materials
Article
Reuse of Red Mud and Bauxite Tailings Mud as Subgrade
Materials from the Perspective of Mechanical Properties
Xiaoduo Ou 1 , Shengjin Chen 1,2 , Jie Jiang 1, *, Jinxi Qin 3 and Lu Zhang 4, *






Citation: Ou, X.; Chen, S.; Jiang, J.;
Qin, J.; Zhang, L. Reuse of Red Mud
and Bauxite Tailings Mud as
Subgrade Materials from the
Perspective of Mechanical Properties.
Materials 2022, 15, 1123. https://
doi.org/10.3390/ma15031123
Academic Editors:
Tomas Manuel Fernandez-Steeger
and Youliang Chen
Received: 29 December 2021
Accepted: 25 January 2022
Published: 31 January 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Materials 2022, 15, 1123. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15031123
1 College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China;
ouxiaoduo@163.com (X.O.); 1810401003@st.gxu.edu.cn (S.C.)
2 Guangxi Hualan Geotechnical Engineering Co., Ltd., Nanning 530004, China
3 Guangxi Xinfazhan Communication Group Co., Ltd., Nanning 530029, China; qinjinxi1995@163.com
4 College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin 541004, China
* Correspondence: jiejiang@gxu.edu.cn (J.J.); zhanglu@glut.edu.cn (L.Z.)
Abstract: In order to reuse red mud and bauxite tailings mud (two typical aluminum industrial
wastes) to reduce the occupation of land resources and environmental damage, these two wastes were
combined to develop subgrade materials for the first time. With different combinations, the effects of
the amounts of red mud, tailings mud, and cementitious materials on the strength of tested subgrade
materials were investigated. The mechanism of strength growth was analyzed by a micro-test. The
test results showed that the material strength of three combinations met the requirements when the
unconfined compression strength (UCS) of all combinations increased with age. The UCS of the
A1 BC2 combination (the mass ratio of red mud and tailings mud was 2:1, the mass ratio of cement
and quicklime was 1:1, and the mass ratio of waste and cementitious materials was 1:0.2) was the
best, with the UCS being 3.03 MPa in 7 days. Microscopic imaging showed that specimens with high
red mud contents had compact structures without cracks. The strength of these materials is mainly
due to hydration reactions and pozzolanic reactions; the cementitious products generated by the
reactions solidify Na+ and inhibit the release of OH− , while the addition of tailings mud can reduce
the content of Na2 O in the material, which makes the environmental compatibility of the A3 BC2
combination the best (the mass ratio of red mud and tailings mud was 1:2, the mass ratio of cement
and quicklime was 1:1, and the mass ratio of waste and cementitious materials was 1:0.2). Its pH
value was 8.75. This experiment verifies the feasibility of the combined application of red mud and
tailings mud in subgrade materials. To this end, a feasible scheme for the simultaneous consumption
of these two kinds of aluminum industrial wastes has been proposed.
Keywords: Bayer red mud; bauxite tailings mud; subgrade material; mechanical properties;
environmental protection
1. Introduction
Aluminum is one of the most widely used nonferrous metallic materials in the world.
In the production of aluminum, two wastes are generated in large volumes: red mud and
bauxite tailings mud. Red mud is an alkaline solid waste, and tailings mud is the mud
waste produced by grinding and washing bauxite ore. These wastes have adverse impacts
on the ecological environment. The utilization of red mud and tailings mud is very low,
and the waste yards for such wastes occupy large areas of land [1]. In order to eliminate
the adverse impacts of these wastes on land resources and the ecological environment, it is
of significance to find an economical way to utilize large amounts of red mud and bauxite
tailings mud, especially in subgrade engineering.
Over the past few decades, the research on bauxite tailings mud mainly focuses on
its physical and mechanical properties [2,3], drainage mechanism [4–6] and consolidation
characteristics [7]. There are few application studies on subgrade materials. However, due
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials
 to the mechanical properties of clay soil, bauxite tailings mud can be used in the field o
road engineering after reducing its water content.
Currently, the utilization of red mud mainly surrounds three aspects: extracting val
Materials 2022, 15, 1123 uable metals from the red mud [8,9]; using red mud as an adsorbent or catalyst 2 of 14for envi

ronmental remediation and treatment [10–12]; and using red mud as a mineral raw mate
rial in the field of construction [13–15]. The application of red mud to subgrade material
is the
to an embodiment of this third
mechanical properties of clay aspect [16]. The
soil, bauxite mechanical
tailings mud can properties
be used inof pure
the fieldredof mud o
road engineering after reducing its water content.
a combination of red mud and other industrial wastes (such as fly ash, slag, desulfuriza
Currently, the utilization of red mud mainly surrounds three aspects: extracting
tion gypsum, etc.) can meet the application requirements of low-grade road subgrade ma
valuable metals from the red mud [8,9]; using red mud as an adsorbent or catalyst for
terials under remediation
environmental the condition and of adding[10–12];
treatment certainand additives
using red[16].mudSahoo and Mohanty
as a mineral raw ma- (2016
studied
terial the
in the effectiveness
field of constructionof [13–15].
red mud Theasapplication
a subgrade material
of red mud tobasedsubgrade on materials
the engineering
characteristics of red mud. It was found that when the proportion
is an embodiment of this third aspect [16]. The mechanical properties of pure red mud or of red mud was a 2.9, the
optimal water
combination content
of red mud andwasother23.25%, the maximum
industrial wastes (such dryas density wasdesulfurization
fly ash, slag, 1.81 g/cm , the liquid
3

limit was
gypsum, 31.20%,
etc.) can meetthetheUCS was 0.191
application MPa, and
requirements the CBR was
of low-grade 7.5% [17].materials
road subgrade Li et al. (2021
found that when red mud, fly ash, and desulfurization gypsum were used to prepare
under the condition of adding certain additives [16]. Sahoo and Mohanty (2016) studied the road
effectiveness of red mud as a subgrade material based on the engineering characteristics of
base materials, the unconfined compressive strength of road base materials met the
red mud. It was found that when the proportion of red mud was 2.9, the optimal water
strength requirements of highways, and the ion leaching concentration met drinking wa
content was 23.25%, the maximum dry density was 1.81 g/cm3 , the liquid limit was 31.20%,
ter UCS
the standards
was 0.191[18];MPa,
Liu and
et al.the
(2018) used7.5%
CBR was the [17].
lime-fly
Li etash method
al. (2021) to stabilize
found that when red
redmud and
foundflythat
mud, ash,the
andmain factor affecting
desulfurization gypsum UCSwere forused
seven days was
to prepare road the proportion
base materials, of thelime and
unconfined compressive strength of road base materials met the strength requirements of of lime
ash followed by the chemical composition of Bayer RM and, finally, the amount
and fly ash
highways, and[19].
the ion leaching concentration met drinking water standards [18]; Liu et al.
(2018)Both
usedbauxite tailings
the lime-fly mud and
ash method to red mudred
stabilize aremudstored andinfound
alumina thatproduction
the main factor enterprises
which are both convenient and cost-effective to use. Combining bauxite
affecting UCS for seven days was the proportion of lime and ash followed by thetailings
chemicalmud and
composition of Bayer RM and, finally, the amount of lime and fly ash [19].
red mud to develop subgrade materials can not only reuse those two wastes but also re
Both bauxite tailings mud and red mud are stored in alumina production enterprises,
duce environmental hazards.
which are both convenient and cost-effective to use. Combining bauxite tailings mud and
red mud Considering the feasibility
to develop subgrade materials of bauxite tailings
can not only reusemudthoseandtwored
wastesmud butasalso
subgrade
reduce materi
als, this experiment
environmental hazards. aims to apply these two typical aluminum industrial wastes to the
subgrade of low-grade
Considering roadways.
the feasibility Thistailings
of bauxite papermud putsand forward
red mud new research materials,
as subgrade that can not only
saveexperiment
this the construction cost of
aims to apply these subgrade engineering
two typical aluminum but also realize
industrial wastes the
to thereuse
subgradeof waste and
the sustainable development of the environment. The results provide an important
of low-grade roadways. This paper puts forward new research that can not only save the guide
line for the application of red mud and tailings mud to subgrade engineering.
construction cost of subgrade engineering but also realize the reuse of waste and the
sustainable development of the environment. The results provide an important guideline
for the application of red mud and tailings mud to subgrade engineering.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1.
2. Materials
Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
The waste muds used in this study were mixed Bayer red mud and bauxite tailing
mud, which
The wastewere
mudscollected from
used in this Guangxi
study XinfaBayer
were mixed Aluminum
red mud Electricity
and bauxiteCo., Ltd., in Baise
tailings
mud, which were collected from Guangxi Xinfa Aluminum Electricity Co., Ltd., in
City, China (Figures 1 and 2). The cementitious materials used in the test were commercia Baise
City, China (Figures 1 and 2). The cementitious materials used in the test were commercial
Portland cement (P.O42.5) and quicklime (CaO). The chemical compositions of red mud
Portland cement (P.O42.5) and quicklime (CaO). The chemical compositions of red mud
and tailings mud are listed in Table 1. It was noted that the red mud contains more Na2O
and tailings mud are listed in Table 1. It was noted that the red mud contains more Na2 O,
whichcan
which canprovide
provide hydroxyls
hydroxyls during
during the hydration
the hydration process.
process.

Figure1.1.Photograph
Figure Photograph of the
of the redred
mudmud reservoir.
reservoir.
Materials
Materials 2022,15,
2022, 15,1123
1123 3 of 14 3 of 1

Figure2.2.Photograph
Figure Photograph of the
of the tailings
tailings mudmud reservoir.
reservoir.

Table1.1.Main
Table Main chemical
chemical components
components ofmud
of red red mud and tailings
and tailings mud (%).
mud (%).

Chemical Chemical
Fe2 O3 Al2 O3 Fe
SiO2O
2 3 Al 2O3
CaO SiO
Na22 O CaO K2 O Na2O MgO
K2O MgO
TiO2 TiO2
Components Components
red mud 29.5 red21.6
mud 29.5
15.1 21.6
11.5 15.1
9.21 11.5 0.16 9.21 0.600.16 0.60
5.59 5.59
tailings mud 15.43 38.02 27.62 0.37 / 0.75 / 1.6
tailings mud 15.43 38.02 27.62 0.37 / 0.75 / 1.6
To prepare mixtures of the above-mentioned materials, three factors were mainly
To prepare
considered: the massmixtures
ratio ofofredthe
mudabove-mentioned
to tailings mud (A), materials,
the massthree
ratio factors were
of cement to mainly
considered:
quicklime (B),the
andmass ratioratio
the mass of red mud to
of waste tocementitious
tailings mud (A), the(C).
materials mass ratio of cement to
To investigate
quicklime
the influences(B),ofand thethree
these massfactors,
ratio ofmixtures
waste towith
cementitious materials (C).ratios
different proportioning To investigate
were the
influences of these three factors, mixtures with different proportioning ratios were pre
prepared. As listed in Table 2, for all mixtures, the mass ratio of cement and quicklime was
pared.
fixed AsBlisted
to be = 1:1. in Table
Three mass2, for allofmixtures,
ratios red mud to the mass mud
tailings ratiowere
of cement andAquicklime
prepared: 1 = 2:1, wa
A = 1:1, and A = 1:2. For these mixtures, three mass ratios of waste material
fixed to be B = 1:1. Three mass ratios of red mud to tailings mud were prepared: A1 = 2:1
2 3 (red mud
and tailings mud) and cementitious material were designed: C1 = 1:0.1, C2 = 1:0.2, and
A2 = 1:1, and A3 = 1:2. For these mixtures, three mass ratios of waste material (red mud
C3 = 1:0.3. With such a combination, 9 types of mixtures were made.
and tailings mud) and cementitious material were designed: C1 = 1:0.1, C2 = 1:0.2, and C3
= 1:0.3.
Table With such scheme
2. Combination a combination,
for mixtures9 of
types
wasteof mixtures
muds were made.
and cementitious materials.

Table 2. Combination scheme

Mass Ratiofor
of mixtures
Mass of waste
Ratio of muds and cementitious materials.
Mass Ratio of
Waste and
Number Red Mud and Cement and Mixture ID
Mass Ratio ofMud
Tailings Red Mass Ratio of Cementitious
Quicklime
Mass Ratio of Waste and Mixture
Materials
Number Mud and Tailings Cement and
1 A B Cementitious
C1 Materials
A1 BC1 ID
2
MudA1 Quicklime
B C2 A1 BC2
1
1 3 A 1 A1 B B C3 C1 A1 BC3 A1BC1
2 4 A 1 A2 B B C1 C2 A2 BC1 A1BC2
5 A2 B C2 A2 BC2
3 6 A 1 A2 B B C3 C3 A2 BC3 A1BC3
4 7 A 2 A3 B B C1 C1 A3 BC1 A2BC1
5 8 A 2 A3 B B C2 C2 A3 BC2 A2BC2
9 A3 B C3 A3 BC3
6 A2 B C3 A2BC3
7
2.2. Specimen A3
Preparation B C1 A3BC1
8 A3 B C2
The red mud and tailings mud were oven-dried. Then, the red mud, tailings mud,
A3BC2
and quicklime were weighed according to the desired proportion ratios in Table 2 and A3BC3
9 A 3 B C 3

mixed evenly. Afterwards, deionized water was sprayed into the mixed powder to prepare
2.2. Specimen
mixtures. Preparation
The wetted mixtures were sealed in the curing room. After standing for 12 h, the
cement was added to the pre-mixed materials. The well-prepared mixtures were subjected
The red mud and tailings mud were oven-dried. Then, the red mud, tailings mud
to subsequent mechanical tests (see Table 3 for more details). The subsequent test should
and quicklime were weighed according to the desired proportion ratios in Table 2 and
be conducted within one hour after adding the cement.
mixed evenly. Afterwards, deionized water was sprayed into the mixed powder to pre
pare mixtures. The wetted mixtures were sealed in the curing room. After standing for 12
h, the cement was added to the pre-mixed materials. The well-prepared mixtures were
subjected to subsequent mechanical tests
 BC2 combinations optimum water content Φ 50 × H 50 28

CBR test A3BC2 optimum water content Φ 50 × H 50 7

Materials 2022, 15, 1123 4 of 14

2.3. Mechanical Tests

Compaction tests, unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests, and C
Table 3. Specifications of the testing program.

ing ratio (CBR) tests wereDimensions

Initial Water conducted of
to Curing
revealDuration
the mechanical Curing
properties of
Type of Test
grade materials
Tested Mixture
according
Content of
Specimen (%)
to the(mm)
Specimen standard test (Days)proceduresConditions
stipulated in the
ard of JTG 3430-2020 [20]. The detailed test program is illustrated in Table
all mixture listed
Φ 100 × H 127
in Table 2 The compaction test was conducted with different initial water content
Compaction test 17–40 0 /
◦
17% 2 to 40%. content
The detailed Φ mixture
50 × H 50 is listed1,in Table 2. Based on the Chinese
all mixture listed optimum water 20 C, 95%
7, 28, 60
UCS test in Table humidity
3430-2020optimum
BC2 combinations [20], the specimens
water
Φ 50 ×were
H 50 compacted 28 in 3 layers. Each layer was
◦
20 C, immersion
content in water
27 strokesoptimum
by a 4.5 kg hammer with a falling distance of 45
water 20 ◦cm. The compa
C, 95%
CBR test A3 BC2 Φ 50 × H 50 7
with diameters of 10 cm and heights of 12.7 cm (Figure 3)humidity
content were removed f
to determine their final water contents and dry densities.
The unconfined compression strength and CBR tests were conducted
2.3. Mechanical Tests
Compaction tests, unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests, and California bearing
specimens with optimal water contents and were 94% compact. The well
ratio (CBR) tests were conducted to reveal the mechanical properties of the waste subgrade
ture was
materials compacted
according to cylindrical
to the standard columns
test procedures 5 cm
stipulated in Chinese
in the heightStandard
and 5 cmof in di
4). 3430-2020
JTG After compaction, thetest
[20]. The detailed specimens were placed
program is illustrated in Tableunder
3. standard curing c
The compaction test was conducted with different initial water contents ranging from
a controlled temperature of 20 °C and relative humidity of 95% for 1, 7, 2
17% to 40%. The detailed mixture is listed in Table 2. Based on the Chinese Standard JTG
For comparison,
3430-2020 the additional
[20], the specimens unconfined
were compacted in 3 layers.compression tests were
Each layer was compacted forconduc
combinations cured by immersing them in water for 28 days to verify the
27 strokes by a 4.5 kg hammer with a falling distance of 45 cm. The compacted specimens
with diameters of 10 cm and heights of 12.7 cm (Figure 3) were removed from the center to
tion.
determine their final water contents and dry densities.

Figure
Figure 3. Specimens
3. Specimens for the for the compaction
compaction test. test.
The unconfined compression strength and CBR tests were conducted on compacted
specimens with optimal water contents and were 94% compact. The well-prepared mixture
was compacted to cylindrical columns 5 cm in height and 5 cm in diameter (Figure 4). After
compaction, the specimens were placed under standard curing conditions with a controlled
temperature of 20 ◦ C and relative humidity of 95% for 1, 7, 28, and 60 days. For comparison,
the additional unconfined compression tests were conducted on the BC2 combinations
cured by immersing them in water for 28 days to verify the curing condition.
The CBR test was carried out on the A3 BC2 combination after 7 days of curing (with
the UCS exceeding 2 MPa).
Materials 2022, 15, 1123
Materials 2022, 15, 1123 5 of 14

Figure
Figure 4. Specimens
4. Specimens for the for the unconfined
unconfined compression compression
test. test.
2.4. SEM Tests
The
For CBR
further test was of
investigation carried out ofonstrength,
the growth the A3micro-feature
BC2 combination after
analysis was 7 days
car-
the out
ried UCS onexceeding
the specimens 2 MPa).
by using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) (S-3400N
type) produced by Hitachi, in Tokyo, Japan, with magnification ranging between 20 and
300,000 times. The temperature of the specimen observation chamber was set to 50 ◦ C, and
2.4.pressure
the SEM Tests
was set to 650 Pa. Before the observations, the tested specimens were cut into
For further
cubic blocks investigation
with dimensions of 4 mm × of8 the
mm × growth of natural
4 mm. The strength, micro-feature
section is taken as an
the observation surface, and the back surface is pasted on the conductive adhesive. After
ried outgold
spraying ononthe
thespecimens by the
surface and side, using a scanning
test and electron
observations microscope
can be carried out. (SEM)
produced by Hitachi, in Tokyo, Japan, with magnification ranging between
times. The temperature of the specimen observation chamber was set to
2.5. pH Tests
Red mud and tailing mud are solid wastes from the aluminum industry. The only
pressureis whether
difference was setalkali
to pollution
650 Pa. exists
Before the
or not observations,
in tailing the tested
mud. The impact specimens
of the release
cubic
of alkaliblocks with
pollution dimensions
on the environment of 4 mm
needs to be×considered
8 mm × 4inmm. The natural
the process of its use.section
observation surface, and the back surface is pasted on the conductive
Therefore, according to the Chinese Standard GB7023-86 [21], the thunder magnetic pH a
meter (PHS-3C) was used to test the pH values of leach solution of specimens with 28 d
spraying
curing gold
ages at on temperature
a room the surfaceof and
25 ◦ C,side,
whichthewastest and observations
produced by Shanghai INESAcan be car
Scientific Instrument Co., Ltd., in Shanghai, China.
2.5. pH Tests
3. Results and Discussion
Red mud
3.1. Compaction Testsand tailing mud are solid wastes from the aluminum indu
difference is whether
The compaction curve ofalkali pollution
each group existsis or
of specimens notininFigure
shown tailing
5. Itmud.
shows The
that impa
of alkali pollution on the environment needs to be considered in the pro
the optimum water content of each combination was between 25.1% and 33.5%, and the
maximum dry density was between 1.44 g/cm3 and 1.58 g/cm3 . The A1 B combination
Therefore,
was according
mainly composed to the
of red mud Chinese
waste. Standard
Herein, the GB7023-86
optimal water content and[21], the thunde
maximum
meter
dry (PHS-3C)
density wasthe
increased with used to test
increase in thethe pH values
cementitious of leach
material. solution
The A3 B of specim
combination
curing ages at a room temperature of 25°C, which was produced by Shang
mainly consisted of tailings mud waste. The optimum water content decreased with the
increase in the cementitious material and the maximum dry density.
entific Instrument Co., Ltd., in Shanghai, China.
3.2. UCS Tests

3. Results and Discussion

Figure 6 shows the UCS development of specimens with curing time. The UCS of
all the combinations increased with age; however, the rate of increase in the strength of
3.1. combinations
most Compactiontends Teststo be gentle after 28 days. This may be caused by the hydration
reactions. With the aging process, the material strength increased; but when the ions such
as Ca2+The compaction
and AlO − curve of each group of specimens is shown in Figure
2 involved in the hydration reactions were consumed in large quantities,
therate
the optimum
of increasewater content
in the material of each
strength combination
started to slow. was between 25.1% and
maximum dry density was between 1.44 g/cm3 and 1.58 g/cm3. The A1B co
mainly composed of red mud waste. Herein, the optimal water content and
density increased with the increase in the cementitious material. The A3
mainly consisted of tailings mud waste. The optimum water content decr
 A1BC3
A2BC3
1.65 A1BC2 1.65
A2BC2
A1BC1
1.60 ρdmax=1.58 1.60 ρdmax=1.58 A2BC1

Dry density（g/cm3）
Dry density (g/cm3)
1.55 1.55
Materials 2022,
Materials 15,15,
2022, 1123
1123 ρdmax=1.51 6 14
6 of of 14
1.50
ρdmax=1.49 1.50
ρdmax=1.45 ρdmax=1.45
1.45 1.45
1.70 1.70
1.40 A1BC3 1.40
wop=28.3 A2BC3
1.65 wop=25.1 A1BC2 1.65
1.35 wop=29.0 A2BC2
1.35 wop=26.1 A1BC1
1.60 ρdmax=1.58 wop=27.5 1.60 ρdmax=1.58 wop=30.2 A2BC1

Dry density（g/cm3）
Dry density (g/cm3)

1.30 1.30
18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38
1.55 1.55
Water content (%) ρdmax=1.51 Water content (%)
ρdmax=1.49
1.50 (a) Combinations with A1B 1.50 (b) Combinations with A2B
ρdmax=1.45 1.70 ρdmax=1.45
1.45 1.45

1.65 A3BC3
1.40 1.40
A3BC2 wop=28.3
wop=25.1 1.60 A3BC1
wop=29.0
Dry density (g/cm3)

1.35 wop=26.1 1.35

1.55 ρdmax=1.54
wop=27.5 wop=30.2
1.30 1.30
18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38
1.50 Water content (%)
Water content (%)
ρdmax=1.49
(a) Combinations with1.45
A1B (b) Combinations with A2B
1.70 ρdmax=1.44
1.40
1.65 wop=27.8 A3BC3
1.35 wop=30.6 A3BC2
1.60 wop=33.5 A3BC1
Dry density (g/cm3)

1.30
1.55 ρ20dmax=1.54
22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42
Water content (%)
1.50 (c) Combinations with A3B
ρdmax=1.49
Figure 5.1.45
Relation between maximum dry density and optimum water content of various combina-
ρdmax=1.44
tions (a–c).
1.40
wop=27.8
3.2. UCS1.35
Tests wop=30.6
wop=33.5
Figure
1.30 6 shows the UCS development of specimens with curing time. The UCS of all
20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42
the combinations increased with age; however, the rate of increase in the strength of most
Water content (%)
combinations tends to be gentle after
(c) Combinations with28 A3days.
B This may be caused by the hydration reac-
tions. With the aging process, the material strength increased; but when the ions such as
Figure
Ca
Figure 5.5.Relation
2+ and AlO between
betweenmaximum
2− involved
Relation in dry
the hydration
maximum density andoptimum
reactions
dry density and optimum watercontent
were consumed
water content
inofof various
large combina-
quantities,
various combina-the
tions
rate (a–c).
tionsof(a–c).
increase in the material strength started to slow.

5.5 3.2. UCS Tests 5.5

5.0 A1BC1 Figure 6 shows the UCS development 5.0 of specimens
A1BC2 with curing time. The UCS of all
A2BC2
4.5 A2BC1 the combinations increased with age; however,
4.5 the rate
A3BC2
of increase in the strength of most
4.0
A3BC1
combinations tends to be gentle after 284.0days. This may be caused by the hydration reac-
3.5 tions. With the aging process, the material
3.5 strength increased; but when the ions such as
UCS(MPa)

Ca2+ and AlO2− involved in the hydration 3.0reactions were consumed in large quantities, the
UCS(MPa)

3.0

2.5 rate of increase in the material strength2.5

started to slow.
2.0 2.0
5.5 5.5
1.5 1.5
5.0 A1BC2
1.0 A1BC1 5.0
1.0 A2BC2
4.5 A2BC1 4.5
0.5 0.5 A3BC2
4.0
A3BC1
4.0
0.0 0.0
3.5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 3.5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Curing time(days) Curing time(days)
UCS(MPa)

UCS(MPa)

3.0 3.0
(a) Combinations with C1 (b) Combinations with C2
2.5 2.5

2.0 2.0
Figure 6. Cont.
1.5 1.5

1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5

0.0 0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Curing time(days) Curing time(days)
(a) Combinations with C1 (b) Combinations with C2
Materials Materials
2022, 15, 2022,
1123 15, 1123 7 of7 of
1414

3.0

A1BC3
2.5 A2BC3
A3BC3
2.0

UCS(MPa) 1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Curing time(days)
(c) Combinations with C3
FigureFigure
6. Change graphs
6. Change of UCS
graphs of different
of UCS combinations
of different withwith
combinations the the
same dosage
same of of
dosage cementitious
cementitious
material (a–c).
material (a–c).

Moreover, as shown
Moreover, as shown in Figure
in Figure 6b, the UCSUCS
6b, the of the
of theC2 Ccombinations
2 combinations presented
presented inin
thethe
descending order of A1BC2,1 A2BC
descending order of A BC 2 2 2and2 A3BC23; the2 UCS results of combinations with C1C1
, A BC and A BC ; the UCS results of combinations with
and
and C3 showed C 3 showed
a similar trend, see insee
a similar trend, in Figure
Figure 6a,c.6a,c.
Upon Upon further
further comparison
comparison of the
of the strength
strength
increases due to the variation in the ratio of the wastes, it was observed that when the ratio
increases due to the variation in the ratio of the wastes, it was observed that when the
of red mud to tailings mud increased from 1:1 (A2 ) to 2:1 (A1 ), the increase in UCS was
ratio of red mud to tailings mud increased from 1:1 (A 2) to 2:1 (A1), the increase in UCS
higher than when the ratio of red mud to tailings mud increased from 1:2 (A3 ) to 1:1 (A2 ).
was higher than when the ratio of red mud to tailings mud increased from 1:2 (A3) to 1:1
This indicates that the red mud had a more positive effect on the strength of the material
(A2). This
than indicates
the tailingsthat mud the redthe
since mud redhadmudacontains
more positivemore Naeffect on the strength of the
2 O. The strength was enhanced
material than the tailings mud since the red mud
due to the increased production of hydroxyls from the hydration process. contains more Na 2O. The strength was

enhanced due to the

Figures increased
7 and 8 compare production
the UCSof of hydroxyls
the combinations from the hydration
cured process.
for 7 days and 28 days.
Figures 7 and 8 compare the UCS of the combinations
For the A1 B combinations, the UCS of the A1 BC1 , A1 BC2 and A1 BC3 combinations cured for 7 days and 28 days.
were
For the A 1B combinations, the UCS of the A 1 BC 1 , A 1 BC 2 and
1.61 MPa, 3.03 MPa, and 1.38 MPa, respectively. The UCS results from highest to lowest A 1 BC 3 combinations were 1.61
MPa, 3.03
wereMPa,A1 BCand 2 , A11.38
BC1 MPa,
and Arespectively.
1 BC3 , and those TheofUCS results from of
the combinations highest
A2 B andto lowest were a
A3 B showed
A1BC2similar
, A1BC1pattern.
and A1BC 3, and
This those
reflects of the
that, for combinations
a given ratio ofofthe A2red
B andmud A3and
B showed
tailingsa mud,
similar the
pattern. This reflects that, for a given ratio of the red mud and tailings mud, the relation-
relationship between the UCS of the specimen and the content of cementitious materials
ship between the UCS of the
was not monotonous. specimen
Based and theitcontent
on the results, of cementitious
can be speculated that whenmaterials
C (the was
massnotratio
monotonous. Based on the results, it can be speculated that when C (the mass ratio of
of waste to cementitious materials) is 1:0.1, the hydration reaction between cementitious
waste materials and waste
to cementitious materials
materials) is is sufficient,
1:0.1, but therereaction
the hydration are fewer hydration
between reaction products
cementitious ma-
due to fewer cementitious materials. When C is 1:0.2, a similar amount of cementitious
terials and waste materials is sufficient, but there are fewer hydration reaction products
materials are produced so that the hydration reaction between cementitious materials and
due to fewer cementitious materials. When C is 1:0.2, a similar amount of cementitious
waste materials is sufficient; thus, the highest UCS strength was produced accordingly.
materials are produced so that the hydration reaction between cementitious materials and
However, when C is 1:0.3, the amount of cementitious material is excessive, resulting in
waste carbonization
materials is sufficient; thus, thereaction
after the hydration highest[22], UCSwhich strength wasthe
reduces produced
strength accordingly.
instead. There-
However,
fore, the ratio of 1:0.2 (C2 ) is suggested as the optimum mass ratio of waste toresulting
when C is 1:0.3, the amount of cementitious material is excessive, in
cementitious
carbonization
materials. after
Forthe thishydration
ratio, the reaction
UCS of the [22],A1which
BC2 , Areduces the strength instead. There-
2 BC2, and A3 BC2 combinations cured
fore, the ratio of 1:0.2 (C
for 7 d were larger than 2 MPa, meeting the requirements forofthe
2) is suggested as the optimum mass ratio waste to cementitious
compressive strength
materials. For this
of general, ratio, the
ordinary UCS ofmaterials
subgrade the A1BC(UCS 2, A2BC ≥ 2,2 and
MPa) A3based
BC2 combinations
on the Chinese cured for
Standard
7 d were
JTG/T larger than [23],
F20-2015 2 MPa, andmeeting
the A1 BCthe requirements
2 combined strength forwas
thethe compressive
highest. strength of
general, ordinary subgrade materials (UCS ≥ 2MPa) based on the Chinese Standard JTG/T
F20-2015 [23], and the A1BC2 combined strength was the highest.
Figure 9 compares the UCS of the BC2 combinations cured with and without immer-
sion for 28 days. The unconfined compression strengths of the A1BC2, A2BC2, and A3BC2
combinations cured without immersion were 4.54 MPa, 3.38 MPa, and 2.86 MPa, respec-
tively; the corresponding values for combinations with immersion were 4.38 MPa, 3.22
MPa, and 2.68 MPa. Strength losses of 3.5%, 4.7%, and 6.3% due to immersion were ob-
tained, creating an average of 4.9%. Though short-term immersion might soften a speci-
men, the strength of the immersed specimen still meets durability requirements. From a
 practical point of view, the influence of curing conditions on the strengt
Materials 2022, 15, 1123
practical point of view, the influence of curing conditions on the
tions is insignificant. strengt
8 of 14
tions is insignificant.
5.0
5.0 combinations with C1
4.5 combinations with C21
4.5
4.0 combinations with C23
4.0 combinations with C3
3.5
3.5 3.03
3.0 3.03
UCS(MPa)
UCS(MPa) 3.0 2.35
2.5
2.5 2.35 2.02
2.0 2.02
1.61
2.0 1.38 1.42
1.5 1.61 1.15 1.3
1.38 1.42 1.3 0.99
1.5 1.15
1.0 0.99
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.0
A A1 1

A A1 1
3
C C

A 2A 2

3
C C
C C
C C

C C
0.0

A 2A 2
3

A 1A 1

A 2A 2
C C

C C

C C

C C
1B 1B

2B 2B
1B 1B
1B 1B

3B 3B
2B 2B

2B 2B

3B 3B

3B 3B
A A

A A

A A
3

3
3
Combination schemes (7-days)
Combination schemes (7-days)
Figure 7. Comparisons of the UCS of each combination cured for 7 days.
Figure 7. Comparisons of the UCS of each combination cured for 7 days.
Figure 7. Comparisons of the UCS of each combination cured for 7 days.

5.0
5.0 4.54 combinations with C1
4.5 4.54 combinations with C21
4.5 combinations with C32
4.0
4.0 3.38 combinations with C3
3.5
2.98 3.38
3.5 2.86
3.0 2.98
UCS(MPa)

3.0 2.39 2.86

UCS(MPa)

2.5
2.39
2.5 1.94
2.0 1.83
1.83 1.6 1.94 1.48
2.0
1.5 1.6 1.48
1.5
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.0
0.0
A 1A 1

A A2 2

A A1 1
C C

C C

C C
3

A 1A 1

A A2 2
A A2 2
C C

C C

C C
C C

3
C C

C C
1B 1B

1B 1B

2B 2B
1B 1B

3B 3B

3B 3B
2B 2B

2B 2B

3B 3B
A

A
3

Combination schemes (28-days)

A

Combination schemes (28-days)

Figure
Figure 8. Comparisons
8. Comparisons ofofthe
of the UCS eachUCS of each
combination combination
cured cured for 28 days.
for 28 days.
Figure 8. Comparisons of the UCS of each combination cured for 28 days.
Figure 9 compares the UCS of the BC combinations cured with and without immer-
2
sion6.0
for 28 days. The unconfined compression strengths of the A1 BC2 , A2 BC2 , and A3 BC2
6.0 3.5%without immersion were 28-days
5.5
combinations cured 4.54 MPa, 3.38 MPa, and 2.86 MPa, respec-
3.5% values for combinations28-days immersion
5.5
tively;
5.0
the corresponding with immersion were 4.38 MPa, 3.22 MPa,
28-days immersion
and5.02.68 MPa.4.54
Strength
4.38 losses of 3.5%, 4.7%, and 6.3% due to immersion were obtained,
4.5 an average
creating 4.54 of 4.9%. Though 4.7%short-term immersion might soften a specimen, the
4.5 4.38 4.7%
4.0 of the immersed specimen
strength 6.3% requirements. From a practical
still meets durability
UCS(MPa)

3.38
point4.0 3.22 conditions 6.3%
3.5of view, the influence of curing on the strength of BC2 combinations
UCS(MPa)

3.38 2.86
3.5
is insignificant.
3.0 3.22 2.68
3.0 2.86
2.5 2.68
2.5
2.0
2.0
1.5
1.5
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.0
A BC A BC A BC
 0.5
0.0

1
C

C
3

2
2
C

C
C

3
C

C
1B

1B

2B
1B

3B

3B
2B

2B

3B
A

A
A

A
A

A
Combination schemes (28-days)
Materials 2022, 15, 1123 9 of 14
Figure 8. Comparisons of the UCS of each combination cured for 28 days.

6.0
3.5% 28-days
5.5
28-days immersion
5.0
4.54
4.5 4.38 4.7%
4.0 6.3%
UCS(MPa) 3.5
3.38
3.22
3.0 2.86
2.68
2.5
2.0
Materials 2022, 15, 1123 1.5 9 of 14
1.0
0.5
based
0.0 on the Chinese Standard JTG D30-2015 [24]. The strength of the compacted compo-
A1BC2 dependsAon
site material mainly 2BCthe A3BC
2 material’s friction
2 strength and the hydration prod-
ucts produced by the hydration reaction of
Combination schemes the subgrade material. The CBR value obtained
from the test was quite high, which is related to the bonding effect from the hydration
Figure
reaction.9. Comparisons of the UCS of BC2 composites cured for 28 days with and with
Figure 9. Comparisons of the UCS of BC2 composites cured for 28 days with and without immersion.

3.3. CBR Tests

3.4. SEM Testsresults showed that the CBR value of the A BC specimen reached 55.8%,
3.3. CBR Tests
The test 3 2
whichFigures
exceeded 10–13
theshow the scanning
minimum electron microscopy
CBR requirement (6%) of theresults
proposedof the A1BC2 and
subgrade A3BC2
material
specimens
based The
on test
thecured
Chineseresults
7 days.showed
for Standard Different
JTG D30-2015that theThe
microstructures
[24]. CBR ofvalue
the of
strength of2compacted
A1the
BC the
and A A3BC
3BC 2 specimen r
combina-
2composite

which
tions were
material exceeded
observed.
mainly depends the minimum
Regarding
on the A1BC
the material’s CBR requirement
specimen
2 friction that was
strength and(6%)
mainly ofcomposed
the proposed
the hydration of red subg
products
mud, Figure
produced 10 shows
by the hydration thatreaction
the surface of the
of the specimen
subgrade was compact
material. The CBRand continuous
value obtained with- from
outtest
the crackswasand
quitecavities. The compact
high, which is relatedstructure of the specimen
to the bonding wasthe
effect from considered
hydrationtoreaction.
provide
this good stress-bearing capacity. Figure 11 shows that the red mud masses and the sur-
rounding
3.4. SEM Tests pores were filled with white fine particles without obvious holes or cracks,
while on the10–13
Figures A3BCshow 2 specimen mainlyelectron
the scanning composed of tailings
microscopy mud,ofcracks
results the Acan
1 BC2be andidentified
A3 BC2
clearly in Figure
specimens cured 12.for These
7 days.cracks weremicrostructures
Different causing damageoftothe theAintegrity
1 BC2 and ofAthe
3 BCspecimen,
2 combi-
thus worsening
nations the stress-bearing
were observed. Regardingcapacity.
the A1 BC Figure 13 shows
2 specimen thatthat
was themainly
surfacecomposed
of the speci- of
menmud,
red was Figure
uneven10 but without
shows thatobvious holes
the surface ofor thecracks (Figure
specimen was 12).
compact and continuous
withoutThecracks
content andof Na 2O in the
cavities. Thered mud reached
compact structure 9.21%,
of thewhich enhanced
specimen was the alkali envi-
considered to
ronmentthis
provide of the
good specimen duringcapacity.
stress-bearing the condensation
Figure 11 showsand hardening
that the red process, makingand
mud masses the
A1BC
the 2 combination
surrounding pores stronger. Thewith
were filled kaolinite
whitecontent of the tailings
fine particles withoutmud reached
obvious holes37.9% [25],
or cracks,
which made the
while on the A 3 tailings
BC 2 mud itself have a limited swelling and shrinkage ability, resulting
specimen mainly composed of tailings mud, cracks can be identified
in swelling
clearly and shrinkage
in Figure 12. These cracking
cracks wereof the solidified
causing bodyto(Figure
damage 13), affecting
the integrity the struc-
of the specimen,
turalworsening
thus integrity of thethe specimen. Therefore,
stress-bearing the strength
capacity. Figure 13 showsof the
thatAthe
3BC 2 combination
surface is lower
of the specimen
thanuneven
was that of but
the A 1BC2 combination.
without obvious holes or cracks (Figure 12).

Figure10.
Figure 10. 500
500×× SEM
SEM image
image of
of the
the A
A11BC
BC22combination.
combination.
Materials 2022, 15, 1123 10 of 14

Figure 10. 500× SEM image of the A1BC2 combination.

Materials2022,
Materials 15,1123
2022,15, 1123 1010ofof1414

Figure11.
Figure 11. 2000
2000×× SEM
SEM image
image of
of the
the A
A11BC
BC22combination.
combination.

Figure12.
Figure
Figure 12.500×
12. 500×
500 SEM
×SEM image
imageofof
SEMimage the
theAA
ofthe A33BC
3BC
BC 22combination.
combination.
2 combination.

Figure13.
Figure
Figure 13.2000×
13. 2000×
2000 SEM
×SEM image
imageofof
SEMimage the
theAA
ofthe 3BC
3BC
A 2 combination.
2 combination.
3 BC 2 combination.

Furthermore,
The content of Na
Furthermore, thespecimens
the 2specimens
O in the redweremudcompacted
totoaablock
reached 9.21%,
were compacted block
whichstructure.
structure. InInsuch
enhanced thesuch structures,
alkali environ-
structures,
theparticles
ment
the particlesofofthe
of the themixture
specimen mixturewere
during wereclosely
the closelyconnected.
connected.From
condensation and Fromthis
hardening thispoint
pointofofview,
process, view,the
making themixture’s
mixture’s
the A1 BC2
initialstrength
initial strengthisisattributed
combination attributedtotoits
stronger. The itsown
ownfriction
kaolinite frictionforce.
content of force.Then,
the Then,with
tailings withthe
mud theincrease
increaseinincuring
reached 37.9% curing
[25], time,
which
time,
the
made chemical reaction
the tailings mud between the
itself have mixed
a limitedmaterials
swellingoccurs
andwhen cement
shrinkage
the chemical reaction between the mixed materials occurs when cement materials encoun- materials
ability, encoun-
resulting in
ter water.
swelling The
and amorphous
shrinkage crystal
cracking ofhydrated calcium
the solidified bodysilicate
(Figure(C–S–H), cube
13), affecting
ter water. The amorphous crystal hydrated calcium silicate (C–S–H), cube or flake calcium or flake
the calcium
structural
hydroxide,
integrity
hydroxide, andneedle
of the
and needleflake
specimen. flake ettringite
Therefore,
ettringite
thewere
were generated
strength
generated
of the(Figures
1414and
and15).
A3 BC2 combination
(Figures 15).The
The quicklime
is lower
quick lime
than
also
that reacted
of the A with
BC water to
combination.form calcium hydroxide. In the alkaline
also reacted with water to form calcium hydroxide. In the alkaline environment, Ca ions
1 2 environment, Ca2+
2+ ions
released by cement
Furthermore, and
the lime
specimensreacted
werewith Al 2O3 and SiO2 that were rich in wastes, causing
compacted to a block structure. In such structures,
released by cement and lime reacted with Al2O3 and SiO2 that were rich in wastes, causing
thepozzolanic
particles ofreaction.
the mixture were closely connected. From this point of view, the mixture’s
aapozzolanic reaction. New Newproducts
products such
such asascalcium
calcium silicate
silicate hydrate
hydrate andcalcium
and calcium alumi-
alumi-
initial
nate strength
hydrate is
were attributed
formed to its
[26,27]. own
The friction
main force.
reaction Then,
equationswith the
are increase
shown in in curing
Equations
nate hydrate were formed [26,27]. The main reaction equations are shown in Equations
time,
(1)and
andthe(2).
chemical reaction between the mixed materials occurs when cement materials
(1)
encounter (2). water. The amorphous crystal hydrated calcium silicate (C–S–H), cube or flake
 Materials 2022, 15, 1123 11 of 14

calcium hydroxide, and needle flake ettringite were generated (Figures 14 and 15). The
quick lime also reacted with water to form calcium hydroxide. In the alkaline environment,
Ca2+ ions released by cement and lime reacted with Al2 O3 and SiO2 that were rich in
wastes, causing a pozzolanic reaction. New products such as calcium silicate hydrate and
calcium aluminate hydrate were formed [26,27]. The main reaction equations are shown in
Equations (1) and (2).
Materials 2022, 15, 1123 11 of 14
Materials 2022, 15, 1123 Ca(OH)2 + SiO2 + nH2 O → CaO·SiO2 ·(n + 1) H2 O 11 of 14
(1)

Ca(OH)2 + Al2 O3 + nH2 O → CaO·Al2 O3 ·(n + 1) H2 O (2)

Figure 14. Image of the hydration products of the A1BC2 Combination (1).
Figure14.
Figure Imageofofthe
14.Image thehydration
hydrationproducts
productsofofthe
theAA1BC
1 BC 2 Combination
2 Combination
(1).
(1).

Figure 15. Image of the hydration products of the A1 BC2 Combination (2).
Figure 15. Image of the hydration products of the A1BC2 Combination (2).
Figure 15. Image of the hydration products of the A1BC2 Combination (2).
With age, hydration reactions and pozzolanic reactions continued to produce hy-
dration products. Therefore,
Ca(OH)the cementitious material can not only bond to the mixture
2 + SiO2 + nH2O → CaO·SiO2·(n + 1) H2O (1)
particles but also fill theCa(OH) + SiO
voids 2in + nH2O → CaO·SiO
the2 structure, 2·(n + 1)aHnetwork
thus forming 2O (1)
structure, reduc-
Ca(OH)2 + Al2O3 + nH2O → CaO·Al2O3·(n + 1) H2O (2)
Ca(OH)2 + Al2O3 + nH2O → CaO·Al2O3·(n + 1) H2O (2)
With age, hydration reactions and pozzolanic reactions continued to produce hydra-
With age, Therefore,
tion products. hydration reactions and pozzolanic
the cementitious materialreactions continued
can not only tothe
bond to produce hydra-
mixture par-
tion products. Therefore, the cementitious material can not only bond to the mixture
ticles but also fill the voids in the structure, thus forming a network structure, reducing par-
ticles but also fill the voids in the structure, thus forming a network structure, reducing
Materials 2022, 15, 1123 12 of 14

Materials 2022, 15, 1123 12 of 14

ing structural porosity [28], improving the compactness of the structure, and eventually
forming a subgrade water-stable material with higher strength.
3.5. pH
3.5. pH Tests
Tests
The pH
The pH tests
testswere
werecarried
carriedout outononthetheleaching
leaching solution
solutionof the
of A
the1BC2, A2BC2 and A3BC2
A1 BC2 , A2 BC2 and
combination
A BC specimens
combination cured for
specimens cured28 days.
for 28 The
days.replacement
The test time
replacement test of the of
time leaching solu-
the leaching
3 2
solution was 1 d, 3 d, 7 d, 10 d, 14 d, 21 d, and 28 d. The test results are shown in Figure 16.
tion was 1 d, 3 d, 7 d, 10 d, 14 d, 21 d, and 28 d. The test results are shown in Figure 16.
The pH
The pH values
values of of the
the leaching
leaching solutions
solutions rangerange from
from 8.75
8.75 toto 12.
12. With
With the the increase
increase in in the
the
leaching time,
leaching time, the
the pHpH value
value showed
showed aa decreasing
decreasing trend.
trend. TheThe pH values of
pH values of the
the first
first three
three
leaching solutions decreased rapidly and then decreased
leaching solutions decreased rapidly and then decreased slowly. When the replacementslowly. When the replacement
test time
test time of of the
the leaching
leaching solution
solution is is 28
28 d,
d, the
the pHpH values
values of of the
the leaching
leaching solutions
solutions of of A
A11BC
BC22,,
A22BC
A BC22,, and
and A A33BC
BC22 are 9.8, 9.2,
are 9.8, 9.2,and
and8.75,
8.75,respectively.
respectively. WhenWhen thethe replacement
replacement testtest
timetime of
of the
the
A 3 A
BC 3BC
2 2 combination
combination leachate
leachate was was
7 7
days, days,
the pHthe pH
value value
had had
dropped dropped
to 9. to
The 9. The
reason reason
for the
for the decrease
decrease in the pH in the pH of
value value
thisof this leaching
leaching solutionsolution is summarized
is summarized as: (i)as: (i)cementitious
the the cementi-
tious products generated by hydration reactions and pozzolanic
products generated by hydration reactions and pozzolanic reactions solidified Na+ ions reactions solidified Na+
ionsinhibited
and and inhibited the release
the release of OHof, OH
− — , and
and (ii) the(ii) the addition
addition of tailings
of tailings mud reduced mud reduced
the amountthe
amount
of red mud, of red
thatmud, that is,the
is, reduced reduced
contentthe content
of Na 2 O in of
rawNamaterials.
2O in rawAccording
materials.to According
the Chineseto
the Chinese
standard standard GB3838-2002
GB3838-2002 [29], a pH value [29], of
a pH9 isvalue of 9for
the limit is the limitwater
surface for surface water en-
environmental
vironmental
quality; quality;
the final pH thevaluefinal
ofpHthevalue
leachingof the leaching
solution of solution
the A3 BC of2 the A3BC2 combination
combination does not
does notthe
exceed exceed
limit the limit of water
of surface surfaceenvironmental
water environmental quality.quality.
To this To end, thisitsend, its environ-
environmental
mental compatibility
compatibility is the best.
is the best.

A1BC2
12
A2BC2
A3BC2

11
pH

10

8
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Replacement and test time of leaching solution (h)

Figure 16.
Figure 16. Variation
Variation of
of pH
pH values
values with
with leaching
leaching time.
time.

4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
In this
In this experiment,
experiment, redred mud
mud andand bauxite tailings mud
bauxite tailings mud were used to
were used to develop
develop subgrade
subgrade
material, and
material, andthethecompressive
compressivestrength
strength of of
thethe material
material waswas verified
verified to meet
to meet the require-
the requirements
ments
of of subgrade.
subgrade. From theFrom the experimental
experimental results,results, four conclusions
four conclusions can be as
can be drawn drawn as fol-
follows:
lows:(1) The UCS of all of the combinations increased with curing time. The UCS of the
(1) The
specimen with UCS of all
a ratio of the
of red mud combinations
to tailings mud increased
of 2:1 waswith curing
higher time.
than thatThe
of theUCS of the
specimen
specimen
with with
a ratio a ratio
of 1:2. Withof the
red same
mud to tailings
ratio of redmudmud ofto2:1tailings
was higher
mud,than that of
the UCS theaspeci-
with ratio
men
of withtoa cementitious
waste ratio of 1:2. With the same
materials ratiowas
of 1:0.2 of red
the mud to tailings
highest, followedmud, the UCS
by that with with
a C ofa
ratio of
1:0.1, and waste to cementitious
that with a C of 1:0.3 materials of 1:0.2The
was the lowest. wasUCSthe of
highest, followed
the A1 BC 2 , A2 BCby that A
2, and with
3 BCa2
C of 1:0.1, andexceed
combinations that with a C in
2 MPa of 71:0.3
days,was
and the
the lowest.
CBR isThe UCSthan
higher of the
6%Ain 1BC , A2BCwhich
7 2days, 2, and

A3BC2 the
meets combinations exceed 2MPa
strength requirements in 7 days,
of class II andand belowthelow-grade
CBR is higher than 6%
highways. Amongin 7 them,
days,
which meets the strength requirements of class II and
the combination with the highest strength is the A 1 below
BC 2 low-grade highways.was
combination: the UCS Among 3.03
them,inthe
MPa combination
7 days, and UCSwithwasthe
4.54highest
MPa instrength
28 days.is the A1BC2 combination: the UCS was
3.03 MPa in 7 days, and UCS was 4.54 MPa in 28 days.
(2) Microstructural investigation showed that the A1BC2 combination with more red
mud than tailings mud had a compact and continuous structure without cracks, leading
to good stress-bearing capacity. However, cracks were observed in the A3BC2 combination
Materials 2022, 15, 1123 13 of 14

(2) Microstructural investigation showed that the A1 BC2 combination with more red
mud than tailings mud had a compact and continuous structure without cracks, leading to
good stress-bearing capacity. However, cracks were observed in the A3 BC2 combination
with more tailings mud than red mud. This difference in microstructures leads to an
obvious difference in UCS. It shows that the mechanical properties of red mud as subgrade
material are better than that of tailings mud.
(3) After curing for 28 days, the final pH values of the experimental leaching solutions
of the A1 BC2 , A2 BC2 , and A3 BC2 composite samples were 9.8, 9.2, and 8.75, respectively.
The cementitious products produced by hydration and pozzolanic reactions solidified Na+
ions and inhibited the release of OH- . Meanwhile, the higher the amount of tailings mud
was in the mixture, the lower the amount of Na2 O was in the mixture, which also promoted
decreases in the pH values of tested subgrade materials. The A3 BC2 composite sample has
the best environmental compatibility.
(4) The testing results prove the feasibility of the use of red mud and tailings mud
in subgrade materials: these two aluminum industrial wastes can be reused. A feasible
scheme for the consumption of red mud and tailings mud was proposed. Moreover, cement
and lime are commonly used cementitious materials. It is more economical to use part of
lime instead of cement.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.C. and X.O.; methodology, S.C.; software, J.Q.; valida-
tion, J.J., S.C., and L.Z.; formal analysis, J.J.; investigation, J.Q.; resources, X.O.; data curation, S.C.;
writing—original draft preparation, S.C.; writing—review and editing, X.O.; supervision, J.J.; project
administration, X.O.; funding acquisition, X.O. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant
No. 52068004, 51978179), the Key R&D Program of Guangxi Province (Grant No. AB19245018), and
the Technical Innovation Guidance Program of Guangxi Province (Grant No. AC20238002).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Some or all data, models, or code that support the findings of this
study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Xue, S.G.; Kong, X.F.; Zhu, F.; William, H.; Li, X.F.; Li, Y.W. Proposal for management and alkalinity transformation of bauxite
residue in China. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2016, 23, 12822–12834. [CrossRef]
2. Hiller, E.; Petrák, M.; Tóth, R.; Lalinská-Voleková, B.; Jurkovič, L.; Kučerová, G.; Radková, A.; Sottník, P.; Vozár, J. Geochemical
and mineralogical characterization of a neutral, low-sulfide/high-carbonate tailings impoundment, Markušovce, eastern Slovakia.
Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int. 2013, 20, 7627–7642. [CrossRef]
3. Shamsai, A.; Pak, A.; Bateni, S.; Ayatollahi, S. Geotechnical characteristics of copper mine tailings: A case study. Geotech. Geol.
Eng. 2007, 25, 591–602. [CrossRef]
4. Shu, Z.; Liu, S.; Song, B.; Pan, J. A comparison on tailings treatment and disposal of aba lead-zinc concentrator. J. Adv. Mater. Res.
2012, 511, 32–35.
5. Hedlund, H.G.; Gustavsson, L.; Soderman, A. Tailings dewatering and filtering using the metso vpa filter. In Proceedings of the
26th International Mineral Processing Congress, New Delhi, India, 24–28 September 2012; pp. 1986–1991.
6. Bryan, R.; Simms, P.; Verburg, R. Coupling oxidation to transient drying during multilayer deposition of thickened gold tailings.
Miner. Eng. 2010, 23, 1101–1112. [CrossRef]
7. Ofori, P.; Nguyen, A.V.; Firth, B.; Mcnally, C.; Ozdemir, O. Shear-induced floc structure changes for enhanced dewatering of coal
preparation plant tailings. Chem. Eng. J. 2011, 172, 914–923. [CrossRef]
8. Li, G.; Ye, Q.; Deng, B.; Luo, J.; Tao, J. Extraction of scandium from scandium-rich material derived from bauxite ore residues.
Hydrometallurgy 2018, 176, 62–68. [CrossRef]
9. Narayanan, R.P.N.; Kazantzis, N.K.; Emmert, M.H. Selective Process Steps for the Recovery of Scandium from Jamaican Bauxite
Residue (Red Mud). ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. Acssuschemeng 2017, 6, 1478–1488. [CrossRef]
10. Pepper, R.A.; Couperthwaite, S.J.; Millar, G.J. Re-use of waste red mud: Production of a functional iron oxide adsorbent for
removal of phosphorous. J. Water Process Eng. 2018, 25, 138–148. [CrossRef]
Materials 2022, 15, 1123 14 of 14

11. Naga, B.A.; Krishna, M.G.V.; Kalpana, K.; Ravindhranath, K. Removal of fluoride from water using H2 O2 -treated fine red mud
doped in Zn-alginate beads as adsorbent. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2018, 6, 906–916.
12. DeIhimi, N.; Irannajad, M.; Rezai, B. Characterization studies of red mud modification processes as adsorbent for enhancing
ferricyanide removal. J. Environ. Manag. 2018, 206, 266–275. [CrossRef]
13. Shamshad, A.; Das, S.K.; Rao, B.H. Characterization of coarse fraction of red mud as a civil engineering construction material. J.
Clean. Prod. 2017, 168, 679–691.
14. Wang, X.; Ma, J.; Zhang, L.; Yang, J. Radioactive Element Distribution Characteristics of Red Mud based Field Road Cement
before and after Hydration. J. Wuhan Univ. Technol.-Mater Sci. Ed. 2018, 2, 452–458. [CrossRef]
15. Zhang, H.; Li, H.; Zhang, Y.; Wang, D.; Harvey, J.; Wang, H. Performance enhancement of porous asphalt pavement using red
mud as alternative filler. Constr. Build. Mater. 2018, 160, 707–713. [CrossRef]
16. Mukiza, E.; Zhang, L.; Liu, X.; Zhang, N. Utilization of red mud in road base and subgrade materials: A review. Resour. Conserv.
Recycl. 2019, 141, 187–199. [CrossRef]
17. Sahoo, S.; Mohanty, C. Construction of Road Sub-Base by Using Industrial Waste. Int. J. Eng. Res. Dev. 2016, 3, 20–26.
18. Li, Y.; Liu, X.M.; Li, Z.P.; Ren, Y.Y.; Wang, Y.G.; Zhang, W. Preparation, characterization and application of red mud, fly ash and
desulfurized gypsum based eco-friendly road base materials. J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 284, 124777. [CrossRef]
19. Liu, X.; Tang, B.; Yin, H.; Mukiza, E. Durability and environmental performance of Bayer red mud-coal gangue based road base
material. Chin. J. Eng. 2018, 40, 2–9.
20. Chinese Standard 2020 JTG 3430-2020; Specification for Highway Geotechnical Test. Chinese Standard Ministry of Transport of the
People’s Republic of China: Beijing, China, 2020.
21. Chinese Standard 1986 GB7023-86; Long-Term Leach Testing of Solidified Radioactive Waste Forms. State Bureau of Environment
Protection: Beijing, China, 1986.
22. Sabat, A.K.; Mohantab, S. Efficacy of dolime fine stabilized red mud-fly ash mixes as subgrade material. ARPN J. Eng. Appl. Sci.
2015, 10, 5919–5923.
23. Chinese Standard 2015 JTG/T F20-2015; Technical Guidelines for Congstruction of Highway Roadbases. Ministry of Transport of
the People’s Republic of China: Beijing, China, 2015.
24. Chinese Standard 2015 JTG D30-2015; Specifications for Design of Highway Subgrades. Ministry of Transport of the People’s
Republic of China: Beijing, China, 2015.
25. Peng, Y.S.; Jiang, J.; Ou, X.D.; Qin, J.X. Investigating the properties of foamed mixture lightweight soil mixed with bauxite tailings
as filler. Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2019, 2019, 6295348. [CrossRef]
26. Wang, X.; Luo, Z.; Zhang, L.; Rong, H.; Yang, J.J. Utilization of red mud as raw material in the production of field road cement. J.
Wuhan Univ. Technol. -Mater Sci. Ed. 2016, 31, 877–882. [CrossRef]
27. Liu, X.; Sheng, K.; Li, Z.L.; Gan, L.Q.; Shan, H.; Hong, B.N. Experimental research on foamed mixture lightweight soil mixed with
fly-ash and quicklime as backfill material behind abutments of expressway bridge. Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2017, 2017, 5767103.
[CrossRef]
28. Jitchaiyaphum, K.; Sinsiri, T.; Jaturapitakkul, C.; Chindaprasirt, P. Cellular lightweight concrete containing high-calcium fly ash
and natural zeolite. Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater. 2013, 20, 462–471. [CrossRef]
29. Chinese Standard 2002 GB3838-2002; Environmental Quality Standards for Surface Water. State Bureau of Environment Protection:
Beijing, China, 2002.