MPOB Unit -3

BBA 1 Sem. 2021 Dec

Lt. (Dr.) Suhail Ahtesham

Asst. Professor & Nodal Officer
TIAS & GGSIPU
.
 Personality
• Personality: It can be termed as the combination of qualities mental, physical and moral that
set one apart from others.
• The combination of characteristics or qualities that form an individual's distinctive character.
• Personality is the characteristic sets of behaviors, cognitions, and emotional patterns that
evolve from biological and environmental factors.
• Trait-based personality theories, such as those defined by Raymond Cattell, define
personality as traits that predict an individual's behavior. On the other hand, more
behaviorally-based approaches define personality through learning and habits.
• Individual’s psycho-physical systems that determines his unique adjustment to the
environment.
• Characteristic pattern of behavior, thoughts and feelings (Allport)
 Factors influencing personality

• Heredity
• Family environment
• Situational factors
• Education
• Culture
• Social status
• Work place environment
Personality types…
 Type A
Competitiveness
• Type A individuals tend to be very competitive and self-critical. They strive toward goals
without feeling a sense of joy in their efforts or accomplishments.
• Interrelated with this is the presence of a significant life imbalance. This is
characterized by a high work involvement. Type A individuals are easily ‘wound up’ and
tend to overreact. They also tend to have high blood pressure (hypertension).

Time Urgency
• Type A personalities experience a constant sense of urgency: Type A people seem to be
in a constant struggle against the clock.
• Often, they quickly become impatient with delays and unproductive time, schedule
commitments too tightly, and try to do more than one thing at a time, such as reading
while eating or watching television.

Hostility
• Type A individuals tend to be easily aroused to anger or hostility, which they may or
may not express overtly. Such individuals tend to see the worse in others, displaying
anger, envy and a lack of compassion.
• When this behavior is expressed overtly (i.e., physical behavior) it generally involves
aggression and possible bullying (Forshaw, 2012). Hostility appears to be the main
factor linked to heart disease.
 Type B
• Type B personality is characterized by a relaxed, patient, and easy-going nature.

• Individuals with a Type B personality work steadily, enjoying achievements, but do

not tend to become stress when goals are not achieved.

• People with Type B personality tend to be more tolerant of others, are more
relaxed than Type A individuals.

• More reflective, experience lower levels of anxiety and display a higher level of
imagination and creativity.

• Type A behavior: competitive, ambitious, impatient, aggressive, fast talking.

• Type B behavior: relaxed, non-competitive.

The fundamental differences between Type A and Type B
personality are given as under:
• Type A personality is one which is stress-prone, in a hurry, impatient and fast in
whatever they do. ...

• Type A individuals tend to be sensitive and proactive. On the other hand, type B
individuals tend to be reflective and creative in nature.

• Type A individuals are impatient while Type B people are just the opposite of it.

• When it comes to temperament, type A personality is short-tempered, whereas

type B personality is even-tempered.

• Type A individuals are highly competitive. In contrast, Type B individuals focus

more on enjoying the game rather than winning and losing.

• The person who possesses a type A personality can do several things at a time.
Unlike, type B personality individuals who can do one thing at a time.

• The stress level of type A individuals is typically higher than type B individuals.

• Time constraints strongly affect type A individuals as they are pressurised by it. As
opposed to type B individuals who are not affected by it.
Big 5 personality traits (Fiske)
 Test
• Type A Vs Type B Quiz: What Kind of
Personality Do You Have? - Question 1
(proprofs.com)
 Learning
• The acquisition of knowledge or skills through study, experience, or being taught.
• Process of acquiring ability to respond adequately to a given situation.
• Involves- change in behavior/ relatively permanent/ based on some practice,
training or experience / reinforcement.
 Theories of learning
• 1. Classical Conditioning
• The work of the famous Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov
demonstrated the classical conditioning process.
• It is a form of leaning through association.
• Conditioned response to a stimulus.
 …
• 2. Operant Conditioning

• An operant is defined as a behavior that produces effects. OC is

based on law of effect. Behavior with a rewarding consequence is
likely to be repeated.

• Learning through consequence of behavior.

• Operant conditioning is a powerful tool for managing people in

organizations.

• Most behaviors in organizations are learned, controlled and altered

by the consequences; i.e. operant behaviors.

• Management can use the operant conditioning process successfully

to control and influence the behavior of employees by manipulating
its reward system.
•
.
Reinforcement is a term used in operant conditioning to refer to
anything that increases the likelihood that a response will occur.

• Psychologist B.F. Skinner is considered the father of this theory.

Note that reinforcement is defined by the effect that it has on
behavior—it increases or strengthens the response.

• For example, reinforcement might involve presenting praise (the

reinforcer) immediately after a child puts away her toys (the
response). By reinforcing the desired behavior with praise, the child
will be more likely to perform the same actions again in the future.

• Reinforcement can include anything that strengthens or increases a

behavior, including specific tangible rewards, events, and situations.

• In a classroom setting, for example, types of reinforcement might

include praise, getting out of unwanted work, token rewards, candy,
extra playtime, and fun activities.
 .
Positive reinforcement: This involves adding something to increase response,
such as giving a bit of candy to a child after she cleans up her room.
Negative reinforcement: This describes removing something in order to
increase response, such as canceling a quiz if students turn in all of their
homework for the week. By removing the aversive stimulus (the quiz), the
teacher hopes to increase the desired behavior (completing all homework).

Positive Reinforcement
• During practice for your office softball team, the coach yells out, "Great job!" after you throw
a pitch. Because of this, you're more likely to pitch the ball the same way again.
• Another example is while at work, you exceed your manager's sales quota for the month and
so you receive a bonus as part of your paycheck. This makes it more likely that you will try to
exceed the minimum sales quota again next month.
Negative Reinforcement
• You go to your doctor to get your yearly flu shot in order to avoid coming down with the flu.
In this case, you are engaging in a behavior (getting a shot) to avoid an aversive stimulus
(getting sick). This is an example of negative reinforcement.
• Another example is if you slather some aloe vera gel on a sunburn to prevent the burn from
hurting. Applying the gel on the burn prevents an aversive outcome (pain), so this is an
example of negative reinforcement. Because engaging in the behavior minimizes an aversive
outcome, you will be more likely to use aloe vera gel again in the future
3. Cognitive learning
.
• is an active style of learning that focuses on helping you learn how to maximize
your brain’s potential. It makes it easier for you to connect new information with
existing ideas hence deepening your memory and retention capacity.
• The ability of the brain’s mental processes to absorb and retain information
through experience, senses, and thought is known as cognition.
• It is the study of one’s internal processes. These are the things going on in your
brain, such as thinking, attention, learning, problem-solving, perception etc.
•
4. Social Learning Theory
•
.
Social learning theory is a theory of learning process and social behavior which proposes that new behaviors
can be acquired by observing and imitating others. It states that learning is a cognitive process that takes place
in a social context and can occur purely through observation or direct instruction.
The three main concepts behind social learning theory are imitation, modeling, and reinforcement.
• Imitation is when we copy the actions of others.
• Modeling is when we watch and learn from others.
• Reinforcement is when we are rewarded for exhibiting the desired behavior.
• All three of these concepts are essential to the theory of social learning.
Kurt Lewin’s Change Model
(additional)
 Perception
• The ability to see, hear, or become aware of something through the senses.
• Perception (from the Latin perceptio, meaning gathering or receiving) is the
organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in order to
represent and understand the presented information or environment.
 Process of Perception
• Reception: In this process, a person receives the information through
stimuli.

• Selection: This is governed by two types of factors:

– External factors: These are size, intensity, proximity, motion and novelty.
– Internal factors: These are attitude, motives, experiences, interests and
expectations.

• Organization: It is the process by which we sort stimuli into a meaningful

pattern. It involves the following:
– Grouping: Assembling of stimuli on the grounds of similarity.
– Proximity: This is the closeness of stimuli to one another that affects
perception.
– Closure: It is the ability to organize stimuli so that together they form a whole
pattern.
– Figure and ground

• Interpretation: It is the formation of an idea about the information that is

sensed, selected and organized.
 .

Figure and ground

.
 Perceptual errors.
• Primacy/ Recency Effect: The first impression is given the most important which is known
as the primacy effect. Recency effect, on the other hand, is that human beings remember
latest events more than the less recent ones.

• Stereotyping: It is the effect caused by forming a certain belief about a category of stimuli
and generalizing that notion to encounters with each member of that category.

• Halo effect: It is the process of generalizing from a comprehensive analysis to a single

attribute or trait. A negative halo effect is known as the reverse halo effect. It affects the
performance appraisal of employees in a company.

• Projection: It refers to the tendency of the people to see their own traits in other people. It
means that, when people make judgments about others, they project their own
characteristics into others.

• Selective Perception: This means a person sees, feels or hears what he wants to and skips
other information which are inconsistent to his view.

• Expectancy effect: high expectations lead to improved performance in a given area high
expectations lead to improved performance in a given area. It is also called as Pygmalion
effect.
.
.
 Concept of Values
• Value system held by an individual determines his/her choice of
alternatives to achieve a goal.

• Preferred course of action.

• Principles or standards of behaviour; one's judgement of what is

important in life.

• Important and lasting beliefs or ideals shared by the members of a culture

about what is good or bad and desirable or undesirable.

• Values have major influence on a person's behaviour and attitude and

serve as broad guidelines in all situations

• Basic conviction that a specific mode of conduct /end state of existence is

personally/socially preferable to an opposite/converse mode.
 .
• Values has two attributes

• Content Attribute- states that the conduct / goal is

important.

• Intensity attribute – specifies just how important it is.

• If we rank a person’s values in terms of their intensity,

we get the strength of that person’s value system.

• Eg- A sales man who wants to sell his product.

 .
• Values represent basic conviction that a specific mode of conduct is
personally or socially preferable to an opposite mode of conduct.
 Values= what is important
Believes= what is thought to be true
Attitudes=Words/thoughts/actions influenced by values/believes.
.
Types of values (Graves)
 Types of values (Graves)

Classification of values help to understand, why people have divergent attitudes

/Patterns of behaviors.

• Reactive; Unaware of self and others, reacts to basic physiological needs.

• Tribalistic; High dependence, influenced by tradition, follows strong directive

leadership.

• Egocentrism; aggressive/ selfish, rugged, wants to work alone in entrepreneur

style.

• Conformity; difficulty in accepting divergent values, desires others to accept his

values.

• Manipulative; materialistic, seeks status and recognition.

• Socio-centric; dislike materialism, seeks social relationships. Move ahead together.

• Existential ; high tolerance for divergent values, outspoken on inflexible systems,

seeks expression/growth/self fulfillment.
Types of values (Milton Rokeach)
Types of values (Allport)
 Formation of values

• Family factors
• Social factors
• Cultural factors
• Personal factors
• Organizational factors
 Values of Indian managers

• Forming a vision and planning the strategy to realize such vision.

• Cultivating the art of leadership.
• Establishing the institutional excellence and building an innovative
organization.
• Developing human resources.
• Team building and teamwork.
• Delegation, motivation and communication.
• Reviewing performance and taking corrective steps whenever called for.
• Creativity
• Accept challenges
• Earn money
• Better opportunity to change
 The values of Western managers

• Western managers are highly professional with excellent analysis power, high
professional education and specialization.

• Western managers follow a proper code of conduct and work in a structured

formal atmosphere with no place of modesty in their behavior.

• Professional efficiency and work-discipline are the conditions under which

western managers perform and they are imperialistic in their approach.

• They consider rules as sacred for them in their value system.

• They value principles above its privileges and they consider this as the best
strategy to win.

• They have respect for the public goods that is parks free of litter, clean streets,
etc. They have a much better social orientation and they are socially
responsible persons.
 Attitude
• Attitude: feelings individuals have about themselves and the world.

• Attitudes are complex and are an acquired state through experiences.

• It is an individual's predisposed state of mind regarding a value and it is precipitated through

a responsive expression towards oneself, a person, place, thing, or event (the attitude object)
which in turn influences the individual's thought and action.

• Predisposition to respond in a positive or negative way to someone or something in one’s

environment.
 Components of attitude
Cognitive Component
The cognitive component of attitudes refers to the beliefs, thoughts, and attributes
that we would associate with an object. It is the opinion or belief segment of an
attitude. It refers to that part of attitude which is related in general knowledge of a
person.
Typically these come to light in generalities or stereotypes, such as ‘all babies are cute’,
‘smoking is harmful to health’ etc.

Affective Component
Affective component is the emotional or feeling segment of an attitude.
It is related to the statement which affects another person.
It deals with feelings or emotions that are brought to the surface about something,
such as fear or hate. someone might have the attitude that they love all babies
because they are cute or that they hate smoking because it is harmful to health.

Behavioral Component
Behavior component of an attitude consists of a person’s tendencies to behave in a
particular way toward an object. It refers to that part of attitude which reflects the
intention of a person in the short-run or long run.
Using the above example, the behavioral attitude maybe- ‘I cannot wait to hug the
baby’, or ‘we better keep those smokers out of the library, etc.
 Functions of attitude
1. Adjustment Function
• The adjustment function drives individuals towards rewarding
and pleasurable objects and away from undesirable or
unpleasant ones. The adjustment function is a practical
concept that maximizes reward and minimizes punishment.
(We favour pol.partices that would advance the economy, in
business we favor party that keeps taxes low.)

2. Ego Defensive Function

• The ego function serves to develop attitudes that are meant
to protect self-image or ego. In many instances, how these
attitudes are expressed outwardly is a direct opposite of how
individuals perceive themselves. (A male worker might feel
threatened by a female boss.)
 ..
3. Value Expression Function
• Unlike the ego defensive function, which preserves our self-
image, the value expressive function enables individuals to
express their central values. (if your value includes freedom,
then you would favor decentralization, if ambitious, your
attitude supports jobs offering challenges and promotion)

4. Knowledge Function
• As humans, we usually seek stability, understanding,
consistency, and definition to live in an orderly and
structured environment. The need for structure makes
humans develop an attitude of acquiring knowledge. The
need to know is also particular. (cognitive processing based on
generalization/ judging/ stereotyping).
.
 Measurement of attitude
• Likert scale
• Thurston Scale (develop statements, judges classify these statements from 1 to 11 groups, in grp 11 most
favorable statements towards a concept or attitude are placed, judges rate each option and not agree or
disagree with statements, thereafter compute mean/ median, sorting data in ascending order of statistical
data calculated., selecting final statements i.e. most agreeable statements )
 ..
• Opinion survey- Employee opinion surveys measure how every employee associated with a
business feels about the different aspects of their work environment, which includes, the
management, co-workers, work culture, policies etc.

• Interviews - is a purposeful conversation in which the interviewer tries to obtain honest and
complete answers to a specific number of questions. Like all interviews, it has the advantage
of face-to-face contact.
 Cognitive Dissonance

• In the field of psychology, cognitive dissonance is the perception of contradictory

information.

• Relevant items of information include a person's actions, feelings, ideas, beliefs, values, and
things in the environment.

• Cognitive dissonance is typically experienced as psychological stress when persons

participate in an action that goes against one or more of those things.

• According to this theory, when two actions or ideas are not psychologically consistent with
each other, people do all in their power to change them until they become consistent.

• The discomfort is triggered by the person's belief clashing with new information perceived,
wherein the individual tries to find a way to resolve the contradiction to reduce their
discomfort.
.
 Self fulfilling prophecy
• A self-fulfilling prophecy is the sociopsychological phenomenon of
someone "predicting" or expecting something, and this "prediction" or
expectation coming true simply because the person believes or
anticipates it will and the person's resulting behaviors align to fulfill the
belief. This suggests that people's beliefs influence their actions.
 Job related attitude
• Job satisfaction – work, pay, opportunities, co-workers, supervision
etc.

• Lack of Job satisfaction may lead to ansenteeism, turnover, hamper

productivity, frustration.

• Job satisfaction or employee satisfaction is a measure of workers'

contentedness with their job, whether they like the job or individual
aspects or facets of jobs, such as nature of work or supervision.

• Job satisfaction can be measured in cognitive (evaluative), affective

(or emotional), and behavioral components.

• Researchers have also noted that job satisfaction measures vary in

the extent to which they measure feelings about the job (affective
job satisfaction). or cognitions about the job (cognitive job
satisfaction).
•
.
Job Involvement - Employees with a high level of job involvement strongly
identify with and really care about the kind of work they do. Job
involvement consists when a person feels that the job is more meaningful
and it utilizes one’s talent and skills to the fullest extent.
 .
• Organizational commitment- is an individual's psychological
attachment to the organization.
• The benefit of organizational commitment is that the
employee will be able to identify with the goals and objectives
of the company.
• Organizational commitment encourages the employee to go
beyond his usual boundaries and give more than 100% to his
company
• It determines an employee's intent to stay with an
organization.