Week-4, Lecture-1&2 Particle dynamics

Shabina Khanam
Associate Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering

1
 Introduction

The study of particle dynamics is utilized in a number of mechanical

operations such as classification, sedimentation, elutriation, filtration
etc., which involve relative movement of a solid particles and a fluid.

This study is required as processes for the separation of particles of

various sizes and shapes often depend on the variation in the
behaviour of the particles when they are subjected to the action of a
moving fluid.

2
 Introduction
When a solid particle falls in a liquid, the study of
change in its velocity with time, when different forces
are acting on it, comes under Particle Dynamics.
When a fluid flows over a solid object the velocity of
the fluid varies depending on position.
One way of representing variation in velocity is
streamlines, which follow the flow path. Constant
velocity is shown by equidistant spacing of parallel
streamlines.
 Introduction
The slow fluid flow is called STREAMLINE or
LAMINAR flow whereas, in fast motion, fluid
particles cross and re-cross the streamline and
the motion is called as TURBULENT FLOW.

This figure shows that the velocity and

direction of flow varies around the
circumference of the particle. Thus at A
and D the fluid is brought to rest and at
B and C the velocity is maximum.

4
 Dynamics of single particle

When a solid particle falls in a liquid, its motion depends

on many factors such as particle size, density, surface
characteristics, viscosity of liquid, etc. The dynamics of a
solid particle in a fluid thus depends on many parameters
and the inter-relation among these parameters is very
complex.
 Dynamics of single particle
To simplify the analysis, some
assumptions are taken:

1. The particle is spherical of diameter dP.

2. The particle is non-porous and incompressible. The particle is thus
insoluble in the fluid and chemically inert with it.
3. The density and viscosity of the fluid is constant.
4. The effect of surface characteristics of solid on the dynamics of the
particle is negligible.
5. The particle is freely settling under gravity.
6. The fluid forms an infinite medium.
6
 Dynamics of particles
Terminal settling velocity
Single
Effect of particle shape particle
Wall effect
Hindered settling velocity
Mixture of
Classification particle
Jigging
 Forces acting on the Particle Terminal settling velocity
1. Force of gravity acting downward.
2. Buoyancy force: As the particle moves down, it displaces a volume
of liquid equal to its own volume and this displaced liquid moves
up exerting an upward force on the particle called buoyancy force,
which is thus equal to the weight of the displaced liquid.
3. Frictional resistance: it is offered by the liquid on the particle due
to the relative motion between the particle and the liquid.

Net force acting Gravitational Buoyancy Frictional

on the particle
=
force
- force
- drag
ma = mg – (m/p) f g - FD
a = particle acceleration Kinematic force
 Terminal settling velocity
Net force acting on Gravitational Buoyancy Frictional
the particle
=
force
- force
- drag
0 = mg – (m/p) f g - FD
  
m g 1  f   FD
  p 
  d 3p   f 
Assuming spherical particle of diameter dp:   p g 1    FD
 6    p 

  d p2  1
Kinematic force FD: FD  A K f A  K  f V2
 4  2
Projected area of the Kinetic energy
particle perpendicular per unit volume
to the direction of
motion of the particle
 Terminal settling velocity
 d 3
  f 
 p g 1    FD
p

 6    p 
Considering values of A, K   d p3    d p2    f Vt 2 
and f where f = fD:    g   p   f      fD
 6   4   2 

4 p   f  g dp 
Re-arranging it: fD    2 
3   f   Vt 
1/ 2

Further: 4  p   f  g dp  Terminal settling

Vt     
  f 
 3   f  D  velocity

10
 4  p   f  g dp 
1/ 2 Drag coefficient vs Reynolds number
Vt     
  f 
 3   f  D 

Region 1 (Re: 10-4 to 0.1)

fD = 24/Re
Laminar flow where slope Region 1

fD
between fD and Re is -1

Considering fD = 24/Re
in above equation
g d p2  p   f 
Vt 
18
Stokes’ law
Reynolds number of particle

11
 Stokes’ law-Applications
Stokes' law is important to understand the swimming
of microorganisms and sperm; also, the sedimentation, under the
force of gravity, of small particles and organisms, in water [1].

In air, the same theory can be used to explain why small water
droplets (or ice crystals) can remain suspended in air (as clouds)
until they grow to a critical size and start falling as rain (or snow)
[2]. Similar use of the equation can be made in the settlement of
fine particles in water or other fluids.

1. Dusenbery, David B. (2009). Living at Micro Scale. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. ISBN 978-0-674-03116-6.
2. Hadley, Peter. "Why don't clouds fall?". Institute of Solid State Physics, TU Graz. Retrieved 30 May 2015.

12
Region 2 (Re: 0.1 to 500-1000) Drag coefficient vs Reynolds number
Slope of the curve
varies from -1 to 0
Region 2
fD = (24/Re)+0.44
Region 1

fD
O e due to Stokes’
law and the other, a
constant, due to
additional non-
viscous effects

Reynolds number of particle

13
 4  p   f  g dp 
1/ 2 Drag coefficient vs Reynolds number
Vt     
  f 
 3   f  D 

Region 3 (Re: 500-1000 to 105)

Region 2 Region 3
fD = 0.22
Region 1

fD
Considering fD = 0.22 in
above equation
1/ 2
  p   f  
Vt  3.03    g dp 
    
 f 

Newto ’s law
Reynolds number of particle

14
 Drag coefficient vs Reynolds number
1/ 2
4  p   f  g dp 
Vt     
 3   f  f 
 D 

Region 4 (Re > 105)

When Re > 105, flow Region 2 Region 3
becomes turbulent where

fD
separation of fluid from Region 1 Region 4
particle surface takes
place. So, fD decreases
drastically.
fD = 0.05
1/ 2
  p   f  
Vt  13.33    g dp 
  
  f  
Reynolds number of particle

15
 1/ 2
4  p   f
Vt    
 g dp 
 Drag coefficient vs Reynolds number
  f 
 3   f  D 

g d p2  p   f 
Vt 
18
1/ 2
  p   f  
Vt  3.03    g dp 
    
 f 
1/ 2
  p   f  
Vt  13.33    g dp 
    
 f 
These equations show that terminal
settling velocity of a particle in a fluid
increases with increase in both
Where, m = f
particle size and particle density.
http://www.ajdesigner.com/phpstokeslaw/stokes_law_terminal_velocity.php

16
 1/ 2
4  p   f
Vt    
 g dp 
 Terminal settling velocity
  f 
 3   f  D 
The resistance force per unit projected area of the particle under terminal falling
conditions is given by:
  d 3p   f 
  p g 1    FD FD  A K f
 6    p 


Galileo number Ga or sometimes the

Archimedes number Ar
Backhurst, J. R. and Harker J. H.,”Coulso a d Richardso Che ical E gi eeri g”, Vol.
II”,5th Ed., 2002, Butterworth-Heinemann.
 Terminal settling velocity

Re’ = Re R’/u2 = fD/2

R’/ρu2 is a form of drag
coefficient Useful for spherical particle

Backhurst, J. R. and Harker J. H.,”Coulso a d Richardso Che ical E gi eeri g”, Vol.
II”,5th Ed., 2002, Butterworth-Heinemann.
 Terminal settling velocity

Backhurst, J. R. and Harker J. H.,”Coulso a d Richardso Che ical E gi eeri g”, Vol.
19
II”,5th Ed., 2002, Butterworth-Heinemann.
 Assumption relaxed
1. The particle is spherical of diameter dP.
2. The particle is non-porous and incompressible. The particle is thus
insoluble in the fluid and chemically inert with it.
3. The density and viscosity of the fluid are constant.
4. The effect of surface characteristics of solid on the dynamics of the
particle is negligible.
5. The particle is freely settling under gravity.
6. The fluid forms an infinite medium.

20
 Effect of particle shape
There are two difficulties with experimental data available on drag coefficients and
terminal falling velocities for non-spherical particles:
1. An infinite number of non-spherical shapes exist,
2. Each of these shapes is associated with an infinite number of orientations which
the particle is free to take up in the fluid, and the orientation may oscillate
during the course of settling.
In a recent study, it was found that the most satisfactory characteristic linear
dimension to consider the shape is the sphericity, (surface area of particle / surface
area of sphere of equal volume). The limitation of this whole approach is that mean
errors are often as high as about 16 per cent, and maximum errors may be of the
order of 100 per cent. To reduce this error, separate shape factors in the Stokes’ and
Newto ’s law regions are considered.
 Effect of particle shape
Another problem is that, while settling, a non-spherical particle will not
travel vertically in a fixed orientation. In general, the resistance force to
movement in the gravitational field will not act vertically and the particle will
tend to spiral and to rotate.
If the particle is non-spherical, then volumetric diameter dv of the particle is
used in place of dp in all the equations and also sphericity, s, of the particle
is incorporated. Then particle Reynolds number is
Rep = dv Vt f / f
For non-spherical particle the fD and Rep can be plotted using logarithmic
coordinates, and a separate curve is obtained for each shape of particle and
for each orientation.
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fD versus Rep plot for different value of s Effect of particle shape
For Stokes’ law:
 g d v2  p   f 
Vt    K1
 18  
  
K1  0.843 log  s 
 0.065 

For Newto ’s law:

1/ 2
4  p   f  g dv 
Vt      
  C
 3   f  2 
C2  5.31  4.88  s
 Assumption relaxed
1. The particle is spherical of diameter dP.
2. The particle is non-porous and incompressible. The particle is thus
insoluble in the fluid and chemically inert with it.
3. The density and viscosity of the fluid are constant.
4. The effect of surface characteristics of solid on the dynamics of the
particle is negligible.
5. The particle is freely settling under gravity.
6. The fluid forms an infinite medium.

24
 Effect of wall
The boundaries of the vessel containing the fluid in which the particle is
settling will affect its settling velocity. If the ratio of diameter of the particle
(dp) to that of the tube (D) is significant, the motion of the particle is
retarded. Two effects arise:
1. As the particle moves downwards it displaces an equal volume of liquid
which must rise through the annular region between the particle and the
wall.
2. The velocity profile in the fluid is affected by the presence of the tube
boundary.
The effect is difficult to quantify accurately because the particle will not
normally follow a precisely uniform vertical path through the fluid.

25
 Effect of wall
If the fluid is bounded within a confined space (a cylinder), the
upward velocity of the displaced liquid will be higher which
increases the resistance to the fall of the particle and thereby
decreases its settling velocity.
The projected area of the particle reduces the effective cross-
sectional area of the container, reducing the effective flow area
of the displaced liquid and as a result its velocity increases.
 Effect of wall
The effect of walls on the dynamics of the particle thus depends on the
geometry of the vessel and therefore a generalized correlation is difficult to
propose. Thus, one has to rely on the experimental correlations.
For laminar settling of spherical particle,
2.25
  d p 
C f  1   
  D  Settling velocity = Vt × Cf
For turbulent zone,
1.5
  d  For irregular particles:
C f  1   p 
  D  dp must be replaced with dv

27
 Assumption relaxed
1. The particle is spherical of diameter dP.
2. The particle is non-porous and incompressible. The particle is thus
insoluble in the fluid and chemically inert with it.
3. The density and viscosity of the fluid are constant.
4. The effect of surface characteristics of solid on the dynamics of the
particle is negligible.
5. The particle is freely settling under gravity.
6. The fluid forms an infinite medium.

28
 Mixture of particles
When there is a mixture of particles or when it is a concentrated
suspension, the individual particles tend to interfere with each other’s
dynamics and therefore the velocity of motion or rate of settling of each
individual particle will be considerably less than that for the free settling
conditions.
Stokes, transitional and Newton settling describe the behaviour of a
single spherical particle in an infinite fluid, known as free settling.
However, these models have limitations in practical application.
Alternate considerations, such as the interaction of particles in the fluid
can modify the settling behaviour. Settling that has these forces in
appreciable magnitude is known as hindered settling.
 Hindered settling

Hindered Settling is what occurs when particles are crowded

and surrounding particles interfere with the motion of
individual particles. It's the same principle that works when
we try and fit four thousand cars coming home from work on
a road that can only fit about five thousand. Things tend to
move fairly slow, or at least, not as fast as if there was only a
few cars on the road.

30
 Hindered settling
While the motion of large particles gets hindered, the small particles tend
to get dragged downwards by the large ones and thus get accelerated.
Each particles is in fact settling through a suspension of other particles in
the liquid rather than through the simple liquid itself.
The effective density and viscosity of a concentrated suspension (b and
b, commonly called the bulk density and bulk viscosity) are much larger
than those of the clear liquid.
The settling medium therefore offers higher resistance to the motion of
particles and thus the particle gets retarded.

31
 Hindered settling
The hindered settling velocity (VH) of a particle is difficult to predict
accurately. It can be approximately estimated from Newto ’s law or Stokes’
law after replacing f and f by b and b. The bulk density b of a
suspension can be computed as,
b = s (1 - ) + f   = volume fraction of liquid in the suspension
The bulk viscosity of suspensions is:
b 10 1.82 (1 )  g d p2  p  b  VH = Vt Fs
 VH   
f   18  b  Therefore, Fs (settling factor)
 g d p2  p   f    2
is the ratio of hindered
 settling velocity to terminal
VH      1.82 (1 )  Fs
 18 f  10  or free settling velocity.
 Hindered settling


  
1
2
0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9
Fs   1.82 (1 ) 
10  0.1

Fs

0.01

Settling factor, Fs , vs
0.001
volume fraction for
spherical particles
0.0001

33
 Summary of the Lecture
 Particle dynamics is defined considering single particle.
 Generalized expression of terminal settling velocity is
derived.
 Based on different regions of fD vs Re curve, different
expressions of settling velocity are defined.
 Effects of shape, wall and other particles on termal settling
velocity are discussed.

34
 References
1. Backhurst, J. R. and Harker J. H.,”Coulson and Richardson Chemical Engineering”, Vol. II”,5th Ed., 2002,
Butterworth-Heinemann.
2. Narayanan C.M. and Bhattacharya B.C. (1992). Mechanical Operation for Chemical Engineers –
Incorporating Computer Aided Analysis. Khanna Publishers.
3. Swain A.K., Patra H. and Roy G.K. (2011). Mechanical Operations. Tata McGraw Hill Education Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi.
4. Brown G.G. and Associates, "Unit Operations", 1995, CBS Publishers.

35
Thank You!

36
 How to measure settling velocity experimentally
In transparent glass cylinder clear water is taken. Known quantity of particles are
mixed thoroughly in water. The height of the clear liquid interface as it changes over
time can be measured. The data should be noted as:
70 Average settling velocity
Time (unit Height of interface z0
time), t (unit length), z 60 = (original height - height at time 1)/(time 1)
0 65
50

Height of interface
2 59
4 50 40
6 43
9 35 30
12 28 20
18 22 z1
30 17 10
60 13
0
100 10 t1
0 50 100 150 200
180 8
Time

Average settling velocity is found as there are number of particles

https://www.rpi.edu/dept/chem-eng/Biotech-Environ/SEDIMENT/sedsettle.html 37