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CHAPTER NO.: 1
TRANSISTOR APPLICATIONS

Teaching Hours: 12
TOTAL MARKS: 14

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Transistors Versus Vacuum Tubes

Advantages of transistors:

A transistor is a solid-state device that performs the same functions as the grid controlled vacuum tube.
However, due to the following advantages, the transistors have upstaged the vacuum tubes in most
areas of electronics:

(i) High voltage gain - We can get much more voltage gain with a transistor than with a vacuum tube.
Transistor amplifiers can provide a voltage gain of 300 or more. This is a distinct advantage of
transistors over the tubes.

(ii) Lower supply voltage - Vacuum tubes require much higher d.c. voltages than transistors.

Vacuum tubes generally run at d.c. voltages ranging from 200V to 400V whereas transistors require
much smaller d.c. voltages for their operation. The low voltage requirement permits us to build
portable, light-weight transistor equipment instead of heavier vacuum-tube equipment.

(iii) No heating - A transistor does not require a heater whereas the vacuum tube can only operate with
a heater.

(iv) Miscellaneous - Apart from the above salient advantages, the transistors have superior edge over
the tubes in the following respects:

(a) Transistors are much smaller than vacuum tubes. This means that transistor circuits can be more
compact and light-weight.

(b) Transistors are mechanically strong due to solid-state.

(c) Transistors can be integrated along with resistors and diodes to produce ICs which are extremely
small in size.

Disadvantages of transistors:

(i) Lower power dissipation - Most power transistors have power dissipation below 300W.

(ii) Lower input impedance - A transistors has low input impedance. A vacuum tube, on the other
hand, has very high input impedance (of the order of MΩ).

(iii) Temperature dependence - Solid-state devices are very much temperature dependent.
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(iv) Inherent variation of parameters - the parameters of transistors (e.g. β, VBE etc.) are not the same
even for the transistors of the same batch. For example, β for BC 148 transistors may vary between 100
and 600.

Transistor Biasing
It has already we studied that for faithful amplification, a transistor amplifier must satisfy three basic
conditions, namely:

(i) Proper zero signal collector current,

(ii) Proper base-emitter voltage at any instant and
(iii) Proper collector-emitter voltage at any instant. It is the fulfilment of these conditions which is
known as transistor biasing.

Definition of Transistor biasing:

The proper flow of zero signal collector current and the maintenance of proper collector-emitter
voltage during the passage of signal is known as transistor biasing.

Need of Amplifier:

A properly biased transistor raises the strength of a weak signal and thus acts as an amplifier. Almost
all electronic equipments must include means for amplifying electrical signals. For instance, radio
receivers amplify very weak signals.

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Figure 1 Basic amplifier system

The transducers used in the medical and scientific investigations generate signals in the microvolt (μV)
and millivolt (mV) range.

These signals must be amplified thousands and millions times before they will be strong enough to
operate indicating instruments. Therefore, electronic amplifiers are a constant and important ingredient
of electronic systems.

Single Stage CE Transistor Amplifier:

Definition:

When only one transistor with associated circuitry is used for amplifying a weak signal, the circuit is
known as single stage transistor amplifier.

Figure 2: Circuit diagram of Single stage amplifier

When a weak a.c. signal is given to the base of transistor, a small base current (which is a.c.) starts
flowing.

Due to transistor action, a much larger (β times the base current) a.c. current flows through the
collector load RC.

As the value of RC is quite high (usually 4-10 kΩ), therefore, a large voltage appears across RC.
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Thus, a weak signal applied in the base circuit appears in amplified form in the collector circuit. It is in
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this way that a transistor acts as an amplifier.

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The action of transistor amplifier can be beautifully explained by referring to Figure 2. Suppose a
change of 0.1V in signal voltage produces a change of 2 mA in the collector current.

Obviously, a signal of only 0.1V applied to the base will give an output voltage = 2 mA x 5 kΩ = 10V.

Thus, the transistor has been able to raise the voltage level of the signal from 0.1V to 10V i.e. voltage
amplification or stage gain is 100.

Graphical Demonstration of Transistor Amplifier

The function of transistor as an amplifier can also be explained graphically. Figure 3 shows the output
characteristics of a transistor in CE configuration.

Suppose the zero signal base current is 10 μA i.e. this is the base current for which the transistor is
biased by the biasing network.

When an a.c. signal is applied to the base, it makes the base, say positive in the first half-cycle and
negative in the second half-cycle.

Therefore, the base and collector currents will increase in the first half-cycle when base-emitter
junction is more forward-biased.

However, they will decrease in the second half-cycle when the base-emitter junction is less forward
biased.

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Figure 3: Graphical representation of single stage amplifier waveform

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Practical Circuit of Transistor Amplifier

Figure 4: Practical circuit diagram of single stage amplifier

It is important to note that a transistor can accomplish faithful amplification only if proper associated
circuitry is used with it. The various circuit elements and their functions are described below:

(i) Biasing circuit: The resistances R1, R2 and RE form the biasing and stabilisation (stabilization)
circuit. The biasing circuit must establish a proper operating point otherwise a part of the negative half-
cycle of the signal may be cut off in the output.

(ii) Input capacitor Cin: An electrolytic capacitor Cin (≈ 10µF) is used to couple the signal to the base
of the transistor. If it is not used, the signal source resistance will come across R2 and thus change the
bias.

The capacitor Cin allows only a.c. signal to flow but isolates the signal source from R2*. (*It may be
noted that a capacitor offers infinite reactance to d.c. and blocks it completely whereas it allows a.c. to
pass through it.)

(iii) Emitter bypass capacitor CE: An emitter bypass capacitor CE (≈ 100μF ) is used in parallel with
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RE to provide a low reactance path to the amplified a.c. signal.

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If it is not used, then amplified a.c. signal flowing through RE will cause a voltage drop across it,
thereby reducing the output voltage.

(iv) Coupling capacitor CC: The coupling capacitor CC (≈ 10µF) couples one stage of amplification to
the next stage. If it is not used, the bias conditions of the next stage will be drastically changed due to
the shunting effect of RC.

This is because RC will come in parallel with the upper resistance R1 of the biasing network of the next
stage, thereby altering the biasing conditions of the latter. In short, the coupling capacitor CC isolates
the d.c. of one stage from the next stage, but allows the passage of a.c. signal.

Various circuit currents:

It is useful to mention the various currents in the complete amplifier circuit.

(i) Base current. When no signal is applied in the base circuit, d.c. base current IB flows due to biasing
circuit. When a.c. signal is applied, a.c. base current ib also flows. Therefore, with the application of
signal, total base current iB is given by:

iB = IB + ib

(ii) Collector current. When no signal is applied, a d.c. collector current IC flows due to biasing
circuit. When a.c. signal is applied, a.c. collector current ic also flows. Therefore, the total collector
current iC is given by:

iC = IC + ic
(iii) Emitter current. When no signal is applied, a d.c. emitter current IE flows. With the application of
signal, total emitter current iE is given by:

iE = IE + ie

It is useful to keep in mind that:

IE = IB + I C

ie = ib + ic

Now base current is usually very small, therefore, as a reasonable approximation,

IE ≈ IC and ie ≈ ic
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Phase Reversal
In common emitter connection, when the input signal voltage increases in the positive sense, the output
voltage increases in the negative direction and vice-versa.

In other words, there is a phase difference of 180° between the input and output voltage in CE
connection. This is called phase reversal.

The phase difference of 180° between the signal voltage and output voltage in a common emitter
amplifier is known as phase reversal.

Figure 5: Single stage CE amplifier (For phase reversal)

Graphical demonstration: The fact of phase reversal in CE connection can be shown graphically with
the help of output characteristics and load line as in figure 6.

In Figure 6, AB is the load line. The base current fluctuates between, say ± 5 μA with 10μA as the zero
signal base current. From the figure, it is clear that when the base current is maximum in the positive
direction, vCE becomes maximum in the negative direction (point G in Figure 6).

On the other hand, when the base current is maximum in the negative direction, vCE is maximum in the
positive sense (point H in Fig. 6). Thus, the in-put and output voltages are in phase opposition or
equivalently, the transistor is said to produce a 180º phase reversal of output voltage w.r.t. signal
voltage.

Note. No phase reversal of voltage occurs in common base and common collector amplifier. The a.c.
output voltage is in phase with the a.c. input signal. For all three amplifier configurations; input and
output currents are in phase.
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Figure 6: Graphical demonstration for phase reversal

Input / Output Phase Relationships

The following points regarding the input / output phase relationships between currents and voltages
for the various transistor configurations may be noted:

(i) For every amplifier type (CE, CB and CC), the input and output currents are in phase. When the
input current decreases, the output current also decreases and vice-versa.

(ii) Remember that common emitter (CE) circuit is the only configuration that has input and output
voltages 180° out of phase.

(iii) For both common base (CB) and common collector (CC) circuits, the input and output voltages are
in phase. If the input voltage decreases, the output voltage also decreases and vice-versa.

1. Input resistance: It is the resistance looking directly into the base and is given by the ratio of base
voltage to base current. Thus input resistance,

Ri = Vb / ib
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2. Output resistance: It is the resistance, looking into collector, and is approximately equal to the
collector resistance (RC). Mathematically the output resistance,

R0 = RC

3. Current Gain: It is the ratio of collector current (ic) to base current (ib). Mathematically the current
gain,

Ai = ic / ib = β

4. Voltage gain: It is the ratio of output voltage (v0) to the input voltage (vin). Since the output voltage
is the same as collector voltage and input voltage is same as base voltage, therefore we know that

Vin = ib β r’e

Vo = ie RC = β ib RC (ie = β ib)

Av = vin / vo

Therefore,

Av = RC / r’e

5. Power gain: It is the product of current gain and voltage gain. Mathematically, the power gain,

Ap = A i * A v

Classification of Amplifiers

The transistor amplifiers may be classified as to their usage, frequency capabilities, coupling methods
and mode of operation.

1. As based on the input

(a) Small-signal amplifier (b) Large-signal amplifier

2. As based on the output (or according to usage)

(a) Voltage amplifier (b) Power amplifier

3. As based on transistor configuration

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(a) Common-emitter (CE) amplifier (b) Common-base (CB) amplifier (c) Common-collector
(CC) amplifier.
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4. As based on biasing conditions (or mode of operation)

(a) Class-A (b) Class-B (c) Class-AB (d) Class-C

5. As based on nature of load resistance

(a) Untuned amplifiers (Wide-band amplifier) (b) Tuned amplifier (Narrow-band amplifier)

6. As based on frequency response (or frequency capabilities)

(a) Direct coupled (DC) amplifier (b) Audio frequency (AF) amplifier

(c) Radio frequency (RF) amplifier (d) Ultra high frequency (UHF) and microwave frequency
amplifier.

7. As based on number of stages

(a) Single-stage amplifier (b) Multistage amplifier

8. As based on the method of coupling between the stages

(a) Direct coupled amplifier (b) RC coupled amplifier (c) Transformer coupled
amplifier

Need of Multistage stage Amplifier:

The output from a single stage amplifier is usually insufficient to drive an output device. In other
words, the gain of a single amplifier is inadequate (insufficient) for practical purposes.

Consequently, additional amplification over two or three stages is necessary. To achieve this, the
output of each amplifier stage is coupled in some way to the input of the next stage.

The resulting system is referred to as multistage amplifier. It may be emphasised (emphasized) here
that a practical amplifier is always a multistage amplifier.

For example, in a transistor radio receiver, the number of amplification stages may be six or more. In
this chapter, we shall focus our attention on the various multistage transistor amplifiers and their
practical applications.

Multistage Transistor Amplifier

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A transistor circuit containing more than one stage of amplification is known as multistage transistor
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amplifier.
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In a multistage amplifier, a number of single amplifiers are connected in *cascade (*The term
cascaded means connected in series) arrangement i.e. output of first stage is connected to the input of
the second stage through a suitable coupling device and so on.

The purpose of coupling device (e.g. a capacitor, transformer etc.) is (i) to transfer a.c. output of one
stage to the input of the next stage and (ii) to isolate the d.c. conditions of one stage from the next
stage.

Figure 7 shows the block diagram of a 3-stage amplifier. Each stage consists of one transistor and
associated circuitry and is coupled to the next stage through a coupling device.

The name of the amplifier is usually given after the type of coupling used. Examples

Figure 7: Block diagram of Multistage Amplifier

(i) In RC coupling, a capacitor is used as the coupling device. The capacitor connects the output of one
stage to the input of the next stage in order to pass the a.c. signal on while blocking the d.c. bias
voltages.

(ii) In transformer coupling, transformer is used as the coupling device. The transformer coupling
provides the same two functions (viz. to pass the signal on and blocking d.c.) but permits in addition
impedance matching.

(iii) In direct coupling or d.c. coupling, the individual amplifier stage bias conditions are so designed
that the two stages may be directly connected without the necessity for d.c. isolation.

Role of Capacitors in Transistor Amplifiers:

Regardless of the manner in which a capacitor is connected in a transistor amplifier, its behavior
towards d.c. and a.c. is as follows.
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A capacitor blocks d.c. i.e. a capacitor behaves as an “open*” to d.c. Therefore, for d.c. analysis, we
can remove the capacitors from the transistor amplifier circuit.
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[*(because F=0 therefore Xc is ∞ and capacitor behaves as an open to d.c.)]

A capacitor offers reactance (= 1 / 2πfC) to a.c. depending upon the values of f and C.

In practical transistor circuits, the size of capacitors is so selected that they offer negligible (ideally
zero) reactance to the range of frequencies handled by the circuits.

Therefore, for a.c. analysis, we can replace the capacitors by a short i.e. by a wire. The capacitors
serve the following two roles in transistor amplifiers:

1. As coupling capacitors
2. As bypass capacitors

1. As coupling capacitors: In most applications, you will not see a single transistor amplifier. Rather
we use a multistage amplifier i.e. a number of transistor amplifiers are connected in series or cascaded.

The capacitors are commonly used to connect one amplifier stage to another. When a capacitor is used
for this purpose, it is called a coupling capacitor. A coupling capacitor performs the following two
functions:

(i) It blocks d.c. i.e. it provides d.c. isolation between the two stages of a multistage amplifier.
(ii) It passes the a.c. signal from one stage to the next with little or no distortion.

2. As bypass capacitors: Like a coupling capacitor, a bypass capacitor also blocks d.c. and behaves as
a short or wire (due to proper selection of capacitor size) to an a.c. signal. But it is used for a different
purpose.

A bypass capacitor is connected in parallel with a circuit component (e.g. resistor) to bypass the a.c.
signal and hence the name a bypass capacitor CE connected across the emitter resistance RE. Since CE
behaves as a short to the a.c. signal, the whole of a.c. signal (ie) passes through it.

Important Terms

Gain: The ratio of the output *electrical quantity to the input one of the amplifier is called its gain.

[*Accordingly, it can be current gain or voltage gain or power gain.]

The gain of a multistage amplifier is equal to the product of gains of individual stages. For instance, if
G1, G2 and G3 are the individual voltage gains of a three-stage amplifier, then total voltage gain G is
given by:
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G = G1 x G2 x G3
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Frequency response: The voltage gain of an amplifier varies with signal frequency. It is because
reactance of the capacitors in the circuit changes with signal frequency and hence affects the output
voltage.

The curve between voltage gain and signal frequency of an amplifier is known as frequency response.

Figure 8 shows the frequency response of a typical amplifier. The gain of the amplifier increases as the
frequency increases from zero till it becomes maximum at fr, called resonant frequency.

If the frequency of signal increases beyond fr, the gain decreases.

Figure 8: Frequency response to represent Resonant Frequency

(iii) Decibel gain. Although the gain of an amplifier can be expressed as a number, yet it is of great
practical importance to assign it a unit. The unit assigned is bel or decibel (db).

The common logarithm (log to the base 10) of power gain is known as bel power gain i.e.

Power gain = log10 Pout / Pin bel

1 bel = 10 db

(iv) Bandwidth: The range of frequency over which the voltage gain is equal to or greater than 70.7%
of the maximum gain is known as bandwidth.

The voltage gain of an amplifier changes with frequency. Referring to the frequency response in Figure
9 it is clear that for any frequency lying between f1 and f2, the gain is equal to or greater than 70.7% of
the maximum gain.
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Figure 9: Frequency response for Bandwidth presentation

Therefore, f1 - f2 is the bandwidth. It may be seen that f1 and f2 are the limiting frequencies. The former
(f1) is called lower cut-off frequency and the latter (f2) is known as upper cut-off frequency.

For distortion less amplification, it is important that signal frequency range must be within the
bandwidth of the amplifier.

RC Coupled Transistor Amplifier

This is the most popular type of coupling because it is cheap and provides excellent audio fidelity over
a wide range of frequency.

It is usually employed for voltage amplification. Figure 10 shows two stages of an RC coupled
amplifier.

A coupling capacitor CC is used to connect the output of first stage to the base (i.e. input) of the second
stage and so on.

As the coupling from one stage to next is achieved by a coupling capacitor followed by a connection to
a shunt resistor, therefore, such amplifiers are called resistance - capacitance coupled amplifiers.

The resistances R1, R2 and RE form the biasing and stabilisation network. The emitter bypass capacitor
offers low reactance path to the signal.
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Without it, the voltage gain of each stage would be lost. The coupling capacitor CC transmits a.c. signal
but blocks d.c.
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This prevents d.c. interference between various stages and the shifting of operating point.

Operation: When a.c. signal is applied to the base of the first transistor, it appears in the amplified
form across its collector load RC.

The amplified signal developed across RC is given to base of next stage through coupling capacitor CC.

The second stage does further amplification of the signal. In this way, the cascaded (one after another)
stages amplify the signal and the overall gain is considerably increased.

It may be mentioned here that total gain is less than the product of the gains of individual stages.

It is because when a second stage is made to follow the first stage, the effective load resistance of first
stage is reduced due to the shunting effect of the input resistance of second stage.

Figure 10: Circuit diagram of two-stage RC coupled amplifier

This reduces the gain of the stage which is loaded by the next stage. For instance, in a 3-stage
amplifier, the gain of first and second stages will be reduced due to loading effect of next stage.

However, the gain of the third stage which has no loading effect of subsequent stage, remains
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unchanged. The overall gain shall be equal to the product of the gains of three stages.
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Frequency response: Figure 11 shows the frequency response of a typical RC coupled amplifier.

It is clear that voltage gain drops off at low (< 50 Hz) and high (> 20 kHz) frequencies whereas it is
uniform over mid-frequency range (50 Hz to 20 kHz).

This behavior of the amplifier is briefly explained below:

(i) At low frequencies (< 50 Hz), the reactance of coupling capacitor CC is quite high and hence very
small part of signal will pass from one stage to the next stage.

Moreover, CE cannot shunt the emitter resistance RE effectively because of its large reactance at low
frequencies.

These two factors cause a falling of voltage gain at low frequencies.

Figure 11: frequency response of a typical RC coupled amplifier

(ii) At high frequencies (> 20 kHz), the reactance of CC is very small and it behaves as a short circuit.
This increases the loading effect of next stage and serves to reduce the voltage gain.

Moreover, at high frequency, capacitive reactance of base-emitter junction is low which increases the
base current. This reduces the current amplification
gain drops off at high frequency.

(iii) At mid-frequencies (50 Hz to 20 kHz), the voltage gain of the amplifier is constant. The effect of
coupling capacitor in this frequency range is such so as to maintain a uniform voltage gain.
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Thus, as the frequency increases in this range, reactance of CC decreases which tends to increase the
gain.

However, at the same time, lower reactance means higher loading of first stage and hence lower gain.
These two factors almost cancel each other, resulting in a uniform gain at mid-frequency.

Advantages:

(i) It has excellent frequency response. The gain is constant over the audio frequency range which is
the region of most importance for speech, music etc.

(ii) It has lower cost since it employs resistors and capacitors which are cheap.

(iii) The circuit is very compact as the modern resistors and capacitors are small and extremely light.

Disadvantages:

(i) The RC coupled amplifiers have low voltage and power gain. It is because the low resistance
presented by the input of each stage to the preceding stage decreases the effective load resistance (RAC)
and hence the gain.

(ii) They have the tendency to become noisy with age, particularly in moist climates.

(iii) Impedance matching is poor. It is because the output impedance of RC coupled amplifier is several
hundred ohms whereas the input impedance of a speaker is only a few ohms.

Hence, little power will be transferred to the speaker.

Applications:

The RC coupled amplifiers have excellent audio fidelity over a wide range of frequency. Therefore,
they are widely used as voltage amplifiers e.g. in the initial stages of public address system.

Transformer-Coupled Amplifier
The main reason for low voltage and power gain of RC coupled amplifier is that the effective load
(RAC) of each stage is *decreased due to the low resistance presented by the input of each stage to the
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preceding stage.
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[*The input impedance of an amplifier is low while its output impedance is very high. When they are
coupled to make a multistage amplifier, the high output impedance of one stage comes in parallel with
the low input impedance of next state. Hence effective load (RAC) is decreased.]

If the effective load resistance of each stage could be increased, the voltage and power gain could be
increased. This can be achieved by transformer coupling.

By the use of impedance changing properties of transformer, the low resistance of a stage (or load) can
be reflected as a high load resistance to the previous stage.

Transformer coupling is generally employed when the load is small. It is mostly used for power
amplification. Figure 12 shows two stages of transformer coupled amplifier.

A coupling transformer is used to feed the output of one stage to the input of the next stage. The
primary P of this transformer is made the collector load and its secondary S gives input to the next
stage.

Figure 12: Two stages of transformer coupled amplifier

Operation: When an a.c. signal is applied to the base of first transistor, it appears in the amplified form
across primary P of the coupling transformer.

The voltage developed across primary is transferred to the input of the next stage by the transformer
secondary as shown in Fig . The second stage renders amplification in an exactly similar manner.
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Frequency response:
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The frequency response of a transformer coupled amplifier is shown in Fig.13.

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It is clear that frequency response is rather poor i.e. gain is constant only over a small range of
frequency.

Figure 13: Frequency response of a transformer coupled amplifier

The output voltage is equal to the collector current multiplied by reactance of primary. At low
frequencies, the reactance of primary begins to fall, resulting in decreased gain. At high frequencies,
the capacitance between turns of windings acts as a bypass condenser to reduce the output voltage and
hence gain.

It follows, therefore, that there will be disproportionate amplification of frequencies in a complete

signal such as music, speech etc.

Hence, transformer-coupled amplifier introduces frequency distortion.

OR

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Figure 14: Frequency response of a transformer coupled amplifier

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It is evident from this figure 14, that the voltage gain drops off (or rolls off) at low as well as at high
frequencies, whereas it remains constant in mid-frequency range.

Another noticeable feature is that at one particular frequency (Fo) the voltage gain increases and then
rolls off continuously. This typical behavior may be explained as follow:

We know that output voltage of a transformer coupled amplifier is equal to the product of collector
current and the reactance of the primary winding of coupling transformer.

At low frequencies, the reactance of primary winding (XL = ω*L) begins to decrease and hence the
voltage gain reduces.

At high frequencies, the effect of leakage inductance and distributed capacitance (i.e., the capacitance
between the turns of the winding) becomes significant and hence the voltage gain reduces.

The peak gain results due to the resonance (or turning) effect of inductance and distributed capacitance,
which forms a resonant circuit. The frequency, at which the peak occurs, is called resonant frequency
(fo).

It has been found that flat part of frequency response curve of transformer coupled amplifiers is small
as compared to that of RC coupled amplifiers. As a result of this, these amplifiers cannot be used over
wide range frequencies.

Moreover, if they are used, they produce frequency distortion, which means that all frequency
components in a complete input signal (such as music, speech signal) are not equally amplified.

However, the transformers can be suitably designed to provide a fairly flat response curve and
excellent fidelity over the entire audio frequency range (i.e. 20 Hz to 20 kHz).

Advantages:
(i) No signal power is lost in the collector or base resistors.
(ii) An excellent impedance matching can be achieved in a transformer coupled amplifier.
(iii) Due to excellent impedance matching, transformer coupling provides higher gain.

Disadvantages:
(i) It has a poor frequency response i.e. the gain varies considerably with frequency.
(ii) The coupling transformers are bulky and fairly expensive at audio frequencies.
(iii) Frequency distortion is higher i.e. low frequency signals are less amplified as compared to the high
frequency signals.
(iv) Transformer coupling tends to introduce *hum [*noise] in the output.
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Applications: Transformer coupling is mostly employed for impedance matching. In general, the last
stage of a multistage amplifier is the power stage.
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Direct-Coupled Amplifier
There are many applications in which extremely low frequency (< 10 Hz) signals are to be amplified
e.g. amplifying photo-electric current, thermo-couple current etc.

The coupling devices such as capacitors and transformers cannot be used because the electrical sizes of
these components become very large at extremely low frequencies.

Under such situations, one stage is directly connected to the next stage without any intervening
coupling device. This type of coupling is known as direct coupling.

Circuit details: Figure 15 shows the circuit of a three-stage direct-coupled amplifier. It uses
*complementary transistors. Thus, the first stage uses npn transistor, the second stage uses pnp
transistor and so on.

[*This makes the circuit stable w.r.t. temperature changes. In this connection (i.e., NPN followed by
PNP), the direction of collector current increase β, when the temperature rises, is opposite for the two
transistors. Thus the variation in one transistor tends to cancel that in the other.]

This arrangement makes the design very simple. The output from the collector of first transistor T1 is
fed to the input of the second transistor T2 and so on.

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Figure 15: Direct coupled amplifier

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The weak signal is applied to the input of first transistor T1.

Due to transistor action, an amplified output is obtained across the collector load RC of transistor T1.

This voltage drives the base of the second transistor and amplified output is obtained across its
collector load. In this way, direct coupled amplifier raises the strength of weak signal.

Frequency Response:

Figure 16 shows the frequency response (i.e., a graph of dB voltage gain versus frequency) of a direct
coupled amplifier.

It is evident from this figure 16, the gain is uniform up to a certain frequency denoted by f2.

Beyond this frequency, the gain rolls off slowly. The gain rolls off at high frequencies due to the
increased emitter diode capacitance.

Figure 16: Frequency response direct-coupled amplifier

Advantages
(i) The circuit arrangement is simple because of minimum use of resistors.
(ii) The circuit has low cost because of the absence of expensive coupling devices.
(iii) It can amplify very low frequency signals down to zero frequency.

Disadvantages
(i) It cannot be used for amplifying high frequencies.
(ii) It has poor temperature stability because the operating point is shifted due to temperature
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variations.
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Application
(i) Analog Computation
(ii) Power supply regulators
(iii) Bioelectric measurement
(iv) Linear integrated circuits.

Comparison of Different Types of Coupling:

Sr.
Particular RC coupling Transformer coupling Direct coupling
No.
Frequency Excellent in the audio
1 Poor Best
response frequency range
2 Cost Less More Least
Space and
3 Less More Least
weight
Impedance
4 Not good Excellent Good
matching
For amplifying extremely
For voltage
5 Use For power amplification low
amplification
Frequencies
Types of Transformer is used as a No coupling network is
6 RC coupling
Coupling coupling network used
Uniform gain up to
Overall gain is less due It provides high voltage gain certain frequency,
7 Gain
to loading effect than RC coupled gain rolls off at high
frequency
Low frequency
8 Application Voltage amplification Power amplification
amplification

Frequency
9
response
24
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Power Amplifier
A practical amplifier always consists of a number of stages that amplify a weak signal until sufficient
power is available to operate a loudspeaker or other output device.

The first few stages in this multistage amplifier have the function of only voltage amplification.

However, the last stage is designed to provide maximum power. This final stage is known as power
stage.

The term audio means the range of frequencies which our ears can hear. The range of human hearing
extends from 20 Hz to 20 kHz.

Therefore, audio amplifiers amplify electrical signals that have a frequency range corresponding to the
range of human hearing i.e. 20 Hz to 20 kHz.

Figure 17 shows the block diagram of an audio amplifier. The early stages build up the voltage level of
the signal while the last stage builds up power to a level sufficient to operate the loudspeaker.

Figure 17: Block diagram of Audio Amplifier

Transistor Audio Power Amplifier

A transistor amplifier which raises the power level of the signals that have audio frequency range is
known as transistor audio power amplifier.

The power amplifier is also known as large signal amplifiers. The term ‘large signal’ for the power
amplifiers arises because these amplifiers use a large part of their a.c. load line for operation.

A transistor that is suitable for power amplification is generally called a power transistor. It differs
from other transistors mostly in size; it is considerably larger to provide for handling the great amount
of power.
25
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Difference Between Voltage and Power Amplifiers

1. Voltage amplifier: The voltage gain of an amplifier is given by:

In order to achieve high voltage amplification, the following features are incorporated in such
amplifiers:

(i) The transistor used in voltage amplifier has a large value of current gain (β) - typically 100 as
compared to that of a power amplifier.

(ii) The input resistance RIN of the transistor is sought to be quite low as compared to the collector load
RC (or output resistance).

(iii) The physical size of the transistor used in voltage amplifiers is usually small and is known as low
or medium -power transistor.

(iv) Usually RC coupling is used for interstage connection.

(v) The base is made thin because it does not need to handle more amount of current.

2. Power amplifier: A power amplifier is required to deliver a large amount of power and as such it
has to handle large current. In order to achieve high power amplification, the following features are
incorporated in such amplifiers:

(i) The current gain (β) of a transistor used in power amplifier is, usually, between 20 and 50.

(ii) In a power amplifier, the input resistance of a transistor is generally very large as compared to its
output resistance.

(iii) Power amplifiers employ larger size transistors called power transistors. Such transistors are
needed because a considerable amount of heat is dissipated within the transistor and hence a large
surface area is required for heat dissipation.

(iv) Transformer coupling is used for impedance matching.

(v) The base is made thicker to handle large currents. In other words, transistors with comparatively
smaller β are used.
26
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The comparison between voltage and power amplifiers is given below in the tabular form:

Sr. No. Particular Voltage amplifier Power amplifier

1 β High ( >100) Low(5 to 20)
2 RC High (4-10 KΩ) Low(5 to 20Ω)
3 Coupling Usually RC coupling Transformer coupling
4 Input Voltage Low (a few mV) High (2-4V)
5 Collector current Low (approximately 1mA) High ( >100mA)
6 Power output Low High
7 Output impedance High (12 KΩ) Low(200Ω)
8 Input Resistance (Ri) Quite Low Very Large
9 Physical size Small Large in size

Performance Quantities of Power Amplifiers

The prime objective for a power amplifier is to obtain maximum output power. Since a transistor, like
any other electronic device has voltage, current and power dissipation limits, therefore, the criteria for a
power amplifier are: collector efficiency, distortion and power dissipation capability.

(i) Collector efficiency: The main criterion for a power amplifier is not the power gain rather it is the
maximum a.c. power output. Now, an amplifier converts d.c. power from supply into a.c. power output.
Therefore, the ability of a power amplifier to convert d.c. power from supply into a.c. output power is a
measure of its effectiveness. This is known as collector efficiency and may be defined as under :

The ratio of a.c. output power to the zero signal power (i.e. d.c. power) supplied by the battery of a
power amplifier is known as collector efficiency.

Mathematically, the circuit efficiency is given by,

Collector efficiency means as to how well an amplifier converts d.c. power from the battery into a.c.
output power.
27

For instance, if the d.c. power supplied by the battery is 10W and a.c. output power is 2W, then
Page

collector efficiency is 20%. The greater the collector efficiency, the larger is the a.c. power output.
EDC - 223382 AO3I 2022-23

(ii) Distortion: The change of output wave shape from the input wave shape of an amplifier is known
as distortion.

A transistor like other electronic devices, is essentially a non-linear device. Therefore, whenever a
signal is applied to the input of the transistor, the output signal is not exactly like the input signal i.e.
distortion occurs.

However, a power amplifier handles large signals and, therefore, the problem of distortion immediately
arises. For the comparison of two power amplifiers, the one which has the less distortion is the better.

Two types of distortions namely amplitude (or harmonic) distortion and crossover distortion are
considered to be important in power amplifiers.

The amplitude distortion results from the non-linearity of the transistor. It occurs because of the fact
that transistor output may not increase, equally, for all portions of the input signal during positive and
negative half cycles.

On the other hand, crossover distortion (which usually exists in class B amplifiers) occurs when
transistors do not operate in the correct phase with each other.

(iii) Power dissipation capability: The ability of a power transistor to dissipate heat is known as
power dissipation capability.

A power transistor handles large currents and heats up during operation. As any temperature change
influences the operation of transistor, therefore, the transistor must dissipate this heat to its
surroundings.

To achieve this, generally a heat sink (a metal case) is attached to a power transistor case.

The increased surface area allows heat to escape easily and keeps the case temperature of the transistor
within permissible limits.

Classification of Power Amplifiers:

The classification of power amplifier is based on transistor biasing condition and amplitude of the input
signal.

It also takes account into account the portion of the cycle for which the transistor conducts. On the
above basis, following three are the main classifications of power amplifier.
28

1. Class-A power amplifier 2. Class-B power amplifier 3. Class-C power amplifier

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EDC - 223382 AO3I 2022-23

Other types of power amplifier are Class AB power amplifier, Class-B push pull power amplifier,
Class-D power amplifier and Class-E power amplifier.

1. Class-A power amplifier: It is an amplifier in which the transistor bias and amplitude of the input
signal is such that the output current flows for the complete cycle (i.e. 360°) of the input signal. Class-
A shows in figure 18 (a).

Figure 18: Classifications of power amplifier

2. Class-B power amplifier: It is an amplifier in which the transistor bias and amplitude of the input
signal are such that the output current flows for only one half cycle ( i.e., 180°) of the input signal.
Figure 18 (b) shows the output for a class-B amplifier.

3. Class-C power amplifier: It is an amplifier in which the transistor bias and amplitude of the input
signal are such that output current flows for less than half cycle (i.e., less than 180°) of the input signal.
Figure 18 (c) shows the output for a class-C amplifier."

In addition to the above three main types, there is another amplifier called class-AB amplifier. The
characteristics of class-AB amplifier lies in-between those of class-A and class-B amplifiers. Thus in a
class-AB amplifier, the output current flows for more than half cycle but less than the complete cycle
29

(i.e., current flows for more than 180° but less than 360°).
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EDC - 223382 AO3I 2022-23

The class-A and class-B amplifiers are called audio power amplifiers because they are capable of
amplifying the signals with frequencies ranging from 20 Hz to 20 kHz.

Class-A power amplifier:

Class-A power amplifier. If the collector current flows at all times during the full cycle of the signal,
the power amplifier is known as class-A power amplifier.

(a) Circuit diagram of Class-A power amplifier

(b) Graphical representation of Class-A power amplifier

Figure 18 [(a) is circuit diagram & (b) is graphical representation]

Obviously, for this to happen, the power amplifier must be biased in such a way that no part of the
30

signal is cut off.

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EDC - 223382 AO3I 2022-23
Figure 18 (a) shows circuit of class A power amplifier. Note that collector has a transformer as the load
which is most common for all classes of power amplifiers.

Figure 18 (b) shows the class A operation in terms of a.c. load line. The operating point Q is so selected
that collector current flows at all times throughout the full cycle of the applied signal.

As the output wave shape is exactly similar to the input wave shape, therefore, such amplifiers have
least distortion.

However, they have the disadvantage of low power output and low collector efficiency
(about 35%).

Class-A Transformer coupled power amplifier

Figure 19 Transformer coupled Class-A power amplifier

The use of transformer permits impedance matching, resulting in the transference of maximum power
to the load e.g. loudspeaker.

Important Points About Class-A Power Amplifier

(i) A *transformer coupled class A power amplifier has a maximum collector efficiency of 50% i.e.,
maximum of 50% d.c. supply power is converted into a.c. power output.

In practice, the efficiency of such an amplifier is less than 50% (about 35%) due to power losses in the
output transformer, power dissipation in the transistor etc.
31

[*However, resistance coupled class A power amplifier has a maximum collector efficiency of 25%.]
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(ii) The power dissipated by a transistor is given by:

EDC - 223382 AO3I 2022-23

Pdis = Pdc - Pac

Where, Pdc = available d.c. power

Pac = available a.c. power

Clearly, in class-A operation, the transistor must dissipate less heat when signal is applied and therefore
runs cooler.

(iii) When no signal is applied to a class-A power amplifier, Pac = 0.

Therefore, Pdis = Pdc

(iv) When a class-A power amplifier is used in the final stage, it is called single ended class-A power
amplifier.

Expression for Collector Efficiency

For comparing power amplifiers, collector efficiency is the main criterion. The greater the collector
efficiency, the better is the power amplifier.

Where, Vce is the r.m.s. value of signal output voltage and Ic is the r.m.s. value of output signal current.

Class-B power amplifier:

It is an amplifier in which the transistor bias and amplitude of the input signal are such that the output
current flows for only one half cycle (i.e., 180°) of the input signal.

This condition is achieved by setting the Q-point at cut-off (or lower end) of the load line.

Figure 20 shows the biasing condition on the ac load line. The variation of collector current with the
input signal is shown in figure.
32
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It may be noted that with no input signal, the transistor is biased at cut-off. At this point, there is no
current flow through the transistor and hence no power is dissipated by the transistor.

However when the signal is applied, the transistor handles an average current, which increases it for
large input signals.

Figure 20: Q-point on ac load line in case of Class-B

Thus contrary to class-A amplifier operation, in which the power dissipation of a transistor is
maximum with no input signal and minimum with largest input signal, the operation of class-B
amplifier circuit is to increase transistor dissipation for increased input signal.

Since the average current in class-B amplifier is less than that in class-A, therefore the amount of
power dissipated by the transistor is Jess in class-B amplifier.

Characteristics of Class-B Amplifier:

Following are some of the important characteristics of class-B amplifier:

1. The output current flows only for one-half of the cycle (i.e., 180°) of the input signal.

2. The transistor dissipates no power with zero input signal. However, it increases with the increase in
the amplitude of input signal. It is contrary to class-A amplifier operation, where the transistor
dissipation is maximum with no input signal and minim um with the largest input signal.
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3. The average current drawn by the circuit in class-B operation is smaller than that in class-A. As a
result of this, the amount of power dissipated by the transistor is less in class-B.

Thus the overall efficiency of the circuit is higher than that of class-A. Its maxim um value has been
found to be equal to 78.5%.

Class-B Push Pull Amplifier

We have already discussed in previous articles that in a class-B amplifier, the transistor conducts only
for one-half-cycle and remains off during the other half cycle.

It means that we obtain an output signal, whose either positive or negative half cycles are missing. This
type of output signal gives a large distortion.

In order to avoid this, we use two transistors connected in a push-pull arrangement. In this
arrangement, one of the transistors conducts during one half cycle and the other conducts during the
second half cycle.

With push-pull arrangement, it is possible to build class-B amplifier, which have low distortion, large
a.c. output power and high efficiency.

Figure 21 shows a transformer coupled class-B push -pull amplifier. The circuit consists of two centre-
tapped transformers T1 and T2 and two identical transistors Q1 and Q2. The transformer (T1 is an
input transformer and is called phase splitter.

It is required to produce two signal voltages, which are 180° out of phase with each other. These two
signal voltages, with opposite polarity, drive the input of transistors Q1 and Q2.

The transformer (T2) is an output transformer and is required to couple the a.c. output signal from the
collector to the load.

34
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Figure 21: Transformer coupled Class-B push-pull amplifier

EDC - 223382 AO3I 2022-23

The transistors Q1 and Q2 are biased at cut-off, which is done by providing zero bias on the base of
each transistor. The zero bias is achieved by connecting the emitter and base terminals together.

In order to get a balanced circuit, the two emitters are connected to the centre tap of transformer T1
secondary and the Vcc supply, to the centre tap of transformer T2 secondary.

Now we shall discuss the working of push-pull amplifier circuit.

When there is no input signal, both the transistors Q1 and Q2 are cut-off. Hence no current is drawn
from the VCC supply. Thus there is no power wasted on standby and the power dissipation in both the
transistors is, practically, zero.

It will be interesting to know that even if both the transistors Q1 and Q2 are biased, little above their
cut-off points, the transformers still operate near zero flux.

It is because of the fact that d.c. bias current, for each transistor, flows in opposite directions through
the secondary of transformer T2.

The magnetic flux set up by each of these currents results in opposite flux through the magnetic core,
so that the net flux in the perfectly matched case is zero.

Thus the transformer is not required to handle a large flux due to d.c. bias currents. As a result of this,
the transformer can have a small size core, biased to operate near zero flux.

Now consider only the positive half cycle of the input signal. During this, the base of transistor Q1 is
positive and that of Q2 is negative.

As a result of this, the Q1 conducts, while the transistor Q2 is OFF. When the input signal goes
negative, Q1 turns off and Q2 conducts.

Thus at any instant, only one transistor in the circuit is conducting. In other words, each transistor
handles one-half of the input signal.

Then the output transformer joins these two halves (signal) and produces a full-sine wave in the load
resistor.

However, it has been found that joining of outputs of two transistors (i.e., Q1 and Q2) is never perfect
and hence the output is distorted.

The class-B push-pull amplifier is known as double ended class-B amplifier. This amplifier is
frequently employed in the output (or final) stages of the amplifier circuits.
35

These are used in public address systems (PAS's) tape recorders and stereo amplifiers.
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EDC - 223382 AO3I 2022-23

Advantages of Class-B Push-Pull Amplifier

Though the class-B push-pull amplifier has a number of advantages over class-A amplifier, yet the
following are important from the subject point of view:

1. The circuit efficiency of a class-B push-pull amplifier is 78.5%, which is much higher than that of
class-A whose value is 25%. It is mainly due to the reason that no power is drawn from the d.c. supply
under no signal condition.

2. The use of push -pull system in the class-B amplifier eliminates even order harmonics in the
a.c. output signal.

3. Because of the absence of even harmonics, the circuit gives more output, per device, for a given
amount of distortion.

4. There is no d.c. component in the output signal.

Crossover Distortion

We know that transistors in a class-B push –pull amplifier are biased at cut-off. It means that when the
d.c. bias voltage is zero, the input signal voltage must exceed the barrier voltage before a transistor
conducts.

Figure 22: Crossover distortion

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In other words, a transistor does not conduct, until the input signal voltage exceeds 0.7 V for silicon
and 0.3 V for germanium transistors.

Because of this, there is a time interval between the positive and negative alternations of the input
signal when neither transistor is conducting as shown in Figure 22.

The resulting distortion in the output signal is quite common and is called crossover distortion.

The crossover distortion may be avoided by applying a slight forward bias (equal to 0.7 V for silicon
and 0.3 V for germanium transistors) to the base-emitter junction of both the transistors of the amplifier
circuit.

It causes the transistor to conduct immediately, when the a.c. input signal is applied. The application of
slight forward bias shifts the Q-point slightly above the cut-off.

In that case, each transistor operates for more than one half cycle. The resulting operation of the
transistor is called class-AB operation.

Class-AB Power Amplifier

37

Figure 23: Circuit diagram of Class-AB power amplifier

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EDC - 223382 AO3I 2022-23
If the amplifying device is biased in such a way that current flows in the device for 51% - 99% of the
input signal, the amplifier is operating class-AB.

A simple class-AB amplifier is shown in Figure 23. Notice that the output signal is distorted. The
output signal no longer has the same shape as the input signal.

The portion of the output signal that appears to be cut off is caused by the lack or current through the
transistor.

When the emitter becomes positive enough, the transistor cannot conduct because the base-to-emitter
junction is no longer forward biased. Any further increase in input signal will not cause an increase in
output signal voltage.

Class-AB amplifiers have belier efficiency and poorer fidelity than class-A amplifiers. They are used
when the output signal need not be a complete reproduction of the input signal, but both positive and
negative portions of the input signal must be available at the output.

Class-AB amplifiers are usually defined as amplifiers operating between class-A and class-B because
class-A amplifiers operate on 100% of input signal and class-B amplifiers operate on 50% of the input
signal. Any amplifier operating between these two limits is operating class-AB.

Class-C Amplifier

The class-C amplifier is the most efficient power amplifier, which can produce more load power than
that of either class-A or class-B amplifier.

To amplify a sinusoidal signal, a class-C amplifier has to be tuned to the sinusoidal frequency. Because
of this fact, the class-C amplifier is called a tuned amplifier or a narrow band circuit.

It means that it can amplify only the resonant frequency and those frequencies which are closer to it. In
order to avoid the need for large inductors and capacitors, in the resonant circuit, the class-C amplifiers
are used to amplify the signals at radio frequencies (i.e., frequencies above 20 kHz).

Thus class-C amplifier is basically a radio-frequency (RF) power amplifier and not an audio power
amplifier like class-A and class-B amplifier.

Figure 24 shows the circuit of a class-C tuned amplifier. It consists of a transistor amplifier with a
tuned circuit.

The input voltage of the amplifier must have sufficiently large amplitude so that the base emitter
junction is forward biased for less than 180° of the input signal cycle.
38
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OR

Figure 24: Single stage Class-C power amplifier

The transistor conducts during this portion of the input signal cycle. The collector current is consists of
a series of pulses.

One pulses for each cycle of the input signal. The peaks of these pulses resemble the peaks of the input
sine wave and the duration of each is less than the half the period of the input signal.

The parallel resonant circuit provides the load impedance is tuned to the input frequency and has a high
Q. The output voltage across the tuned circuit is sinusoidal and has the same frequency as that of the
input signal.

A class-C tuned amplifier operates at the resonant frequency Fo of the tank circuit, where

The bandwidth is given by B,

Where, Qo is the effective Q of the tank circuit.

A class-C tuned amplifier is used as a frequency multiplier if the resonant circuit is tuned to a harmonic
of the input signal.
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Characteristics of Class-C Amplifier

Following are some of the important characteristics of class-C amplifier:

1. The output current flows only during a part of the positive (or negative) half cycle of the input
signal. This condition is achieved by biasing the transistor below cut-off.

2. The output signal docs not resemble the input signal because it consists of narrow pulses.

3. The class-C amplifier is the most efficient power amplifier and its overall efficiency, under certain
conditions, may approach even 100%.

Q) Compare Class-A, Class-B, Class-C and Class-AB power amplifiers on the basis of:
i) Angle of conduction ii) Efficiency
iii) Position of operating pointing power dissipation iv) Distortion
v) Application

Sr. No. Parameter Class-A Class-B Class-AB Class-C

More than
Less than
1 Angle of conduction 360° 180° 180° less than
180°
360°
25% can
2 Efficiency increase to 78.5% 78.5% 95%
50%
Position of operating At the center Just above
3 On X-axis Below X-axis
pointing power dissipation of load line X-axis
Distortion
Less than B
more than A Maximum
4 Distortion No distortion and C but
and AB but distortion
more than A
less than C
Outdoor
Audio Power Audio Power
5 Application Musical RF Amplifier
Amplifier Amplifier
System 40
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