihomes iare irapidly ireplacing itraditional iswitches iwith icentralized
icontrol isystems ithat iuse iwirelessly icontrolled iswitches. iCurrently, iit iis idifficult ifor ithe
iuser ito iapproach itraditional iwall iswitches ithat iare idispersed ithroughout ithe ihouse iin
iorder ito ioperate ithem. iThe ielderly ior ithose iwith iphysical ilimitations ifind iit ieven
iharder ito ido iso. iWith iGSM itechnology, ia isimpler ioption is offered by the message-
controlled home automation system.

Any straightforward handset, for example, can be used for remote control operation by acting
as a transmitter that delivers messages. The GSM device then receives the user's message signal
and passes it to the microcontroller, where loads are interfaced, sending ON/OFF signals. The
loads can be switched ON/OFF by transmitting wireless messages by activating the designated
remote switch on the transmitter. Here, an 8051-family microcontroller is being used.

The idea of a smart home is a new problem in today's technologically dependent culture. Many
households’ electrical equipment can be operated using remote control technology without
having to physically approach them. Another option for resolving the issue is computer-based
home appliance control. However, it is unable to satisfy the current need, which is to manage
them from a distance. GSM technology, which is an advantage of cellular connections, may
offer a remedy for these types of remote-controlling activities. It is possible to control home
appliances from a distance using GSM SMS technology. Three distinct strategies have been
suggested and put into practice in this paper using these hypotheses. First, a server mobile that
serves as a remote control controls home appliances. The GSM-SMS message technology is
used to control them from a distance and, finally, to create an environment with numerous
agents. The design and implementation issues of such a smart house are covered in this study.

7
[1] According to Mark D. Gross, the installation requirements for home automation systems have
modified the traditional residential construction design. Safety is one of the main advantages of
smart home technology. With modern technology, every appliance that is plugged into a wall outlet
receives electric power. A significant electric shock can be caused by cutting ia iwire, isticking ia
iscrewdriver iinto ia iwall isocket, ior ian iinternal iproblem iwith ithe iitem. iThe iSmart iHouse,
iin icontrast, ionly ipowers ioutlets iwith iplugged-in iand iturned-on iequipment. iSmart ihouse
icontrollers ialso ikeep ian ieye ion ithe icircuit iand icut ipower ias isoon ias ia ishort icircuit ior
iother imalfunction iis idetected. iAdditionally, ielectronic icontrollers ican iturn ioff ithe inecessary
idevices iand isound ithe ialarm iwhen isensors ipick iup igas iand iwater ileaks, ismoke, iand iother
iabnormal iconditions. iThe imajority iof imodern iconsumer ielectronics, iincluding itelevisions,
ilaptops, iand ieven ipower itools, istep ithe iline ivoltage ifrom i110 ito i6, i12, ior i24 ivolts. iThe
iinclusion iof imany ivoltage ilevels iin ismart ihome itechnologies ieliminates ithe ineed ifor
inumerous ismall ipower iadapters iat ieach iappliance. i

The third advantage is the economy. The electricity provided to each item would be adjusted as the
smart home system needs. According to the conventional plan, each appliance receives enough
power to handle its peak usage. Furthermore, the Smart Home controllers might plan the operating
power-hungry devices (such as air conditioners, electric water heaters, and dishwashers) taking full
advantage of off-peak power rates (for air conditioners, etc.). These modifications may decrease
the cost of utilities.

To coordinate the infrastructure of the construction sector in advance of commercializing smart

home technologies, a lot of groundwork has been done. At least some of the innovations are already
hitting the market, albeit in fragmented forms, regardless of whether Smart House and other home
automation technologies are successful at modifying conventional residential architecture. For
instance, ground fault interrupter circuits are now often used in restrooms, kitchens, and outside
outlets. These circuits detect an electric shock occurrence (a "ground fault") and quickly shut down.
The delivery of telephone, television, and other communication services within the home is also
changing significantly, and this will undoubtedly have an impact. The sensors and controller
components needed to link a security system, lighting, phone, and other devices to a personal
computer are occasionally sold by third-party suppliers. For instance, with these tools, a
homeowner may dial their house and tell the computer to "heat the hot tub at 4 PM and switch on
the oven.

8
Building construction must undergo significant changes as a result of Smart House and other home
automation technologies. These changes necessitate collaboration between utility providers,
construction component manufacturers, and regulatory bodies that regulate the building sector.
New standard building technologies may be outmoded by the time they acquire traction due to the
fast developments in electrical and material technology. The ownership of copper wire and fiber
optic cable fibers to each house has been a significant resource controlled by local telephone and
utility companies, who are also the providers of cable television, telephone, and new
communications services.

The way housing is wired and cabled for electricity and communications may be impacted by these
organizational changes in the urban infrastructure. Access to educational resources, employment,
retail, and leisure opportunities are all made possible by the new information infrastructure that is
now being constructed. In addition to the fax, a modem allows users to explore information
databases while working from home using traditional phone lines. To enable electronic community
town meetings, distance learning, home shopping, and video on demand, higher bandwidth
communication technologies are being created. Whether technology will improve and enrich
citizens' lives is still up for debate.

Finally, imany iwill idiscover ia inarrow iline ibetween ian iintelligent ihouse ithat imaintains
icomfort ilevels iand ian ioverpowering ihouse ithat imonitors ithe iresidents itoo iclosely, ieven
iwhen itechnological iand iorganizational iproblems iare iovercome. iMost ipeople ivalue ithe
iability ito iset iand ireset ithe ithermostat, ieven iif ifew ipeople iobject ito iusing ione ito iregulate
ithe itemperature iin ia ihome. iHuman iinterface idesigners imust imake iit isimple ifor iresidents
ito iconfigure ithe ihome iand ioverride ipre-programmed isettings ias ithe ihardware iand isoftware
iused ito ihandle ihome iautomation isystems iget imore icomplicated.

Gas iis isupplied ithrough iflexible itubing iand iits iquick-connect iconnectors, iwhile power and
communications are given by a single outlet provided by the Smart House cabling. The
temperature, humidity, and lighting in the house can also be automatically controlled by smart
house technology ion ia iroom-by-room ibasis. iThe ithird iadvantage iis ithe ieconomy. iThe
ielectricity isupplied to each appliance would be adjusted as the smart home system needs.
According to the conventional plan, each appliance receives enough power to handle its peak usage.

9
Additionally, the Smart House controllers might program the use of high power-consumption
equipment (such as air conditioners, ielectric iwater iheaters, iand idishwashers) ito itake ifull
iadvantage iof ioff-peak ielectricity rates. Lower utility expenses may arise from these changes.
Finally, many will find it difficult to walk the line between an intelligent home that maintains
comfort levels and an intrusive home that overly observes its occupants, even if technical and
organizational challenges are overcome. Few individuals object to using a thermostat to regulate
the temperature inside a home, but most people value having the ability to adjust the thermostat.
Human iinterface idesigners imust imake iit isimple ifor iresidents ito iconfigure ithe ihome iand
ioverride ipre-programmed isettings ias ithe ihardware iand isoftware iused ito ihandle ihome
iautomation isystems iget imore icomplicated. i

[2] According to research by S. Panalippan and colleagues ipublished iin ithe iInternational
iJournal iof iComputer iApplications, iGSM-based ihome iautomation iis ithe isimplest iand
imost iaffordable way to make a house smart. Installation, administration, troubleshooting, and
debugging of the system are relatively straightforward, and the necessary hardware is easily
accessible on the market. The suggested system offers three ways to operate the house: voice,
the Internet, and the GSM network. Home automation systems come with a wide range of
possibilities. These are all looked at. One crucial component of home automation systems is
real-time monitoring. When the condition of the devices changes, the user could be informed
immediately. A PC typically handles the transmission of user commands to a server. The server
processes the user orders before sending them to the proper units. This may facilitate appliance
control. In areas where there might not be adequate internet coverage, GSM is utilized as a
communication tool to aid in establishing a connection. To connect with the GSM modem, the
server employs AT instructions. J2ME is used in the creation of the mobile interface. The four
engines that are now running on the server are the web server, database, principal control
software, and speech recognition application. SMS may be used to operate the system. It can
communicate confirmations. Using a dynamic time-wrapping method, speech is processed.
Testing showed that the voice activation was very cumbersome. The voice input can be enabled
via a wireless device the user carries about the house as a more reliable option. The
microcontroller, I/O device, transmitter, and receiver are the four components that make up
each application node. The server's main control application receives real-time status updates
from the device's transceiver. The mobile interface was developed using J2ME. The four
engines that are now running on the server are the web server, database, principal control

10
software, and speech recognition application. The system may be controlled by SMS. It is
capable of conveying affirmations.

To process speech, a technique called dynamic time wrapping is employed. Testing showed
that the voice activation was very cumbersome. A more dependable alternative is to enable
voice input through a wireless device the user carries around the house. A microcontroller, an
I/O device, a transmitter, and a receiver are the components that make up each application
node. The device's transceiver sends real-time status updates to the server's primary control
application.

The system controls home appliances with a PIC16F887 microcontroller. GSM is used to control
the appliances. SMS is used in this system. GSM has been used because of its excellent coverage,
availability, and security.

The primary way for controlling home appliances is SMS codes. The GSM network enables the
delivery of AT commands, which manage the home appliances. The device has the ability to SMS
the user with messages. However, using this method can incur additional SMS fees. The device
cannot be used by the user via a user interface (UI). A drawback of this technique is that it cannot
program the gadgets. Additionally, SMS is network-dependent and its delivery may be delayed.
The system relies on the user to keep track of it as it lacks any status information about the devices.

To operate the home appliances, a system based on SMS and the GSM network is utilized. the
Arduino board serves as the appliance interface controller. It employs To this, certain peripheral
drivers and relay interfacing. The user interface device is a smartphone. The system uses the visual
programming tool "App Inventor" to create the app's UI and other necessary tools. Depending on
user commands, an app creates SMS messages. and transmits them to the Arduino's GSM modem.
This enables control of the user's household appliances. The device has the same shortcomings in
terms of price and dependability as SMS. The interface is also pre-programmed and cannot be
modified according to the devices.

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 Figure 2.1 Flow diagram of simulation. [2]

The isystem idepicted iin ifigure i2 imakes iuse iof iBluetooth iand ia icell iphone. iBluetooth
itechnology iis iaffordable iand isafe. iIt iutilizes ia iBluetooth iArduino iboard. iThe iuser iinterface
ion ia imobile iphone iis iprovided iby ian iinteractive iPython iapplication. iRelays iand ithe
iBluetooth iboard's iI/O iports iare iutilized ifor icommunication iwith ithe itarget idevices. iTo
iguarantee ithat ithe isystem iis isafe iand inot iutilized iby iany iintruders, iBluetooth iis ipassword-
protected. iA irange iof i10 ito i100 imeters, i2.4 iGHz ibandwidth, iand i3 iMbps speed are all
features of Bluetooth. The phone's Python app is portable. Additionally, it is a quick and
economical technique. A diagnostic mechanism is available to find circuitry issues. After each
signal toggle, a feedback mechanism will indicate the state of the devices. The biggest problem
with Bluetooth is that it takes a while to find and connect to nearby devices. It doesn't offer advice
on how to save electricity. Real-time access is not possible. The gadgets cannot be accessed from
anywhere. Access is restricted to Bluetooth-enabled devices. Home appliance control is made
possible via Bluetooth technology. The Bluetooth module, sensor circuit, and pulse width
modulation circuit are all connected to the client, a PC, through USB. The control of the circuit is
done via sensors and actuators. It may accept different commands over Bluetooth thanks to the
Bluetooth module that is linked to it. Other gadgets are simply scanned for and detected by
Bluetooth devices. It could also be feasible to determine whether or not a gadget is functioning
correctly. Additionally, the system contains a temperature sensor and an illumination sensor that
may switch on lights when the ambient light is dim. The Bluetooth range of just about 10 meters is

12
another downside of this technology. The ability of this technology to attach to an existing system
is a benefit. This method is also quite inexpensive.

Figure 2.2 Controllable appliances using GSM module.[5]

[3] According to Rozita Teymourzadeh GSM network is favored among cellular technologies for
communication between home appliances and users because of its wide coverage, which keeps the
entire system online virtually all of the time. Another ibenefit iof iutilizing ithe iGSM inetwork iin
ihome iautomation iis iits ihigh-security iarchitecture, iwhich iensures imaximum idependability
iand iprevents iothers ifrom imonitoring ithe iinformation iprovided ior ireceived. iAs ia iresult,
ithis istudy iuses ithe iGSM iarchitecture ito ienable iSMS-based icontrol ifor ihome iappliances
iwithout iaccess ito ithe ilocal network.

A iGSM-based ihome iautomation isystem iis iprovided. iThe iarchitecture iis imade iup iof ia
imobile iphone iand ia iGSM imodem. iIn ithe iproposed isystem iarchitecture, ian iincoming iSMS
imessage iis idelivered ias ia itext imessage ifrom ithe iuser’s iphone ito ithe iGSM imodem iover
ithe icellular inetwork. iThe iGSM imodem ithen idelivers ithe iorders ito ithe iPIC imicrocontroller
iin itext imode ithrough ian iRS232 iport. iThe iRS232 ivoltage ilevels iare iset ito i12V, iwhile
ithe imicrocontroller iinput iand ioutput iare iset ifrom i0V ito i+5V. iBecause iRS232 iis
iincompatible iwith imicrocontrollers, iMAX232 iis iused ito iallow icommunication ibetween ithe
iGSM imodem iand ithe iPIC imicrocontroller iby iconverting iRS232-level isignals ito iTTL-level
isignals. iThe iincoming imessage ifrom ithe isystem iindicating ithe istatus iof ithe ihome
iappliances iis isupplied ito ithe imobile iphone ithrough ia iGSM imodem.

13
 Figure 2.3 GSM Simulation [4]

2.4. Review Summary

Cellular technology has been adopted by several researchers to enable remote control of
household appliances. Using a system, home appliances can be turned on and off, their output
power can be controlled, and their usage patterns may be programmed, according to (Chen et
al., 2004). These systems include personal icomputers, iinterface icards, iradio itransmitters,
iradio ireceivers, imicroprocessors, iac iphase icontrol icircuits, iwindow-type isoftware, iand
imicroprocessor icontrol isoftware. For home automation through the internet, an object-
oriented philosophy was put forth by (Nunes, 2000). Later, SOAP-Based iResidential
iManagement ifor iSmart iHome iSystems iwas created and iimplemented i(Perumal, iT.,
i2008). For operating multimedia equipment like video cameras and infrared remote controls
over the Internet, the iremote iAppliance iControl iProtocol i(RACP) architecture has been
developed and put into use (Kouji et al., 2001). In order to control, diagnose problems with,
and update software for household appliances, a mobile phone with Bluetooth (Kanna, 2003).
The iwireless itechnologies iBluetooth iand iWireless iApplication iProtocol (WAP), which are
still in their infancy, were proposed for ia iwireless ihome inetwork icontrol system (Website
1 and Website 2). Every time they are within Bluetooth range, mobile phones function as a
server (remote controllers) and automatically operate the installed home appliances. However,

14
one popular solution to the Bluetooth constraints is to use SMS-based functionality to operate
household electronic goods. As a result, the iresearch istream ifor iGSM-SMS-based ismart
homes gained a new dimension thanks to the multi-agent method.

2.5. Problem Definition

In our everyday lives, electricity has become essential. It is impossible to imagine surviving
without power. It has just begun to function as a limiting source. We cannot allow even a small
fraction of it to be wasted. Any home appliance, such as a lightbulb, microwave, TV, or fan,
can be accessed remotely via a smartphone and turned off via SMS if we forget to turn it off.
Even though it's not always practicable, there are occasions when it's essential to operate the
appliances even if you aren't close to the residence for a variety of reasons. As a result, the
inhabitants now have control over the house thanks to the usage of a remote. If a simple mobile
phone takes on the crucial duty of controlling the smart home, then control is then possible
from almost any location on Earth, anywhere and everywhere people travel and reside. Today,
a sizable population makes use of mobile services. A system that allows for remote SMS
control of household appliances can therefore benefit a large population, something that would
not be possible through other platforms like the Web.

2.6. Goals/Objectives

a. Message-controlled home appliances.

b. A GSM signal is received by the microcontroller.

c. The load is interfaced with the microcontroller.

d. Receiving the signal from the controller turns on or off the load.

15
 CHAPTER 3.
DESIGN PROCESS

3.1. Evaluation & Selection of Features

Cellular technology has been adopted by several researchers to enable remote control of
household appliances. Using a system, home appliances can be turned on and off, their output
power can be controlled, and their usage patterns may be programmed, according to (Chen et
al., 2004). These systems include personal icomputers, iinterface icards, iradio itransmitters,
iradio ireceivers, imicroprocessors, iac iphase icontrol icircuits, iwindow-type isoftware, iand
imicroprocessor icontrol isoftware. For home automation through the internet, an iobject-
oriented iphilosophy was put forth by (Nunes, 2000). Later, SOAP-Based iResidential
iManagement ifor iSmart iHome iSystems was created and implemented i(Perumal, iT., i2008).
iFor operating multimedia equipment like video cameras and infrared remote controls over the
Internet, the iremote iAppliance iControl iProtocol (RACP) architecture has been developed
and put into use (Kouji et al., 2001). In order to control, diagnose problems with, and update
software for household appliances, a mobile phone with Bluetooth (Kanna, 2003). The
iwireless itechnologies iBluetooth iand iWireless iApplication iProtocol i(WAP), which are
still in their infancy, were proposed for a wireless home network control system (Website 1
and Website 2). Every time they are within Bluetooth range, mobile phones function as a server
(remote controllers) and automatically operate the installed home appliances. However, one
popular solution to the Bluetooth constraints is to use SMS-based functionality to operate
household electronic goods. As a result, the research stream for GSM-SMS-based smart homes
gained a new dimension thanks to the multi-agent method.

3.2. Design Constraints

The ihome iautomation isystem ifaces ifour imajor ichallenges: high ownership costs,
intransigence, poor configurability, and idifficulty iachieving isecurity. iAndroid smartphones
are now widely available at low prices. The Android operating system is becoming increasingly
popular for its ease of use, making it one of the primary reasons for using it to control the entire
device. Smart home devices are a process that improves the quality of life of residents by

16
providing a flexible, comfortable, and secure environment. Among the most popular systems
in iinternational imarkets iis iInternet-based ihome iautomation isystems. Remote controlling
and being able to monitor a house via the internet necessarily involves the use of a ilaptop ior
icomputer, iwhich iis icomparatively ilarge iand iheavy ito itote iaround iall day. As an
alternative, a cell telephone with an operating system can be used for remote control and
monitoring of a home. Because a cell telephone could be carried all day, it is possible to
remotely track the condition of our house using a cell device instead of a laptop or computer.
The home automation system faces four major challenges: high ownership costs, intransigence,
poor configurability, and difficulty achieving security. Android smartphones are now widely
available at low prices. The Android operating system is becoming increasingly popular for its
ease of use, making it one of the primary reasons for using it to control the entire device.

3.3. Analysis and Features finalization subject to constraints

3.3.1. Small size

The overall set is very small and lightweight. For commercial purposes, it fits easily into an i8
ito i10-inch isquare ibox.

3.3.2. Cheap

The microcontrollers iused ito ibuild ithe isystem iare inexpensive 8-bit microcontrollers. The
sensors are reasonably priced. Low-resistance wires connect the sensors to the board.

3.3.3. Emergency automatic alert

When the sensor recognizes an unexpected event in the house, it sounds like an audible alarm
in addition to transmitting a user notification. So that the neighbors are also aware that
something unusual has happened in the house.

3.3.4. Global coverage

GSM networks now reach almost every corner of the globe. As a result, users could perhaps
utilize the system even if they are in a remote location far from urban areas.

3.4. Design Flow

3.4.1. Home Automation Using Bluetooth

Bluetooth itechnology iis iboth isafe iand iinexpensive. iIt iemploys ia iBluetooth iModule
iboard. iThe ifront iof ithe icell iphone iis iprovided iby ian iinteractive iPython iprogram. iThe

17
iWi-Fi iboard's iI/O iports ias iwell ias irelays iare iused ito iinterface iwith ithe idevices ito ibe
icontrolled. Bluetooth seems to be highly secured to keep the system safe and protected so that
intruders do not misuse it. Bluetooth does have a spectrum of ten to one hundred meters, a
bandwidth iof i2.4 iGHz, iand ia ispeed iof i3Mbps. iHome iappliances iare icontrolled via
Bluetooth technology. The customer is a PC ithat iis ilinked ito ithe iBluetooth imodule, isensor
icircuit, iand imodulation ipulse iwidth icircuit ivia iUSB. The circuit is controlled by sensors
and actuators. It will be able to receive various commands over Bluetooth thanks to the
Bluetooth that is linked to it. Bluetooth idevices ican isimply iscan ifor iand idetect iother
idevices. iIt imay ialso ibe ipossible ito iexamine iwhether ior inot igadgets iare ifunctioning
iproperly. iThe isystem ialso iincludes ia ibrightness isensor ithat imay iswitch ion ilights iwhen
ithe ioutside ilight iis idim, ias iwell ias ia itemperature isensor.

3.4.2. Home Automation Using GSM

The iGSM imodule icommunicates iwith the operational SIM. Any iinstructions isent ior
ireceived iby ithe iuser iare isent ito ithe imodule ivia ithe ifunctioning iSIM inumber. iThe
imodule ithen iinterprets ithe imessage isent iby ithe iuser iand idelivers icommands ito ithe
ioperational imicrocontroller. iThe idevice ialso idetects ithe isignal ifrom ithe ioperational
imicrocontroller iand idelivers ithe iappropriate imessage ito ithe iuser. iAs ia iresult, ithe
iGSM imodule serves as a link between the home and the user's system. The following GSM
communication modes are available:

(1) Based upon Text: Turning on/off load is as simple as sending an SMS. This may also send
an SMS to an owner if there is an intruder or a fire threat.

(2) Based ion ivoice imessage: iIt iis ia ismart iintrusion ialarm ithat isends ia iwhich iwas
ibefore ivoice imessage ito ithe ipolice ior ifire istation.

(3) Internet-based: With this capability, we can operate the gadget from any part of the globe
that has an internet connection.

3.5. Design Selection

Bluetooth itechnology iis iboth isafe iand iinexpensive. iIt iemploys ia iBluetooth iModule
iboard. iThe ifront iof ithe icell iphone iis iprovided iby ian iinteractive iPython iprogram. iThe
iWi-Fi iboard's iI/O iports ias iwell ias irelays iare iused ito iinterface iwith ithe idevices ito ibe
icontrolled. Bluetooth seems to be highly secured to keep the system safe and protected so that
intruders do not misuse it. Bluetooth does have a spectrum of ten to one hundred meters, a

18
ibandwidth iof i2.4 iGHz, iand ia ispeed iof i3Mbps. iHome iappliances iare icontrolled via
Bluetooth technology. The customer is a PC ithat iis ilinked ito ithe iBluetooth imodule, isensor
icircuit, iand imodulation ipulse iwidth icircuit ivia USB. The circuit is controlled by sensors
and actuators. It will be able to receive various commands over Bluetooth thanks to the
Bluetooth that is linked to it. Bluetooth idevices ican isimply iscan ifor iand idetect iother
idevices. iIt imay ialso ibe ipossible ito iexamine iwhether ior inot igadgets iare ifunctioning
iproperly. iThe isystem ialso iincludes ia ibrightness isensor ithat imay iswitch ion ilights iwhen
ithe ioutside ilight iis idim, ias iwell ias ia itemperature isensor.

The biggest disadvantage of iBluetooth iis ithat iit ia ilong itime ito iidentify iand iaccess
inearby idevices It makes no recommendations for energy conservation. Real-time access is
not possible. Access to gadgets cannot be obtained from anywhere. Access is restricted to the
Bluetooth range.

The iGSM imodule icommunicates with the operational SIM. Any instructions sent or received
by the iuser iare isent ito ithe imodule ivia ithe ifunctioning iSIM inumber. iThe imodule ithen
iinterprets ithe imessage sent by the user and delivers icommands ito ithe ioperational
imicrocontroller. iThe idevice ialso idetects ithe isignal ifrom ithe ioperational imicrocontroller
iand idelivers ithe iappropriate imessage ito ithe iuser. iAs ia iresult, ithe GSM module serves
as a link between the home and the user's system. The following GSM communication modes
are available:

(1) Based upon Text: Turning on/off load is as simple as sending an SMS. This may also send
an SMS to an owner if there is an intruder or a fire threat.

(2) Based on voice message: It is a smart intrusion alarm that sends a which was before voice
message to the police or fire station.

(3) Internet-based: With this capability, we can operate the gadget from any part of the globe
that has an internet connection.

19
3.6. Methodology

Figure 3.1 Block diagram

20
 CHAPTER 4.
RESULT ANALYSIS AND VALIDATION

4.1. Implementation of Solutions

4.1.1. Tools used:

a) Transformer:

Transformers transfer alternating current (AC) electricity from one voltage to another while
causing little power loss. Step-up transformers raise voltage, whereas step-down
transformers lower voltage. A step-down transformer is used in most power supplies to
lower the dangerous levels of voltage to a relatively low voltage.

Figure 4.1 Transformer[4]

The iprimary icoil iis ithe ione iat ithe iinput, iwhile ithe isecondary icoil iis ithe ione iat
ithe ioutput. iThe itwo icoils iare iconnected iby ian ialternating imagnetic ifield iproduced
iin ithe itransformer's isoft-iron icore irather ithan iby ian ielectrical iconnection. iThe icore
iis isymbolized iby ithe itwo ilines iin ithe icenter iof ithe icircuit isymbol. iThe ipower iout
iis i(nearly) iequal ito ithe ipower iin isince itransformers ido inot ilose imuch ienergy. Take
note of this as the current is increased and the voltage is decreased.

The ivoltage iratio iis idetermined iby ithe iturn iratio, iwhich iis ithe iratio iof ithe inumber
iof iturns ion ieach icoil. iA istep-down itransformer ihas ia ihigh inumber iof iturns ion iits
iprimary i(input) icoil, iwhich iis ilinked ito ithe ihigh-voltage imains isupply, iand ia ilow
inumber iof iturns ion iits isecondary i(output) icoil, iwhich iproduces ia ilow ioutput
voltage.

TURNS RATIO = (Vp / Vs) = (Np / Ns)

21
Where,

Vp i= iprimary ivoltage.

Vs i= isecondary ivoltage

Np i= iturns ion ithe iprimary i

Ns i= iturns ion ithe isecondary i

Ip i= iprimary icurrent

iIs i= isecondary icurrent.

Ideal iPower iEquation

Figure 4.2 Ideal Power Equation [1]

Electrical power is passed from ithe iprimary iwinding ito ithe isecondary windings
when ithe isecondary iwinding is connected to a load that enables current to flow. In
ian iideal iworld, ithe itransformer iis icompletely iefficient, itransforming iall
iincoming ienergy ifirst ifrom ithe iprimary icircuit ito ithe imagnetic ifield iand ithen

22
 iinto ithe isecondary iwindings. iIf ithis icondition iis isatisfied, ithe iincoming iand
ideparting ielectric ipower imust ibe iequal:

When the voltage is raised the current is reduced by the same amount. In one circuit,
the impedance is converted by the square of the turn’s ratio. For example, if an
impedance Zs is connected across the ends of the second winding, it appears to the
primary coil to possess an impedance of (Np/Ns)2Zs. Because this connection is
reciprocal, the primary circuit's impedance Zp shows to the secondary as (Ns/Np)2Zp.

b) Voltage Regulator 7805

• iOutput iCurrent iup ito i1A.
• Output iVoltages iof i5, i6, i8, i9, i10, i12, i15, i18, i24V.
• Thermal iOverload iProtection. i
• Short iCircuit iProtection.
• iOutput iTransistor iSafe iOperating iArea iProtection.

Figure 4.3 Voltage Regulator[5]

The iTO-220/D-PAK ipackaging iand ia ivariety iof ipreset ioutput voltages make the
LM78XX/LM78XXA family of 3 positive regulators effective in a diverse range iof
iapplications. iInternal icurrent ilimiting, ithermal ishutdown, iand isafe ioperating iarea
iprotection iare iused iby ieach ikind, imaking iit ialmost iindestructible. iThey ican
iprovide imore ithan i1A ioutput icurrent iif iappropriate iheat isinking iis igiven. iAlthough

23
ithese idevices iare igenerally iintended ito ibe ifixed ivoltage iregulators, ithey imay ibe
iused iin iconjunction iwith iexternal icomponents ito iprovide ichangeable ivoltages iand
icurrents.

Figure 4.4 Block Diagram of voltage regulator[1]

Table 4.1 Rating of the voltage regulator

24
c) Rectifier
A irectifier iis ian ielectrical iappliance ithat itransforms iAC i(AC), iwhich iflips idirection
ion ia iregular ibasis, ito idirect icurrent i(DC), iwhich itravels iexclusively iin ione
idirection, ia iprocess icalled ias irectification. iRectifiers iare iused iin ia ivariety iof
iapplications, iincluding ipower isupply icomponents iand iradio isignal idetectors.
iRectifiers ican ibe iconstructed iusing isolid-state idiodes, ivacuum itube idiodes, imercury
iarc ivalves, ias iwell ias iother icomponents. iThe irectifier ireceives ithe itransformer's
ioutput. iIt itransforms ialternating icurrent iinto ipulsing idirect icurrent. iThe irectifier ican
ibe ieither ihalf-wave ior ifull-wave. iA ibridge irectifier iis ichosen iin ithis iproject idue
ito iits ibenefits isuch ias istrong istability i& ifull iwave irectification.

Figure 4.5 Rectifier [3]

d) Filter
In this project, a capacitive filter is utilized. It smoothens the iD.C. iand ieliminates iripples
ifrom ithe irectifier's ioutput. iUntil ithe ipower isupply ivoltage iand iload iare ikept
iconstant, ithe ioutput ifrom ithis ifilter iremains iconstant. iThe iD.C. ipower ireceived iat
ithis imoment, ihowever, ialters iif ione iof ithe itwo iis ialtered. iA iregulator iis ithus iused
iat ithe ioutput istep.
The imost fundamental kind of power distribution filter is the straightforward capacitor
filter. This filter is only sometimes used. It is occasionally used on power sources for
cathode-ray and other electron tubes that demand so little current from of the supply yet
have extremely high voltages and low currents. Circuits with a rather high and unimportant
power supply ripple frequency can also utilize this filter.

25
 Figure 4.6 Capacitor charging and discharging [1]

e) Microcontroller IC: (89C51)

A CMOS 8-bit microprocessor with low power consumption and great performance, the
AT89C51 has i4 iKbytes iwith iFlash iProgrammable i& iErasable iRead-Only iMemory
i(PEROM). iThe iproduct iis imade iwith ihigh-density iflash istorage itechnology ifrom
iAtmel, iand iits ipinout iand iinstruction iset iare icompliant iwith ithe iMCS-51 istandard.
iThe ion-chip iFlash ienables iin-system ior ithrough ia itypical inonvolatile istorage
iprogram- imer ireprogramming iof ithe iprogram imemory. iThe iAtmel iAT89C51 iis ia
ipotent imicrocomputer ithat ioffers ia ihighly iflexible iand iaffordable ianswer ito iseveral
iembedded icontrol itasks iby ifusing ia iflexible i8-bit iCPU iand iFlash ion ia single chip.

The AT89C51 ioffers ithe ifollowing ifeatures ias istandard: iA ifull iduplex iserial iport,
ian ion-chip ioscillation, iand iclock circuits, 32 I/O lines, two 16-bit countdown, five
vectors two-level interrupt architecture, 4 Kbytes of Flash, 128 bytes of RAM, The
AT89C51 also features two software configurable power saving modes and static logic
allowing operating down to izero ifrequency. iThe iCPU iis iturned ioff iin iidle imode, ibut
ithe iRAM, itimers iand icounters, iserial iport, iand iinterrupt isystem iare istill
ioperational. The power-off mode preserves the RAM data but stops all further operations
until the subsequent hardware reset by freezing the oscillator.

26
 Features:
• Compatible iwith iProducts iMCS-51.
• In-System iReprogrammable iFlash iMemory iof i4 iKbytes. i1,000 iWrite/Erase
iCycles iof iEndurance.
• Three-Level iProgram iMemory iLock iFully iStatic iOperation: i0 iHz ito i24
iMHz.
• Internal iRAM iof i128 ix i8 ibits.
• 32 iI/O ilines ithat ican ibe iprogrammed.
• Two i16-bit itimers ior icounters.
• Six iinterrupt isources, ia iserial ichannel ithat imay ibe iprogrammed, iand ilow-
power iidle iand ipower-down imodes.

Figure 4.7 Pin Diagram [5]

• VCC: Supply voltage.

• GND: Ground.
• Port 0

27
 An i8-bit iopen idrains ibilateral iI/O iport iis iPort i0. iEach ipin ican ibury ieight iTTL
iinputs as ian ioutput iport. iThe ipins ion iport i0 ican ibe iutilized ias ihigh-impedance
iinputs iwhen i1s iare iwritten ito ithem. iTo ifacilitate iaccess ito iexternal iprograms
iand idata imemory, iport i0 imay ialso ibe iset iup ito iserve ias ithe imultiplex ilow-
order iaddress/data ibus. iP0 ifeatures iinternal ipull-ups iin ithis imode. iDuring iFlash
iprogramming iand iprogram iverification, iPort i0 ialso ireceives i& ioutputs ithe icode
ibytes. iIt iis inecessary ito ido iexternal ipull-ups iwhile iverifying isoftware.
• Port i1
Port 1 is an internal pull-up, 8-bit, bidirectional I/O port. Four TTL inputs can be sourced
or sunk via the Port output layers buffers. When 1s are pushed to Port 1 pins, the internal
pull-ups raise them so they may be utilized as inputs. Due to the internal pull-ups, Port 1
ports that are remotely pushed low will source current (IIL). The low-order address bytes
are also received on port 1 throughout Flash programming and program verification.

• Port 2:
It iis ian iinner ipull-up, i8-bit, ibidirectional iI/O iport. iFour iTTL iinputs ican ibe
isourced ior isunk iusing ithe iPort’s itwo ioutput ifilters. iWhenever i1s iare isent ito
iPort i2 ipins, ithe iinternal ipull-ups iraise ithem iso ithey imay ibe iutilized ias iinputs.
iBecause iof ithe iinternal isqueeze, iPort i2 ipins ithat iare iexternally ipulled ilow iwill
isource icurrent i(IIL). iWhen iaccessing iexternal idata imemory iusing i16-bit
iaddresses i(MOVX i@ iDPTR) iand ifetching idata ifrom iexternal iprogram imemory,
iPort i2 itransmits ithe ihigh-order iaddress ibyte. iWhen iemitting i1s iin ithis
iapplication, iit imakes ipowerful iinternal ipull-ups. iPort i2 iemits ithe idata ifrom ithe
iP2 iSpecial iFunction iRegister iwhen iit iperforms ian i8-bit iaddress i(MOVX i@
iRI) iaccess ito iexternal idata imemory.
• Port 3:
An 8-bit directional I/O connection with inbuilt pull-ups is port number 3. Four TTL
inputs ican ibe isourced ior isunk ivia ithe iPort ithree ioutput ibuffers. iWhen i1s iare
isent ito iPort i3 ipins, ithe iinternal ipull-ups iraise ithem iso ithey imay ibe iutilized
ias iinputs. iBecause iof ithe ipull-ups, iPort i3 ipins ithat iare ibeing ipulled ilow
iexternally iwill isource icurrent i(IIL). The following key aspects of the AT89C51 are
also supported by Port 3:

28
 Table 4.2 Special Features of AT89C51

• RST

Reset iinput. iA ihigh ion ithis ipin ifor i2 icycles, iwhile ithe ioscillator iis irunning,
ireset ithe idevice.

• ALE/PROG

When accessing external memory, the low byte of the address is latched using the
Address Latch output pulse.
Additionally, when Flash programming, this pin serves as the program pulse input
(PROG).
Normal functioning results in the emission of ALE, which may be utilized for outside
timing or clocking applications, at a steady rate of 1/6 the oscillation frequency.
Observe, however, that each time you retrieve external data, one ALE phase is skipped.
Memory. Setting bit 0 at SFR position 8EH will prevent ALE functionality if desired.
The bit must be set in order for ALE to operate outside of ia iMOVX ior iMOVC
icommand. iInstead, ithe ipin iis ionly ishakily iraised. iIf ithe imicrocontroller iis
ioperating iin iexternal iexecution imode, itoggling ithe iWheat ibeer ibit ihas ino
iimpact.
• PSEN

The iread istrobe ito iexternal iprogram imemory iis icalled i"Program iStore iEnable."
iPSEN iis iengaged itwice ieach imachine icycle iwhen ithe iAT89C51 iis irunning
icode ifrom iexternal iprogram imemory, ibut itwo iPSEN iactivations iare iignored iif
iexternal idata imemory iis iaccessed.

29
• EA/VPP
Enable External Access The device can only fetch code from addresses in external
program memory starting at 0000H through FFFFH if EA is connected to GND. To be
aware, EA will be internally latched on reset if lock bit 1 is configured. In order to
execute internal programs, EA should be fastened to VCC. For components that need
12-volt VPP, this pin also gets the 12-volt programming enabling voltage (VPP) during
Flash programming.
• XTAL1

Input ito ithe iinverting iamplifier iand iinternal iclock ioperating icircuit.

• XTAL2

Output ifrom ithe iinverting ioscillator iamplifier.

• RESET Circuit
RESET is a high-input active input. The microcontroller resumes operation when
RESET is set to High. By keeping the RST higher for at least one or two machine phases
and then bringing it back low, the microcontroller can be reset.

Figure 4.8 Reset circuit [2]

• In contrast to many other microcontrollers, like the PIC, AVR, and others, the reset line
on the 8051 functions in a reverse way.
• The reset pin is often maintained low during normal operation using a small pull-down
resistor, in this instance 8.2K.

30
• When the switch and capacitor are shorted, the device is reset because the reset pin is
briefly pulled high.
• Pull the reset pin low once more to restore normal functioning as soon as the switch is
released, which starts the capacitor's charging process.
• When power is first provided, the capacitor is supposed to trigger a correct reset. When
power is connected, the capacitor starts to charge and maintains the reset line high (until
charged) for a sufficient amount of time to make sure the 8051 receives a suitable start-
up state.
• The crystal is used by the microcontroller to synchronize its functioning. The 8051 uses
what is referred to as "machine cycles" to function. The shortest period that a single
microcontroller instruction may be carried out in one machine cycle. Even though many
commands need numerous cycles.
• The oscillator on the microcontroller is integrated. The microcontroller's operating
frequency must be set by an external crystal.
• The crystal is linked to pins 18 and 19 with stabilizing capacitors in one of two methods.
The capacitance ranges from 20 pF to 40 pF, and the crystal frequency is frequently 12
MHz (11.059MHz).

• •As demonstrated, the oscillator can alternatively be a TTL clock source attached to a
NOT gate.

f) LCD Display
An ielectronic idisplay imodule icalled ian iLCD i(Liquid iCrystal iDisplay) iscreen ihas
iseveral iuses. iA i16x2 iLCD iis ia ivery ifundamental imodule ithat iis ifrequently
iincluded iin imany idifferent idevices iand icircuits. iThese imodules iare ipreferable iover
imulti-segment iLEDs iwith iseven isegments iand iadditional isegments. iThe
iexplanations iare ithat iLCDs iare iinexpensive, ieasily iprogramable, iand ihave ino
irestrictions ion ishowing iunusual iand ieven icustomized icharacters, ianimations, iand
iother icontent.
There iare i2 ilines iand ieach idisplay i16 icharacters. iEach icharacter ion ithis iLCD iis
ipresented iusing ia i5x7 ipixel imatrix. iThe iCommand iand iData iregister ion ithis iLCD
iare iits itwo iregisters.
The icommand iinstructions isent ito ithe iLCD iare istored iin ithe icommand iregister. iA
icommand iis ia idirective iissued ito ian iLCD idevice ito icarry iout ia icertain ioperation,
isuch ias iinitializing iit, iclearing iits iscreen, iadjusting ithe icursor, imanaging ithe

31
idisplay, ietc. iThe idata ithat iwill ibe ishown ion ithe iLCD iis ikept iin ithe idata iregister.
iThe icharacter's iASCII ivalue, iwhich iwill ibe ishown ion ithe iLCD, iis ithe idata. iClick
ihere ito ifind iout imore iabout ian iLCD's iinternal iconstruction.

Figure 4.9 Display [4]

32
Pin Description:

Table 4.3 Pin description

Pin
Function iName
no.
1 Ground i(0V) Ground
2 Supply ivoltage; i5V i(4.7V i– i5.3V) iVcc
3 Contrast iadjustment; ithrough ia ivariable iresistor iVEE
Selects icommand iregister iwhen ilow, iand idata iregister Register
4
iwhen ihigh iSelect
Low ito iwrite ito ithe iregister; iHigh ito iread ifrom ithe
5 Read/write
iregister
Sends idata ito idata ipins iwhen ia ihigh-to-low ipulse iis
6 Enable
igiven
7 DB0
8 DB1
9 DB2
10 DB3
8-bit idata ipins
11 DB4
12 DB5
13 DB6
14 DB7
15 Backlight iVCC i(5V) Led+
16 Backlight iGround i(0V) Led-

ALL iiLCD iiHAVE

• Eight i(8) iData ipins

• VCC i(Apply i5v ihere)
• GND i(Ground ithis ipin)
• RS i(Register iselect)
• RW i(read-write)

33
• EN i(Enable)
• V0 i(Set iLcd icontrast)

V0 i(set iLCD icontrast)

Lcd icontrast iis iset ihere. iThis ipin iis ilinked ito ithe ipotentiometer's ioutput. iVary
iLCD icontrast, iby imoving ithe ipotentiometer iknob.
RS i(Register iselect)
There iare itwo iregisters iin ievery iLCD:
1 iCommand iRegister
2 iData iRegister

Command iRegister

When iwe iare irequired ito isend icommands ito iLCD ithese icommands igo ito ithe
iCommand iregister iand iare iprocessed. i

When iRS=0 ii\Command iRegister iis iSelected.

Data Register

When we transmit Data ito iLCD iit igoes ito ithe iregister i& iprocessed ithere.
iWhen iRS=1 iData iRegister iis iselected.

iRW i(Read i- iWrite)

iWhen iRW=1 iread idata ifrom iLCD. iWhen iRW=0 iwrite ito iLCD.

EN (Enable signal)

When ithe iCommand iand iData registers are chosen iand iRW i(read-write) is set, the
instruction may now be carried out. I refer to an instruction as an 8-bit command or data
that is present on the LCD's Data lines.

The EN (enable) signal is utilized to provide the additional voltage push that is necessary
to carry out the command. Normally, we set en=0 and then set it when we wish to carry out
the command. For a few mile seconds, high en=1. We then set it to ground again with en=0.
For a few mile seconds, high en=1. We then set it to ground again with en=0.

34
g) Interfacing LCD
The iVEE ipin iis iused ito ialter ithe iLCD’s icontrast, iand ithe icontrast imay ibe ichanged
iby ichanging ithe ivoltage iat ithis ipin. This is accomplished by attaching a POT's center
terminal (wiper) to the VEE pin, its other end to the Ground, and its other end to the Vcc
(5V).
The idata iregister iand icommand iregister iare itwo ibuilt-in iregisters ion ithe iJHD162A.
The command register is where the commands go, and the data register is where the data
that will be shown goes. Each command in the 162 LCD module is designed to do a specific
task with the display. Later, we will go into more depth regarding the commands. The idata
iregister iwill ibe iselected iby ihigh ilogic iat ithe iRS ipin, iand ithe icommand iregister
iby ilow ilogic iat ithe iRS ipin. iThe iLCD imodule iwill identify data to be shown if we
set the RS pin to high and then insert it into the i8-bit idata iline i(DB0 ito iDB7). iThe
imodule iwill interpret data on the data line and a low RS pin as a command.
To iswitch ibetween iread iand iwrite imodes, iuse ithe iR/W ipin. iThis ipin's ihigh ilevel
iallows iread imode, iwhereas iits ilow ilevel ienables iwrite imode.
The module may be enabled via pin E. This pin's movement from high to low will allow
the module.
The data pins range from DB0 to DB7. These pins are used to attach the command
instructions and the data that will be displayed.
The LED+ pin, which serves as the backlight LED's anode, must be connected to Vcc
through an appropriate series current-limiting resistor. The LED- pin, which has to be
linked to the ground, is the cathode of the backlight LED.

35
 16×2 LCD module commands
Table 4.4 Commands

Command Function

0F LCD iON, iCursor iON, iCursor iblinking iON

01 Clear iscreen

02 Return ihome

04 Decrement icursor

06 Increment icursor

0E Display iON, iCursor iblinking iOFF

80 Force ithe icursor ito ithe ibeginning iof i1st iline

C0 Force ithe icursor ito ithe ibeginning iof i2nd iline

38 Use i2 ilines iand ia i5×7 imatrix

83 Cursor iline i1 iposition i3

3C Activate ithe isecond iline

08 Display iOFF, iCursor iOFF

C1 Jump ito ithe isecond iline, iposition1

36
 OC Display iON, iCursor iOFF

C1 Jump ito ithe isecond iline, iposition1

C2 Jump ito ithe isecond iline, iposition2

LCD iinitialization
• Send i38H ito ithe i8-bit idata iline ifor iinitialization
• Send i0FH ifor imaking iLCD iON, icursor iON iand icursor iblinking iON.
• Send i06H ifor iincrementing icursor iposition.
• Send i01H ifor iclearing ithe idisplay iand ireturn ithe icursor.

Sending idata ito ithe iLCD

▪ Make iR/W ilow.

▪ Make iRS=0 iif ithe idata ibyte iis ia icommand iand imake iRS=1 iif ithe idata ibyte iis
idata ito ibe idisplayed.
▪ Place ithe idata ibyte ion ithe idata iregister.
▪ Pulse iE ifrom ihigh ito ilow.
▪ Repeat ithe iabove isteps ifor isending ianother idata.
The icircuit design up top demonstrates how to connect an AT89S1 microprocessor to a 162
LCD module. The reset circuitry is composed of the icapacitor iC3, iresistor iR3, iand
ipushbutton iswitch iS1. iThe clock circuitry responsible for generating the system clock
frequency is comprised of iceramic icapacitors iC1, iC2, iand icrystal iX1. iData iis isent ito
ithe iLCD imodule ithrough ithe iP1.0 ito iP1.7 ipins iof ithe imicrocontroller, iwhich iare
ilinked ito ithe iDB0 ito iDB7 ipins iof ithe imodule, irespectively. iThe icontrol isignals iare
itransmitted ito ithe iLCD imodule ithrough iP3.3, iP3.4, iand iP3.5, iwhich iare icoupled ito
ithe iE, iR/W, iand iRS pins of the microcontroller. The backlight intensity and the current
flowing through the backlight LED are both limited by resistor R1.

37
h) GSM:
GSM i(Global iSystem ifor iMobile iCommunications, iformerly iGroupe iSpécial iMobile) iis
ia istandard ideveloped iby ithe iEuropean iTelecommunications iStandards iInstitute i(ETSI)
ito idescribe iprotocols ifor isecond-generation i(2G) idigital icellular inetworks iused iby
imobile iphones, iwhich iwas ifirst ideployed iin iFinland iin iJuly i1991.

GSM iis ia iwireless inetwork itechnology ibased ion iTDMA that was invented. GSM phones
utilize a SIM card to identify the customer's data. By simply transferring the SIM card, GSM
network customers may swiftly transfer their mobile number from one GSM phone to another.
GSM networks now run here on 850MHz, 900MHz, 1800MHz, & 1900MHz radio frequencies.
Gadgets that support all four bands are referred to as quad-band, whereas those that support
three or two bands are referred to as tri-band and dual, respectively. Cingular runs on the 850
& 1900MHz frequencies in the U. S., while T-Mobile exclusively operates on the 1900MHz
spectrum.

The imodule iis icontrolled iby ia imicrocontroller iand iincludes ia iTTL iserial iinterface ithat
ienables iit ito icommunicate iwith ithe imobile iphone idevice i(our icircuit's iPIC) ias iwell
ias ireceive icommands i- inormal iAT icommands iin ithe icase iof ia idata iphone iconnection.
iThis imodule iincludes, iin iaddition ito iits imicrophone, a Flash and SRAM, a UART, and
interfaces for LCD, audio, keyboard, or external SIM

Figure 4.10 Block Diagram[4]

GSM employs a digital air interface as its interface. Before transmission, analog speech signals
are transformed into non-digital signals. The GSM RF carrier can support up to 8 MS
38
subscribers at once. The transmission rate is 270 Kbps. The digital signals are sent using
Gaussian minimum shift keying (GMSK). A phase shift in GMSK describes the transition from
a digital "1" to a "0" that happens over time. The spectrum's inclusion of high-frequency
components is decreased. The phase change in GSMK is not continuous and is spaced out.

Figure 4.11 GSM module [5]

Cellular modems, particularly USB-stick models, are currently relatively inexpensive, but they
have limitations: they are expressly built for Internet connections, so you cannot use them as a
standard modem to perform, for example, point-to-point data transfers. GSM modems that
support this are few, therefore we created and give you one: it is a device for PC with a USB
interface that supports "speech" functions: there is a socket for a speaker and another for a
microphone.

The circuit is simplified by the use of Simcom SIM908 and SIM900 SIMCom mobile phone
modules. A TTL / USB type FT782M converter is used to implement the USB connection. Our
modem is suitable for performing data linkages without connection to the GPRS network or,

39
in any event, the Web and permits, for instance, the use of homing beacons GPS / GSM or
GSM alone in point-to-point mode to acquire rapid data location and monitor moves online. In
a nutshell, it enables direct internet connectivity with some other modem or cell telephone
provided by a modem, without the use of the internet: connections are established straight to
the GSM communications network.

Full iType iApproved iQuad iBand iEmbedded iGSM iModule i(GSM i i850/900 i1800/1900)
iwith iAT icommand iset iand iRS232 iinterface ion iCMOS ilevel. iThis iGSM iwireless idata
imodule iis ithe iready isolution ifor iremote iwireless iapplications, imachine-to-machine ior
iuser-to-machine, iand iremote idata icommunications iin iall ivertical imarket iapplications.

The iGSM imodule ioffers ithe iadvantages ibelow:

• Ultra-small isize i(22x22x3 imm), ilightweight i(3.2 ig), iand ieasy ito iintegrate
• Low ipower iconsumption
• R&TTE itype iapproval iplus iCE, iGCF, iFCC, iPTCRB, iIC
• Full iRS232 ion iCMOS ilevel iwith iflow icontrol i(RX, iTX, iCTS, iRTS, iCTS, iDTR,
iDSR, iDCD, iRI)
• Embedded iTCP/IP iStack iUDP/IP iStack, iEmbedded iFTP, iand iSMTP iClient
• High iperformance ion ilow iprice

Smallest isize idesigned ifor itiny iapplication

Tracking i(people, ianimals, ipeople), icontainer itracking, iPDA, iPOS iterminal, iPCMCIA
icards, iAMR

Pin ito iPin iupgrading ipolicy ito iprotect iyour idevelopment iinvestments iHigh-level
technical assistance to assist iyou iwith ithe iintegration iof iyour isolution

• Comprehensive iproduct idocumentation

• Evaluation ikit iand idesign ireference
• Rapid itechnical isupport ivia ispecialized ie-mail iservices iand ia iuser iforum
• Extensive itechnical ihelp iprovided iby ispecialized iengineering isupport
• RD iassistance iand icertification ilab ifor iall iof iyour irequirements.

40
Product iFeatures:

• GSM i1800/1900 iand iE-GSM i900/1800 iMHz iwith GSM Phase 2 / 2+

• Class 4 (2W) output power at GSM 850/900 MHz iand iClass i1 i(1W) ioutput ipower iat
iGSM i1800/1900 iMHz.
• Control iusing iAT icommands i(ITU, iGSM, iGPRS, iand imanufacturer isupplementary)
• Supply ivoltage irange: i3.22 iV i- i4.2 iV, inominal: i3.8 iV
• Power iconsumption: i1.8 imA iin iidle imode, i200 imA iin ispeech imode i(average)
• Size i(mm): i3 ix i20 ix i20; iweight i(g): i3.2 i(including ishielding)

Interfaces

• Nominal ipower isupply iof i3,8 iV i• i10 ipublic iI/O iports iand iserial isemi ibus ion
iCMOS i2,8 iV
• Analogue iaudio ifor ithe ispeaker, ispeaker, iand hands-free iset, ias iwell ias ia idigital
ivoice iinterface
• RS232 ion iCMOS i2,8 iV i(Single iRS232 i(2,8V) iwith iflow iconditions i(RX, iTX,
iCTS, iRTS, iCTS, iDTR, iDSR, iDCD, iRI), ibaud irate i300 i- 115.200
• Antenna connection (50 Ohm)

Audio

• Telecommunications & emergency calls (HR, FR, EFR)

• Noise reduction and echo cancellation
• DTMF
• Handset ifunctions iand ibasic ihands-free ifunctionality

SMS

Cell Broadcast, Mobile iOriginated i(MO), iand iMobile iTerminated i(MT) iSMS i(CB i-
iDRX)

GPRS, data, and Fax

• Up to 14.4 kbps Circuit Switched Data (CSD)

• Packed iData i(GPRS iclass iB, iclass i10) iup ito i115 ikbps

41
 • Fax Group 3

GSM iSupplementary iServices

• Call iBarring iand iCall iForwarding

• Charge iAdvice i•
• Call iWaiting iand iCall iHold i
• Call iLine iIdentification iPresentation i(CLIP) i
• Call iLine iIdentification iRestriction i(CLIR) i
• Unstructured iSS iMobile iOriginated iData i(USSD)

Other iFeatures

• Gsm iPhonebook iadministration

• FDN i
• SIM iToolbox iclass i2 i
• Real-time iclock i
• Alarm icontrol

Network structure

The structure is divided into several distinct parts:

• Base Station Subsystem - an explanation of ground stations and their operators

• Network iand iSwitching iSubsystem i- ithe inetwork icomponent imost icomparable ito ia
ifixed inetwork, ialso iknown ias ithe i"core inetwork." i
• GPRS iCore iNetwork i- ithe ioptional icomponent ithat isupports ipacket-based iInternet
iconnections.
• Operations isupport isystem i(OSS) i- inetwork iadministration

42
 i) Base istation isubsystem

Figure 4.12 GSM Cell site [6]

GSM is a cell phone, which implies that mobile phones link to it by looking for nearby cells.
A GSM network has five cell sizes: macro, micro, pico, femto, and umbrella cells. Each cell's
coverage area changes depending on the implementation environment. Macro icells iare icells
iin iwhich ithe ibase istation iantenna iis imounted ion ia ipole ior ia ibuilding ihigher iabove
ithe inormal irooftop iheight. Microcells are cells with antennas that are lower than the normal

43
rooftop height; they are commonly utilized in urban areas. Picocells are tiny cells with a few
dozen-meter coverage diameters that are mostly utilized inside. Femtocells are cells that
connect ito ithe iservice iprovider's inetwork ivia ia ibroadband iinternet iconnection iand iare
iintended ifor iusage iin ia ihome ior ismall ibusiness isetting. iUmbrella icells iare iused ito
icover ishaded iareas iof ismaller icells iand ito ifill icoverage igaps ibetween ithose icells.

The ihorizontal iradius of a cell ranges from a few hundred meters to many tens of kilometers
depending on antenna height, antenna gain, and propagation circumstances. In actual use, the
GSM istandard ienables ia imaximum idistance iof i35 ikilometers i(22 imi). iThere iare ialso
inumerous iimplementations iof ithe inotion iof ian iextended icell, iin iwhich ithe icell iradius
ican ibe idoubled ior ieven itripled idepending ion ithe iantenna isystem, iterrain itype, iand
itemporal iadvance. iGSM ialso isupports iinterior icoverage, iwhich imay ibe idone iby
iemploying an indoor ipicocell ibase istation ior ian iindoor irepeater iwith idispersed iindoor
iantennas isupplied iby ipower isplitters ito isend iradio isignals ifrom ian ioutside iantenna ito
ia iseparate iinside idistributed iantenna isystem. iThese iare ioften iused iwhere ilarge icall
icapacity iis irequired iindoors, isuch ias iat iretail imalls ior iairports. iHowever, ithis iis inot
irequired ibecause iin-building ipenetration iof iradio isignals ifrom iany ineighboring icell
provides interior coverage as well.

GSM carrier frequencies

GSM inetworks ioperate iin iseveral idifferent icarrier ifrequency iranges i(separated iinto
iGSM ifrequency iranges ifor i2G iand iUMTS ifrequency ibands ifor i3G), iwith imost i2G
iGSM inetworks ioperating iin ithe i900 iMHz ior i1800 iMHz ibands. iThese ibands iare
ialready iprovided, ithe i850 iMHz iand i1900 iMHz ibands iare iused iin ithat iplace. iIn irare
icases, ithe i400 iand i450 iMHz ifrequency ibands iare iassigned iin isome icountries ibecause
ithey iwere ipreviously iused ifor ifirst-generation isystems.

Whatever ifrequency ian ioperator ichooses, iit iis isplit iinto itimeslots ifor iindividual iphones.
Per radio frequency, this provides either eight ifull-rate ior isixteen ihalf-rate ispeaking
ichannels. iA iTDMA iframe iis imade iup iof ieight iradio itimeslots i(or iburst iperiods). iIn
ihalf-rate ichannels, ialternating iframes iare iused iin ithe isame itimeslot. iThe itotal ichannel
idata irate iis i270.833 ikbit/s, iand ithe iframe itime iis 4.615 ms.

The ihandset's itransmission ipower iis ilimited ito ia imaximum iof i2 iwatts iin iGSM
i850/900 iand i1 iwatt iin iGSM i1800/1900.

44
Subscriber iIdentity iModule (SIM)

The Subscriber iIdentity iModule, isometimes iknown ias a SIM card, is a vital aspect of GSM.
The SIM card is a removable smart card that contains the user's subscription information as
well as a phone book. This enables the user to save his or her information after changing
devices. Alternatively, the customer can switch carriers while keeping the device by just
swapping the SIM card. Some carriers will prevent this by enabling the phone to use only a
single SIM card or a SIM card supplied by them; this is known as SIM locking.

j) Relay

A basic ielectromagnetic irelay iis imade iup iof ia iwire icoil iwrapped iaround ia isoft iiron
icore, ian iiron iyoke ithat ioffers ia ilow iresistance ichannel ifor imagnetic iflux, ia imoveable
iiron iarmature, iand ione ior imore icontact isets i(there iare itwo iin ithe irelay ipictured). iThe
iarmature iis imechanically icoupled ito ione ior imore isets iof imovable icontacts iand iis
ihinged ito ithe iyoke. iIt iis imaintained iin iplace iby ia ispring, iresulting iin ian iair igap iin
ithe imagnetic icircuit iwhen ithe irelay iis ide-energized. iIn ithis istate, ione iof ithe itwo isets
iof icontacts iin ithe irelay ishown iis iclosed, iwhile ithe iother iis iopen. iDepending ion itheir
irole, iother irelays imay ihave imore ior ifewer isets iof iconnections. iA iwire iconnects ithe
iarmature ito ithe iyoke ion ithe irelay iin ithe iillustration. iThis iguarantees icircuit icontinuity
ibetween ithe iarmature's imoving icontacts iand ithe icircuit itrack ion ithe iprinted icircuit
iboard i(PCB) ithrough ithe iyoke, iwhich iis iconnected ito ithe iPCB.

When ian ielectric icurrent iis isent ithrough ithe icoil, it creates a magnetic ifield ithat iactivates
ithe iarmature, iand ithe iresulting imovement iof ithe imoveable icontact(s) ieither iforms ior
ibreaks ia iconnection iwith ia ifixed icontact i(depending ion idesign). iIf ithe icontacts iwere
iclosed iwhen ithe irelay iwas ide-energized, ithe imovement iopens ithe icontacts iand ibreaks
ithe iconnection, iand ivice iversa iif ithe icontacts iwere iopened iwhen ithe irelay iwas ide-
energized. iWhen ithe icurrent ito ithe icoil iis ishut ioff, ithe iarmature iis irestored ito iits
irelaxed istate iby ia iforce iabout ihalf ias istrong ias ithe imagnetic iforce. iThis iforce iis
ioften iproduced iby ia ispring, ialthough igravity iis ialso iwidely iutilized iin iindustrial imotor
istarters. Most irelays iare idesigned ito ifunction irapidly. iThis iminimizes inoise iin ilow-
voltage iapplications iand iarcing iin ihigh-voltage ior icurrent iapplications.

When ithe icoil iis icharged iwith idirect icurrent, ia idiode iis ifrequently iput iacross iit ito idisperse
ithe ienergy ifrom ithe ifalling imagnetic ifield iduring iinactivation, iwhich iwould iotherwise
iproduce ia ivoltage ispike iharmful ito isemiconductor icircuit ielements. iSuch idiodes iwere inot

45
ifrequently iemployed ibefore ithe iadoption iof itransistors ias irelay icontrollers, ibut ithey
iquickly ibecame icommon ias iearly igermanium itransistors iare ireadily idamaged iby ithis
isurge. iInside ithe irelay icasing iof icertain iautomobiles, ithe irelay iis ia idiode. iSurge icurrents
iall iaround irelay ioutput icontacts imay ioccur iif ithe irelay iis idriving ia ibig ior iextremely
ireactive iload. iA isnubber iconnection i(a icapacitor i& iresistor iin iseries) ifrom iacross icontacts
imay ibuffer ithe isurge iin ithis iscenario. iFor ithis itypical iapplication, iappropriately irated
icapacitors iand ithe icorresponding iresistor iare ioffered ias ia isingle-packed icomponent.

If ithe icoil iis iintended ito ibe ipowered iby ialternating icurrent i(AC), isome iway iof isplitting
ithe iflux iinto itwo iout-of-phase icomponents ithat iadd iup ito iincrease ithe iminimum idraw ion
ithe iarmature ithroughout ithe iAC icycle iis iutilized. iThis iis ioften iaccomplished iby icrimping
ia ithin icopper i"shading iring" iaround ia ipart iof ithe icore, iwhich igenerates ithe idelayed, iout-
of-phase icomponent[9] ithat iholds ithe icontacts iduring icontrol ivoltage izero icrossings.

Figure 4.13 Relay [1]

A relay is similar to ia ivacuum itube ior isolid-state itransistor iamplifier iin ithat iboth imay utilize
a small current and voltage in one circuit to control a big voltage and current in another. A irelay,
iunlike itubes iand itransistors, icannot icreate ivariable ioutput; iit ican isimply iswitch ion iand
ioff, comparable to a computer logic circuit. The relay, on the other hand, has the benefit of being
able to entirely iseparate ithe iinput icircuit ifrom iits ioutput icircuit.

46
A iSingle iPole iDouble iThrow i(SPDT) irelay iis seen below. A single contact is known as the
Common contact toggles between ia iNormally iClosed iand ia iNormally iOpen istate. iThe
icommon icontact iis iconnected ito ian iarmature, iwhich iis ia imetal istrip ithat iis ihinged iat ione
iend iand icontains ielectrical icontacts, ioften icomposed iof isilver, iat ithe iother. iA ispring ilifts
ithe iarmature, iconnecting iits icontact ito ithe iNormally iClosed icontact. iWhen ithe iarmature
iis ielectrified, ia imagnetic ibeneath iit iattracts iit iand ipushes iit idown, icausing iits icontact ito
idetach from the iNormally iClosed icontact iand iconnect ito ithe iNormally iOpen icontact
iinstead.

The ielectromagnet iis iconstructed ifrom ia icoil iof itiny ienameled icopper iwire icoiled ion ia
iplastic ibobbin iwith ian iiron icore iin ithe icenter. iWhen icurrent itravels ithrough ithe icoil, iit
icreates ia imagnetic ifield iin ithe iiron icore. iThe ivoltage ithat imust ibe iprovided ito ithe icoil
iis idetermined iby ithe inumber iof iturns iin ithe icoil iand ithe iwire isize. iRelays imay ioperate
iat inearly iany ivoltage, ialthough ithe imost ipopular iare i5, i6, i9-, i12-, i24-, iand i48-volts iDC.
iThe icoil icurrent iis ialso iaffected iby ithe inumber iof iturns iand iwire isize, iand it typically
varies between 30 and 200 milliamperes.

Figure 4.14 Relay [7]

The coil is not in touch with any of the contacts. The connections are electrically insulated from
the coil's power supply circuit.

When the irelay icontacts iare icarried iout ito ia iterminal iblock ior ieven iother itermination iin
ia idevice iutilizing ia irelay, ithe icontacts imay ibe iutilized ito iswitch iany iform iof iDC ior iAC

47
iload ithat iis iwithin ithe icurrent iand ivoltage iratings iof ithe icontacts. iThis iis ioften ishown
ion ithe irelay.

A irelay idoes inot isupply ielectricity ito ia load; it simply iswitches ipower ifrom ia ipower isource
ion iand ioff, isimilar ito ihow ia iwall iswitch iturns ion iand ioff ia ilamp ibut idoes inot isupply
ithe ipower ithat iilluminates ithe ibulb. iRelays icome iin ia ivariety iof ilayouts, isizes, iand iforms,
ias iwell ias icoil ivoltage iand icurrent iand icontact ivoltage iand icurrent. iThey iare iavailable ias
ifollows:

Normally iOpen ior iNormally iClosed iSingle iPole iSingle iThrow iSPST iSPDT i(single ipole,
idouble ithrow) ias idescribed iabove iDPST i(Double iPole iSingle iThrow) ican ibe inormally
iopen ior inormally iclosed. iDPDT istands ifor iDouble iPole iDouble iThrow iRelays iare
iemployed iwhenever ia ihigh ipower iand ihigh ivoltage icircuit imust be controlled by a reduced
power circuit, particularly when electrolytic isolation is desired.

Relays are employed whenever ia ihigh-power ior ihigh-voltage icircuit imust ibe icontrolled iby
ia ilow-power iconnection, iespecially iif igalvanic iisolation iis idesired. iRelays iwere iinitially
iused ion ilong itelegraph ilines, iwhere ia ibad isignal ireceived iat isuch ian iintermediate istation
icould ioperate ia icontact, irenewing iits isignal ifor ifurther itransmission. iSmall, ilow-voltage
iwire iand ipilot iswitches ican ibe iused ito icontrol ihigh-voltage ior ihigh-current iequipment.
iThe ilive ielectrical icircuit ican ibe iseparated ifrom ithe ioperators. iMicroprocessors iand iother
ilow-power idevices ican idrive irelays ito iregulate ielectrical iloads ibeyond itheir idirect idriving
icapacity. iA istarting irelay iin ia ivehicle ipermits ithe ihigh icurrent iof ithe icranking imotor ito
ibe icontrolled iby imodest iwire iand icontacts iin ithe iignition ikey.

Relays iwere iwidely iused iin isupplementary icontrol icircuits iin ielectromechanical iswitching
isystems isuch ias iStrowger iand iCrossbar itelephone iexchanges. iThe iRelay iAutomatic
iTelephone iCompany ialso iproduced itelephone iexchanges ibased iprimarily ion
iiGotthilfAnsgariusBetulander's irelay iswitching itechnology. iOn i15 iJuly i1922, ithe ifirst
ipublic irelay-based itelephone iexchange iin ithe iUnited iKingdom iwas iestablished iin
iFleetwood iand iremained iin iservice iuntil i1959. i[27] i[28]

Claude iShannon iinvestigated ithe iuse iof irelays ifor ithe ilogical imanagement iof icomplicated
iswitching isystems isuch ias itelephone iexchanges, iformalizing ithe iuse iof iBoolean ialgebra
ito irelay icircuit idesign iin iA iSymbolic iAnalysis iof iRelay iand iSwitching iCircuits. iRelays
imay icarry iout ithe ifundamental ioperations iof iBoolean icombinatorial ilogic. iThe iboolean
iAND ifunction, ifor iexample, iis irealized iby ijoining itypically iopen irelay icontacts iin iseries,

48
iand ithe iOR ifunction iby iconnecting inormally iopen icontacts iin iparallel. iA itypically iclosed
icontact ican ibe iused ito iflip ia ilogical iinput. iRelays iwere iutilized ito ioperate iautomated
itools ifor imachine itools i& iproduction ilines. iThe iLadder iprogram icode iis ifrequently iused
ito icreate irelay ilogic inetworks.

Early ielectromechanical icomputers, isuch ias ithe iARRA, iHarvard iMark iII, iZuse iZ2, iand
iZuse iZ3, iemployed irelays ifor ilogic iand iworking iregisters. iHowever, ielectronic iequipment
iproved ito ibe iquicker iand isimpler ito ioperate.

Relays iare icommonly iemployed iin isafety-critical ilogic, isuch ias icontrol ipanels iof
iradioactive iwaste-handling imachines isince ithey iare ifar imore iresistant ito inuclear iradiation
ithan isemiconductors. iElectromechanical isafeguarding. iElectromechanical iprotection irelays
iactivate iand iclose icircuit ibreakers ito idetect ioverload iand iother idefects ion ielectrical ilines.

Relay Driver IC ULN2003

A relay driver IC is an electromagnetic switch that will be utilized anytime we wish to use a low-
voltage icircuit ito iturn ia ilight ibulb ilinked ito ia i220V ipower isource iON iand iOFF. iThe
icurrent irequired ito irun ithe irelay icoil iis imore ithan ithat iwhich ican ibe isupplied iby idifferent
iintegrated icircuits isuch ias iOp-Amps, ietc. iRelays ihave idistinct iqualities iand iare ibeing
iphased iout iin ifavor iof isolid-state iswitches, iwhich iare imore ipowerful ithan isolid-state
idevices. iRelays iare idistinguished iby itheir ihigh icurrent icapacity, iESD iresistance, iand idrive
icircuit iseparation. iThere iare iseveral imethods ifor idriving irelays. iThe ifollowing iare isome
iRelay iDriver iICs.

• High-sided itoggle iswitch idriver

• Low-sided itoggle iswitch idriver

• Bipolar iNPN itransistor idriver

• N-Channel iMOSFET idriver iand

• Darlington itransistor idriver

• ULN2003 idriver

Relay idriver iIC icircuit

Relays iare icomponents ithat iallow ia ilow-power icircuit ito iregulate isignals ior iswitch
ihigh icurrents iON iand iOFF iwhile ielectrically iisolating ithe icontrolling icircuit.

49
The iRequired iComponents

• Diode

• 6-9V iRelay

• 9V iBattery ior iDC iPower iSupply

• BC547B iTransistor

• 1K iOhm iResistor

• Second iInput iVoltage iSource

Figure 4.15 Relay Driver Circuit [6]

We utilize ia itransistor ito idrive ithe irelay, iand ionly ia ilittle iamount iof ipower iis irequired ito
ioperate ithe irelay. iBecause ithe itransistor iis ian iamplifier, ithe ibase ilead igets ienough icurrent
ito icause imore icurrent ito iflow ifrom ithe itransistor's iemitter ito ithe icollector. iIf ithe ibase
ireceives isufficient ipower, ithe itransistor iwill iconduct ifrom ithe iEmitter ito iCollector iand
ipower ithe irelay.

Even iif ino iinput icurrent ior ivoltage iis iprovided ito ithe itransistor's ibase ilead, ithe iemitter-
to-collector ichannel iwill ibe iopened. iAs ia iresult, iblocking icurrent ipasses ithrough ithe irelay
icoil.

If ia isufficient icurrent ior ivoltage iis iprovided ias iinput ito ithe ibase ilead, ithe iemitter-to-
collector ichannel iopens, iallowing icurrent ito iflow ithrough ithe irelay's icoil.

50
alternating current or direct current The relay & circuit can be powered by the current. Relays have
electromagnetic devices that allow a low-power dc voltage to a different large voltage ON and OFF
switching device using an electromagnet-moved armature.

Driver iCircuits iare iused ito ienhance ior iamplify isignals igenerated iby imicrocontrollers iin
iorder ito iregulate ipower iswitches iin isemiconductor idevices. iDriver icircuits iperform
iservices isuch ias iseparating ithe icontrol iand ipower icircuits, idetecting imalfunctions, istoring
iand ireporting ifailures ito ithe icontrol isystem, iacting ias ia ifailsafe, ievaluating isensor isignals,
iand iproviding iauxiliary ivoltages.

Driver Circuits

A common computer logic output pin only iprovides itens iof imilliamperes iof icurrent. iPeripheral
idevices isuch ias ihigh-power iLEDs, imotors, iloudspeakers, ilight ibulbs, ibuzzers, isolenoids,
iand irelays ican iuse ihundreds iof imilliamperes iand irequire ithe isame ivoltages. iA itransistor-
based idriver icircuit iis iemployed ito iamplify icurrent ito ithe ineeded ilevels iin iorder ito icontrol
itiny iDC idevices. iWhen ithe ivoltage iand icurrent ilevels iare iperfectly ibalanced, ithe itransistor
ioperates ias ia ihigh-current iswitch ithat iis icontrolled ieither iby ilower icurrent idigital ilogic
ioutput. iAs idemonstrated ibelow, ia idiscrete iBJT iis isometimes iused iin iplace iof ia iMOSFET
itransistor iin iolder ior ilow ivoltage isystems.

Figure 4.16 Driver Circuit [4]

Basic iDriver iCircuit iusing iBJT iTransistor

51
PNP, iNPN, iand iMOS itransistors imay ialso ibe iused. iThe itransistor igenerates icurrent igain.
iThe iresistor iused ion ithe itransistor's ibase iis i1K iohms. iWhen ishutting ioff iinductive iloads
i(such ias imotors, isolenoids, iand irelays), ia idiode iis icommonly iconnected ibackward iacross
ithe iload ito idecrease ivoltage ispikes i(back iEMF).

Inductor V = L* di/dt

When the gadget is turned off, a negative voltage spike is created. In order to safeguard the
transistor, a diode is sometimes put across it instead iof ithe iload. iThe i2N3904 iis ia itiny idiscrete
iBJT itransistor ithat iwas iutilized iin ia idriver icircuit ithat ineeded iless ithan i200MA. iIn ithis
icircuit iwith iBJTs, iVcc iis ia ihigher ivoltage isupply than the logic power supply, and motors or
relays require 6 or 12V DC.

In ibattery-powered idevices, ithe iload iis idirectly ilinked ito ithe ibattery iand icannot ibe
itransferred ithrough ithe ivoltage iregulator. iWhen imany idevices, isuch ias imotors, iare ifirst
iturned ion, itheir iincoming icurrent ispikes. iBe iwary iof imaximum icurrent iratings.

Advantages iof iLow iSide iDriver

More iinterface ioptions iare iavailable iwhich iinclude ithe ipopular iULN2003 idriver.

• Easy ito iinterface ito ilow ivoltage ilogic icircuitry.

• Fewer icomponents iare iused.

• Less iexpensive iNPN idrive itransistors.

• Relay ipower ireduces ithe iload ion ithe ivoltage iregulator.

• It iuses imore icommonly iobtained iNPN idrive itransistors.

• It iis ieasier ito iinterface irelay.

• It iis ieconomic.

• Uses iIndustry istandard itechnique.

Internal iclamp idiodes iare used in the ULN2003. While they perform OK in non-critical
applications, they cause a surge in problems.

When the driver switch is opened, the clamp, free-wheeling, ior icommutation idiode ioffers ia
ichannel ifor ithe inductive discharge current to pass. iIf inot igiven, iit iwill iinduce ian iarc iin ithe

52
iswitch, iwhich, ialthough inot inormally idamaging ia iswitch icontact, iwill icause icontact
ideterioration iover itime—and iyes, iit iwill iruin itransistors—been ithere, idone ithat. iThe idiode
irequirements iare iunimportant, iand ia i1N4148 isignal idiode iwill ioften ibe ienough iin ilow-
power iapplications.

Emitter-follower idrivers ishould ibe iavoided. iWhen ithe irelay iis iturned ioff iin i4007, ithe
idiode iremoves iback ie.m.f. iand iprotects ithe itransistor. The LED indicates whether or not the
relay is turned on. Circuit for a DC Relay Driver IC.

Let's look at how to build a relay circuit for a relay that runs on DC power. DC voltage is necessary
to rate a relay and just a Zener diode in order to power a DC relay. The relay requires voltage to
operate as well as to open or close its switch in a network. Voltage-rated relays are available. The
datasheet of a relay is used to rate its circuit voltage. This voltage must be applied to the relay's coil
terminals in order for it to work. As a result, if a switch has a voltage level of 9VDC, it really should
receive 9 volts of DC electricity to operate. A diode is necessary for the correct operation of a relay
circuit in order to prevent voltage spikes. A relay coil functions as an inductor.

Figure 4.17 DC Relay Driver Circuit [1]

Inductors iare ielectrical icomponents ithat ican iendure ivariations iin icurrent. iThey iare ialso
icoils iof icoiled iwire iaround ia iconducting icore. iVoltage ispikes icause idamage ito iall iparts
iof ia icircuit, iincluding irelay iswitch icontacts. iTo iprevent ivoltage irise, ia idiode iis imaintained
ireverse-biased iin iconjunction iwith ithe irelay, iacting ias ia itransient i(peak) isuppressor. iThis
idiode iprevents ivoltage ispikes iby ientering iconductivity ibefore ithe ivoltage iis iproduced
iacross ithe icoil. iThese ispikes iare isuppressed iby ia itransient isuppressor. iIf ithe ivoltage ihits
ia iparticular ithreshold, ithe idiode itransmits ia ireverse ibias icurrent. iThe idiode ishunts isurplus
ipower ito ithe iground iand iconducts iit iwhen ithe ivoltage ireaches ithe ibreakdown ivalue.

53
• iDC iRelay i

• iDiode i

• iDC iVoltage iSource ior ia iDC ipower isupply are required components.

In iparallel iwith ithe irelay, ia iZener idiode iis reverse-biased.

The switch used in the preceding example is designed for 9 volts. A 9V source of DC voltage
powers the resistor in this circuit. To reduce the transients induced by opening and shutting the
relay, a reverse-biased Zener diode is utilized. If it hits a certain level, this shunts all extra power
to the ground. This is the procedure for turning on a relay. The relay would be closed after driving
the loads attached to the output and drawing the needed power.

Circuit ifor ian iAC iRelay iDriver iIC

This iAC iRelay idriver iIC idevice iis ia irelay that can only be powered by alternating current
(AC). iTo irun ian iAC irelay, isufficient iAC ivoltage iis inecessary ito ipower ithe irelay i&
itransient isuppressor. A diode cannot be used to reduce voltage spikes in an AC relay circuit. With
AC power, this diode performs an alternative half-cycle. We employ an RC series network to
construct a workable voltage fluctuations reducer with an AC circuit by connecting across coils in
parallel. iThe icapacitor iabsorbs iextra icharge, iwhile ithe iresistor ihelps ito iregulate ioverflow.
iThe ifollowing iare ithe icomponents ineeded ito icomplete ithe icircuit:

Figure 4.18 AC Relay Driver Circuit [2]

• AC iRelay

• 100 iOhm iResistor

• 0.05 iMicro iFarad iCapacitor

• AC iVoltage iSource

54
Be icautious iof iAC power that comes straight from a power outlet, as it might produce shock.
Before inserting a plug into the wall socket, consult a professional.

When using a relay with a rated voltage of 110VAC, we must supply it with 110V from an AC
power source. Transient voltage suppressors are resistors and capacitors linked in series to reduce
voltage spikes.

Relay iDriver iIC iULN2003

The irelay icontroller iuln2003 iic iis ia ihigh isupply ivoltage iDarlington iarray iIC iwith i7 iopen
icollectors iDarlington ipairs iand icommon iemitters. iA iDarlington ipair iis ia iconfiguration
icomprising itwo ibipolar itransistors. iThis iIC iis ipart iof ithe iULN200x iIC ifamily, iand
idifferent ivarieties iof ithis ihousehold iinterface ito idifferent ilogic ifamilies. iThis iULN2003
iintegrated icircuit iis idesigned ifor i5V iTTL iand iStandard iCMOS imodules. iThese iintegrated
icircuits iare iutilized ias irelaying idrivers ias iwell ias ito idrive ia ivariety iof iloads, iline idrivers,
iscreen idrivers, iand iso ion. iThis iIC iis ialso icommonly iused ito idrive istepper imotors. iThe
iDarlington ipairs iin iULN2003 iare irated iat i500mA iand ican itolerate ia ipeak icurrent iof
i600mA. iThe ii/ps iand io/ps iare igiven iin ithe ipin iarrangement iin ithe iopposite iorder. iIn
iaddition, ieach idriver ihas ia isuppression idiode ito iabsorb ivoltage ispikes iwhile idriving
iinductive iloads.

Figure 4.19 Relay Driver IC ULN2003 [5]

55
This iis ia ithree-phase isolid-state irelay isystem iproject. iIt iconsists iof ithree isingle-phase iunits,
ieach iof iwhich iis icontrolled iseparately iby ia ipower iTRIAC iwith ian iRC isnubber inetwork
ifor izero-voltage iswitching i(ZVS).

In ieach iphase, opt isolators are utilized to receive a control signal from an 8051-family
microcontroller, and loads iare icoupled iin iseries iwith ieither ia iset iof iTRIACS ioperated iby
ian iopt iisolator. iThe imicrocontroller iis iprogrammed ito icreate ioutput ipulses ifollowing ia
izero-voltage ipulse, iensuring ithat ithe iload iis iturned ion iat ithe izero icross iof ithe iinput
iwaveform.

The iTRIAC driver's zero crossing function (an optoisolator) assures low noise production,
preventing rapid current inrush on iresistive iand iinductive iloads. iIn ithis iproject, itwo ipush
ibuttons iare iutilized ito igenerate irandom ioutput ipulses ifrom ithe imicrocontroller ithat iare inot
icoincident iwith ithe iwaveform's zero voltage supply voltage.

56
k) LED
LEDs iare ielectronic igadgets. iLEDs, ilike itransistors iand iother idiodes, iare iconstructed
iof isilicon. iThe iminute iquantities iof ichemical iimpurities iadded ito isilicon, isuch ias
igallium, iarsenide, iindium, iand initride, iare iwhat icause ian iLED ito iemit ilight.

Photons iare iemitted ias ia iconsequence iof ielectricity ipassing ithrough ithe iLED. iNormal
ilight ibulbs igenerate ilight iby iheating ia imetal ifilament ito ia iwhite-hot istate. iLEDs iemit
iphotons idirectly irather ithan ithrough iheat, imaking ithem isignificantly imore iefficient
ithan iincandescent ilamps.

Figure 4.20 LED & Circuit Symbol [3]

LEDs iwere ionce ijust ibright ienough ito iserve ias iindicators ion idashboards ior ielectrical
idevices. iHowever, irecent iadvancements ihave imade iLEDs ibright ienough ito icompete
with older lighting imethods. iIn ipractically iany application, modern LEDs can replace
incandescent lights.
Types of LEDs
LED icolors iand imaterials
Conventional iLEDs iare icreated ifrom ia iwide irange iof iinorganic isemiconductor
imaterials; ithe itable ibelow idisplays ithe ipossible icolors ialong iwith itheir iwavelength
irange, ivoltage idrop, iand imaterial.

LEDs iin iwhite

Light iEmitting iDiodes i(LED) ithat iare iwhite iand ibrilliant, iso ibright ithat ithey icompete
iwith iincandescent ibulbs iin ilighting iapplications, ihas ilately ibeen iaccessible. iThey iare
istill isomewhat ipricey iwhen icompared ito ia iGOW ilamp, ibut ithey itake ifar iless icurrent
iand icreate ia ireasonably iwell-focused ibeam.
The idiode iin ithe ishot icomes iwith ia icute ismall ireflector ithat isharpens ithe ibeam
islightly ibut idoesn't iappear ito icontribute imuch ito ithe itotal iintensity.

57
They iare ialso imore idependable ithan ibulbs iwhen iused iwithin itheir iratings. iRed iLEDs
iare icurrently iemployed iin ivehicle iand itruck itail ilights, ias iwell ias ired itraffic isignal
ilights. iThey iwill ibe idetectable isince ithey iresemble ian iarray iof ipoint isources iand iturn
ion iand ioff ifast iwhen icompared ito inormal iincandescent ibulbs.
LEDs iare ione-color i(monochromatic) igadgets. iThe iband igap iof ithe isemiconductor iused
ito iproduce ithem idetermines ithe ihue. iLEDs iin ired, igreen, iyellow, iand iblue iare ifairly
icommon. iWhite ilight iconsists iof iall ihues iand icannot ibe iproduced iby ia isingle iLED.
iThe imost iprevalent itype iof i"white" iLED iisn't iwhite. iIt iis ia iGallium iNitride iblue iLED
icovered iwith ia iphosphor ithat, iwhen istimulated iby ithe iblue iLED ilight, igenerates ia
ibroad ispectrum iof ilight iin iaddition ito ithe iblue iemission.
There is a suggestion that the life of these white LEDs is limited. They begin to yellow and dull
after around 1000 hours of operation.
There are two main methods for creating high-intensity iwhite ilight iwith iLEDs. iOne
iapproach iis ito iemploy iindividual iLEDs ithat igenerate ithree ibasic icolors—red, igreen,
iand iblue—and ithen icombine iall iof ithe icolors ito iproduce iwhite ilight. iThe ialternative
imethod iis ito iemploy ia iphosphor isubstance ito iconvert ia icontinuous ispectrum ifrom ia
iblue ior iUV iLED ito iwide-ranging iwhite ilight, imuch ilike ia ifluorescent ilight ibulb. iIt
iis ipossible ito ihave iquite idiverse ispectra ithat iseem iwhite idue ito imetamerism.

1N4007
Diodes serve to convert alternating icurrent i(AC) ito idirect icurrent i(DC). iThese iare iused
ias ihalf-wave ior ifull-wave irectifiers. iWhen iemploying iany isort iof idiode, ithree ithings
imust ibe ikept iin imind.

1. Maximum iforward icurrent icapacity i

2. Maximum ireverse ivoltage icapacity i
3. Maximum iforward ivoltage icapacity i

58
 Figure 4.21 IN4007 [6]

PN JUNCTION OPERATION
Let ius icontinue iour idiscussion iwith ithe ifunctioning iof ithe iPN ijunction inow ithat iyou
iare iaware iof iP- iand iN-type imaterials, ihow ithese imaterials iare iconnected ito icreate ia
idiode, iand ithe ifunction iof ithe idiode. iBut, ibefore iwe ican icomprehend ihow ithe iPN
ijunction iworks, iwe imust ifirst istudy ithe icurrent iflow iin ithe ijunction's icomponents iand
iwhat ioccurs iwhen ithese itwo ielements iare iconnected.
Current iFlow iin ithe iN-Type iMaterial
Conduction iin ian iN-type isemiconductor, ior icrystal, iis ianalogous ito ithat iin ia icopper
iwire. iThat iis, iwhen ia ivoltage iis iplaced iacross ithe imaterial, ielectrons ipass ithrough ithe
icrystal iin ithe isame iway ithat icurrent iflows ithrough ia icopper iwire. iFigure i1-15 idepicts
ithis. iThe ibattery's ipositive ipotential iwill iattract ithe ifree ielectrons iin ithe icrystal. iThese
ielectrons iwill ileave ithe icrystal iand itravel iinto ithe ibattery's ipositive iend. iAs ian
ielectron ideparts ithe icrystal, ian ielectron ifrom ithe ibattery's inegative iterminal ienters ithe
icrystal, icompleting ithe icurrent iroute. iAs ia iresult, ithe ibulk iof ithe icurrent icarriers
i(electrons) iin ithe iN-type imaterial iis irejected iby ithe inegative iside iof ithe ibattery iand
iflows ithrough ithe icrystal itoward ithe ipositive iside iof ithe ibattery.
Current iFlow iin ithe iP-Type iMaterial
The ipassage iof icurrent ithrough ithe iP-type imaterial iis idepicted. iInstead iof inegative
ielectrons, ipositive iholes iconduct iin ithe iP isubstance. iA ihole igoes ifrom ithe ipositive ito
ithe inegative iterminal iof ithe iP imaterial. Electrons from the external circuit enter the
material's inegative iterminal iand ifill iholes inear ithis iterminal. iAt ithe ipositive iterminal,
ielectrons iare iwithdrawn ifrom icovalent ibonds, iresulting iin ithe iformation iof inew iholes.
iThis iprocedure iis irepeated iwhile ia icontinuous istream iof iholes i(hole icurrent) itravels
ito ithe inegative iterminal.

59
l) Resistors
A iresistor iis ia itwo-terminal ielectrical icomponent ithat iis imeant ito ioppose ian
ielectric icurrent iby icreating ia ivoltage idrop ibetween iits iterminals ithat iis
iproportional ito ithe icurrent, ii.e., iin iline iwith iOhm's ilaw:
V=IR
Electrical isystems iand ielectronic icircuits irely ion iresistors. iThey iare ihighly icommon
iin imost ielectrical idevices. iResistance iwire i(wire iformed iof ia irising ialloy, ilike
inickel/chrome) ican ibe iused ito imake ipractical iresistors. iResistors' imajor iqualities
iare itheir ibarrier iand ithe iamount iof ipower ithey ican idischarge. iSpecific iheat, inoise,
iand iinductance iare iamong ithe iother iqualities. iCritical iresistance, ia ilevel ibelow
iwhich idrain icurrent irestricts ithe imaximum ipermissible icurrent iflow iand iover
iwhich ithe ilimit iis icurrent iand ivoltage, iis iless iwell-known. iCritical iresistance iis
idefined iby idesign iand iis idictated iby ithe imaterials ithat imake iup ithe iresistor iin
iaddition ito iits iphysical isize.
Resistors ican ibe iincluded iin ihybrid, iprinted, iand iintegrated icircuits. iEquipment
idesigners imust iconsider ithe isize iand iarrangement iof ileads i(or iterminals); iresistors
imust ibe iusually ibig isufficient ito inot ioverheat iwhile idissipating itheir ipower.

Figure 4.22 Resistors [4]

A iresistor iis ia itwo-terminal ipassive ielectronic icomponent ithat iacts ias ia icircuit
ielement iby iimplementing ielectrical iresistance. iWhen ia ivoltage iV iis iput iacross ithe
iterminals iof ia iresistor, icurrent iI iflows iin idirect iproportion ito ithe ivoltage. iThe
ireciprocal iof ithe iproportionality iconstant iis iknown ias ithe iresistance iR isince iwith
ia igiven ivoltage iV, ia ibigger ivalue iof iR ifurther i"resists" ithe iflow iof icurrent iI ias
idefined iby iOhm's ilaw:

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Resistors iare icommon icomponents iof icircuits iand iare ifound iin inearly iall ielectronic
idevices. iPractical iresistors imay ibe iconstructed ifrom ia ivariety iof icompounds iand
ifilms, ias iwell ias iresistive iwire i(wire imade iof ia ihigh-resistivity ialloy, isuch ias
inickel-chrome). iResistors imay ialso ibe iused iin ielectronic icomponents, iparticularly
ianalog idevices, ias iwell ias imixed iand iprinted icircuits.

m) Capacitors
A icapacitor, ialso iknown ias ia icondenser, iis ia ipassive ielectrical icomponent imade
iup iof itwo iconductors iseparated iby ian iinsulator. iAn ielectric ifield iexists iin ithe
idielectric iwhen ithere iis ia ivoltage idifferential ibetween ithe iconductors. iThis ifield
iconserves ienergy iwhile iexerting imechanical iforce ihere ibetween iplates. iThe ieffect
iis istrongest ibetween iconductors ithat iare ibroad, iflat, iparallel, iand iclosely ispaced.
iA iperfect icapacitor ihas ia isingle iconstant ivalue, iinductance, iwhich iis iexpressed iin
ifarads. iThis iis ithe iratio iof ieach iconductor's ielectric icharge ito ithe ivoltage
idifferential ibetween ithem. iIn ipractice, ithe idielectric ihere ibetween ipanels iallows ia
itiny iamount iof ileakage icurrent ito iget ithrough. iAs ia iresult iof ithe iconductors iand
ileads iintroducing icomparable iseries iresistance iand ithe idielectric ihaving ian ielectric
ifield istrength ilimit,
Capacitor qualities in a circuit can influence the resonance frequency & q - factor of a
resonant circuit, leakage current, and operating frequency in a computerized logic circuit,
resource capacity in a high-power system, and numerous other essential factors.

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 Figure 4.23 Capacitors [5]

A icapacitor i(sometimes iknown ias ia icapacitor) iis ia idevice ithat ikeeps ian ielectric
icharge. iPractical icapacitors icome iin ia ivariety iof ishapes iand isizes, ibut ithey iall
iinclude iat ileast i2 iwires iisolated iby ia inon-conductor. iCapacitors iused iin ielectrical
isystems, ifor iinstance, iare imade iout iof imetal ifoils idivided iby ian iinsulating ifilm
ilayer.

Capacitors iare ifrequently iemployed iin icircuit iboards ifor istopping idirect icurrent
ialthough iallowing ialternating ielectricity ito ipass, iin ifiltering inetworks, ifor
ismoothing ipower isupply ioutput, iin icircuits ithat itune iradios ito icertain ifrequencies,
iand ifor ia ivariety iof iother ireasons.
n) Push iButtons
A ipush-button i(also ispelled ipushbutton) ior isimply ibutton iis ia isimple iswitch
imechanism ifor icontrolling isome iaspect iof ia imachine ior ia iprocess. iButtons iare
itypically imade iout iof ihard imaterial, iusually iplastic ior imetal. iThe isurface iis
iusually iflat ior ishaped ito iaccommodate ithe ihuman ifinger ior ihand, ito ibe ieasily
idepressed ior ipushed. iButtons iare imost ioften ibiased iswitches, ithough ieven imany
iunbiased ibuttons i(due ito itheir iphysical inature) irequire ia ispring ito ireturn ito itheir
iun-pushed istate. iDifferent ipeople iuse idifferent iterms ifor ithe i"pushing" iof ithe
ibutton, isuch ias ipress, idepress, imash, iand ipunch.

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Figure 4.24 Push Buttons [3]

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 CHAPTER 5.

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

5.1. Conclusion

This iproject has provided us with a greater perspective on numerous parts of our study program
in addition to providing experience in the field of electronic devices and communication. We
gained acquainted with the isoftware ianalysis, idesign, iimplementation, itesting, i&
imaintenance iaspects iof iour iproject. iThis isystem's ibroad icapabilities iare ialso iwhat
irenders iit iso iappealing. iA iuser imay ioperate iand imonitor inearly iany ielectrical
iappliance ifrom ithe icomfort iof ia ibasic icell iphone.

This ishowed a method of controlling household appliances using mobile phones via Bluetooth
and SMS technology. SMS technology allows appliances to be operated from a remote
location. The technique of many agents (similar to the Pico net notion in Bluetooth) is
effectively planned and executed. This method introduces a new feature in which several server
mobiles can collaborate at the same time. The completed job includes a mobile maintenance
contract written in JAVA for a smart house. Using the established software and circuits, any
mobile network provider may activate this capability. So far, our study has focused on remotely
managing equipment via server-client mobile and server computers via SMS technologies. To
save money, a microcontroller may be employed instead of a computer. Furthermore, for this
sort of application, a microcontroller with an inbuilt SMS comprehension function will be more
dependable. Internal Bluetooth modules can be substituted with Wi-fi technology for greater
range and scalability, but it comes with the cost of more power and a more costly device
interface. It is advised that even a communication and control structure be created to provide a
uniform information approach in the managed environment.

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5.2. Future Work
The project ought to be carried out in the future because of the money and time it will save. A
GSM module, a microcontroller from the 8051 sequences, a 16x2 LCD, a relay, loads, a power
source, a reset circuit, and a crystal calibrated to 11.0592 Hz are all included in our project. a
framework for carrying out a strategy that will be applied to imore icomplex iprojects ilike
iweather iforecasting, itemperature iupdates, device synchronization, etc. It is possible to
modify the project to produce a complete home control system, which will give the user a
framework for communicating with his home. Every project's status will also be communicated
via IoT.

This report described a technique for just using Wireless and SMS connectivity to use mobile
handsets as remote controls in home appliances. Appliances may be wirelessly managed
through SMS technology. A successful projection and implementation of the utilization of
numerous agents (equivalent to Bluetooth's Nanonet idea) have been made. This technique
offers a unique feature that enables simultaneous collaboration between numerous server
mobiles. The complete project includes a mobile service package built for Java platforms and
intended for smart homes. Any mobile service operator can offer this feature by leveraging the
developed software and circuits. Up until now, this study has mostly concentrated on using
computer smartphones and server PCs with Sms service to control devices remotely. A gadget
can be employed instead of a virtual machine to save money. A microcontroller that includes
an inbuilt SMS comprehension feature would also be more trustworthy for this type of
application. The built-in Bluetooth module can be replaced with WiFi technology for greater
range and adaptability, but doing so comes at the cost of higher power usage and a more
premium device interface. It is suggested to create a framework for communication and control
to offer a consistent data-oriented methodology in the managed environment.

65
 REFERENCES

[1] B. I. Ahmad, F. Yakubu, M. A. Bagiwa, and U. I. Abdullahi. (2021). “Remote Home

Management: An alternative for working at home while away” World of Computer Science
and Information Technology Journal (WCSIT), 1(4), pp. 144-147.

[2] Holborn, P.G., Nolan, P.F., Golt, J. (2003): “An Analysis of fatal unintentional dwelling
fires investigation” by London Fire Brigade. 1-42.

[3] Mark D. Gross(2020), ‘‘Smart House and Home Automation Technologies’’, University of
Washington, Seattle WA USA 98195-5720. 1(8), pp. 154-170.

[4] Paul Horowtz and Winfield Hill (2020) “The Art of Electronics” 2nd Edition Cambridge
university press. 1(66), pp. 133-144.

[5] Robert R. (2019) “Modern Control System” 8th Edition, New York. 1(4), pp. 161-227.

[6] Rozita Teymourzadeh, Salah Addin Ahmed, Kok Wai Chan, and Mok Vee Hoong, “Smart
GSM Based Home Automation System” 1(7), pp. 44-367.

[7] Satish Palaniappan, Naveen Hariharan, Naren T Kesh, Vidhyalakshimi S, Angel Deborah
S, “International Journal of Computer Applications”1(4), pp. 224-247.

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