CHAPTER 2:

MECHANICAL-PHYSICAL
SEPARATION PROCESS
Introduction
■ In most cases, we need to separate a certain
product from a mixture

■ There are four types of common mechanical

separations:
1. Sedimentation
2. Centrifugal separation
3. Filtration
4. Sieving
1. Sedimentation
Outline
Introduction
Objective & Application
Theory for sedimentation
– Gravitational force
– Buoyancy force
– Drag force
Drag coefficient
Terminal velocity of particle for sedimentation
Terminal velocity of particle for hindered settling
Introduction
■ Sedimentation describes the motion of molecules in
solutions or particles in suspensions in response to an
external force such as gravity, centrifugal force or electric
force.
■ The separation of a dilute slurry or suspension by gravity
settling into a clear fluid and s slurry of higher solids
content is called sedimentation.
Objective & Application
■ The purpose is to remove the particles from the
fluid stream so that the fluid is free of particle
contaminants.
■ Applications of sedimentation include removal of
solids from liquid sewage wastes, settling of
crystals from the mother liquor, separation of
liquid-liquid mixture from a solvent-extraction
stage in settler, water treatment, separation of
flocculated particles, lime-soda softening iron and
manganese removal, wastewater treatment,
solids/sludge/residuals.
Theory for sedimentation
■ Whenever a particle is moving through a fluid, a
number of forces will be acting on the particle.
■ First, a density difference is needed between the
particle and the fluid.
■ If the densities of the fluid and particle are equal, the
buoyant force on the particle will counterbalance the
external force and the particle will not move relative to
the fluid.
■ There are three forces acting on the body:
- Gravitiational Force, FG
- Buoyancy Force, FB
- Drag Force, FD
 Mechanics of particle motion in
fluids

■ To describe, two properties need:

– Drag coefficient
– Terminal velocity
 Drag Coefficient
■ For particle movement in fluids,
drag force is a resistance to its
motion.

■ Drag coefficient is a coefficient

related to drag force.

■ Overall resistance of fluids act to

particle can be described in term of
drag force using drag coefficient.
■ Comparing with fluid flow in pipe principle, drag
coefficient is similar to friction coefficient or friction
factor (f).
For drag coefficient:
shear stress drag force per area
f  CD 
 kinetic energy   kinetic energy 
  
 unit volume of flow   unit volume of flow 

( F / A) ( F / A)
f  CD 
1 2  1 2 
 mv   mv 
2 V  2 V 
   
   
1 1
F  fAv 2 F  C D Av 2
2 2
 Terminal or Settling Velocity

Settling velocity (vt): the terminal velocity at which a

particles falls through a fluid.

When a particle is dropped into a column of fluid it

immediately accelerates to some velocity and continues falling
through the fluid at that velocity (often termed the terminal
settling velocity).
The speed of the terminal settling velocity of a particle
depends on properties of both the fluid and the particle:

Properties of the particle include:

The size if the particle (d).

The density of the material making up the particle (p).

The shape of the particle.

FG, the force of gravity acting to
make the particle settle downward
through the fluid.

FB, the buoyant force which opposes

the gravity force, acting upwards.

FD, the “drag force” or “viscous

force”, the fluid’s resistance to the
particles passage through the fluid;
also acting upwards.
Particle Settling Velocity
Put particle in a still fluid… what happens?
FB

Fd

Fg

Speed at which particle settles depends on:

particle properties: D, ρp, shape
fluid properties: ρf, μ, Re
From basic equation, F = mg = resultant force:
dv
F  ma  m  FG  FB  FD
dt

With v = terminal velocity or vt:

dv
FG  FB  FD  m  0
dt
In the case of 0.0001<NR<0.2, terminal velocity can be
determined by using CD =24/NR:

2
4 d P (P  f ) g d P (P  f )g
vt  
3 CD  f 18
Sedimentation:
Forces acting upon a particle during sedimentation

Fs is given by:
Fs  Vg (  p   f )

where
V = volume of the particle
g = the gravitational acceleration
ρp = density of particle
ρf = density of fluid
 Sedimentation:
Forces acting upon a particle during sedimentation

 The drag force, Fd is given by:

C f v 2 A
Fd 
2
where
C = is the drag coefficient
ρf = density of fluid
v = fluid velocity
A = projected areas of the particle at right angles to
the direction of the motion
Sedimentation:
Forces acting upon a particle during sedimentation

■ For a spherical particle:

D 3
V
6

D 2
A
4

where
D = particle diameter
Sedimentation:
Conditions at terminal velocity

 At terminal velocity, vm, Fs = Fd:

2
D 3
C f vm D 2
 g ( p   f ) 
6 8
Sedimentation:
Conditions at terminal velocity

 Also, C is given by:

24 24 
C 
Re Dvm  f

where

Re = Reynolds number
μ = viscosity of the fluid
Sphere object

■ At very low Reynolds number (<0.2), Stoke law is

applicable. The inertia forces may be neglected and those
of viscosity alone considered.
24
CD 
NR
Sedimentation:
Conditions at terminal velocity
 Hence, the terminal velocity, vm:

D2 g ( p   f )
vm 
18
 Also known as Stoke’s Law that is only applicable to motion
of spherical particles in streamline flow
 When streamline or laminar flow does not exist at Reynolds
numbers above 1000, the conditions the equation for terminal
velocity becomes:

4 d P (P  f ) g dP (P  f )g
2

vt  
3 CD  f 18
In the case of 0.2 < NR < 500, terminal velocity can be
determined by using CD as:

CD 
24
NR

1  0.15 N R
0.687

In the case of 1000 < NR < 200,000 (turbulent Newton’s
law region) terminal velocity can be determined by
using CD as:
C D  0.44
Frictional drag coefficient
■ For flat plate with a laminar boundary layer:

1.328
CD  0. 5
NR

■ For flat plate with a turbulent boundary layer

0.455
CD 
 log N R  2.58

Dv
NR 

D  length of plate  diameter of sphere
Frictional drag coefficient
■ For flat plate with a transition region:

0.455 1700
CD  2.58

(log N R ) NR

Dv
NR 

D  length of plate  diameter of sphere
■ If a plate or circular disk is placed normal to the flow, the total
drag will contain negligible frictional drag and does not change
with Reynolds number (NR)

Estimatin g the drag coefficient,CD

Dp vρf
It’s a function of Reynolds number = Re =
µf
[Richardson and Barker, p 150-153 ]

1. If Re < 1
24
CD =
Re
2. If 1 < Re < 1000
24 
CD = 1 + 0 .15Re 0.687
Re
3. If 1000 < Re < 2 × 105

CD = 0 .44

4. If Re > 2 × 105
CD = 0
Laminar (Stokes) vs. Turbulent (Gibbs) settling

Comparison of Stokes and Gibbs

150
Settling Velocity, cm/s

100

Stokes
50
Gibbs
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
Diameter, cm
Stoke’s Law has several limitations:

i) It applies well only to perfect spheres.

The drag force (3dvt) is derived experimentally only for
spheres.
Non-spherical particles will experience a different distribution
of viscous drag.

ii) It applies only to still water.

Settling through turbulent waters will alter the rate at which
a particle settles; upward-directed turbulence will decrease
vt whereas downward-directed turbulence will increase vt.
iii) It applies to particles 0.1 mm or finer.
Coarser particles, with larger settling velocities,
experience different forms of drag forces.

Stoke’s Law overestimates

the settling velocity of
quartz density particles
larger than 0.1 mm.
When settling velocity is low When settling velocity is high
(d<0.1mm) flow around the (d>0.1mm) flow separates from
particle as it falls smoothly the sphere and a wake of eddies
follows the form of the develops in its lee.
Drag forces sphere.
(F ) are only due to
D Pressure forces acting on the
the viscosity of the fluid. sphere vary.

Negative pressure in the

lee retards the passage
of the particle, adding a
new resisting force.

Stoke’s Law neglects

resistance due to
pressure.
iv) Settling velocity is
temperature dependant
because fluid viscosity and
density vary with
temperature.

Temp. vt
C Ns/m2 Kg/m3 mm/s

0 1.792  10-3 999.9 5

100 2.84 10-4 958.4 30
Grain size is sometimes described as a linear dimension based
on Stoke’s Law:

Stoke’s Diameter (dS): the diameter of a sphere with a Stoke’s

settling velocity equal to that of the particle.

vt 
  f   P  gd s
2

18
Set ds = dP and solve for dP.

18vt
dp 
  f  P  g
EXAMPLE 1

Settling velocity of dust particles

Calculate the settling velocity of dust particles of

60 µm diameter in air at 21°C and 100 kPa
pressure. Assume that the particles are spherical
and density = 1280 kg m-3, and that the viscosity
of air = 1.8 x 10-5 N s m-2 and density of air = 1.2
kg m-3.
 gD p2 (  p   )
For 60 µm particle:  t 
18
v =    (60 x 10-6)2 x 9.81 x (1280 - 1.2)
                     (18 x 1.8 x 10-5)
      
= 0.14 m s-1

Checking the Reynolds number for the 60 µm particles,

Re = (vbD/)
      
= (60 x 10-6 x 0.14 x 1.2) / (1.8 x 10-5)
      
= 0.56
Free Settling – Falling of a particle is not affected by other
particles and wall container/column.

Hindered Settling – Particles settling at low falling rate due to

the high solid concentration.

Sedimentation – Separation of a dilute slurry by gravity

settling into a clear fluid and a slurry of higher solid content.
 HINDERED SETTLING
Definition:
If the settling is carried out with high concentrations of solids to liquid so that
the particles are so close together that collision between the particles is
practically continuous and the relative fall of particles involves repeated
pushing apart of the lighter by the heavier particles it is called hindered settling.

particles interfere
with each other
 Hindered Settling
particle interactions change settling velocity

discrete particles
higher solids concentration reduces velocity

flocculating particles
experiments only

Most important points:

large particles settle faster in low concentration (free

settling)
 settling interface forms (independent of particle size)
Stokes law (free settling) doesn’t apply
interface’s height vs time plots are formed
Hindered Settling
- Laminar settling
gD p2 (  p   )
t  (  p )
2

18
 = volume fraction
p = empirical correlation fraction
1
=
101.82 (1 )
Zone Settling & Compression
 Zone Settling

Co

Cc

Cu

hc
hu

ti tu

Coho = Cchc = Cu hu

Cu = Co ho
hu
Compression - Compaction

Cc

Cu
Zone Settling

Co

Settling Velocity

Vs = ho – hu = ho – hi
tu - t o ti
•ZSV = f (C)
•solid flux theory
- limiting flux of solids through a settling tank
Gravitational sedimentation of particles in a liquid

 Solids will settle in liquid less dense than themselves

 Stoke’s Law applies only at low concentration

 There are various zones formed during sedimentation:

 Bottom zone where the particles are settling
(sedimentation zone)
 Top zone where clear liquid is located
 Middle zone where the particles are moving at a
uniform velocity during sedimentation
■ water treatment
■ wastewater treatment
■ solids/sludge/residuals management
Characteristics of gravitational sedimentation
equipments

■ Must provide sufficient time for sedimentation of the

particles

■ The sediment and the liquid must be removed without

disturbing the sedimentation process

■ Continuous flow through the equipment is generally

desired, hence the flow velocities must be low enough to
avoid disturbing the sediment
Sedimentation of particle is a gas

■ Example of equipment is the spray drier

■ The material is sprayed into small droplets and

falls into heated air causing them to dried up into
particles

■ Heat sensitive materials may deteriorate during

the process
Settling under combined forces

■ Cyclones separator

■ Impingement separators

■ Classifiers
Weakness of gravitational sedimentation

■ The process may be too slow due to the low density

differences or because the forces that hold the components
together

■ There may not be a clear distinguishable layer between the

sediment and the liquid, instead merging of the layers
2. Centrifugal Separation
Principles of centrifugal separation
Terminology
[http://en.wikip edia.org/wiki/File:Tabletop
 Suspension : the mixed
material added into the
centrifuge tube
 Pellet or precipitate :
hard-packed concentration of
particles after centrifugation
 Supernatant : clarified liquid
centrifuge.jpg ]
above the precipitate
Principles and working
Principles and working
Rate of separation in centrifuge
 For a streamline flow:

Fc  ma
2
Fc  2N 
 a  r 
m  60 

 Hence, velocity of particles, vm during centrifuge:

 ( p   f )
2
2  2 N
vm  D r  
 60  18
( p   f )
D N r
2 2

1640 
Rate of separation in centrifuge
■ Example 1

A dispersion of oil in water is to be separated

using a centrifuge. Assume that the oil is
dispersed in the form of spherical globules
5.1x10-5 m diameter and that its density is
894kgm-3. If the centrifuge rotates at
1500rev/min and the effective radius at which
the separation occurs is 3.8cm calculate the
velocity of the oil through the water.
Estimating the centrifuge feed inlet location
Estimating the centrifuge feed inlet location

■ A surface separating the lighter/heavier materials:

neutral zone where separation is occuring

■ Let rn= the radius at which the suitable feed

inlet is located
Estimating the centrifuge feed inlet location

 a) Consider a thin layer cylinder

 Across a thickness dr, the centrifugal force is:

dFc  (dm)r 2

where
dFc = differential force across the cylinder wall
ω = angular velocity of the cylinder
r = radius of the cylinder
Estimating the centrifuge feed inlet location

■ dm is given by:

dm  2rb(dr )

where
ρ = density of the liquid
b = height of the cylinder
Estimating the centrifuge feed inlet location

■ Hence, the differential pressure across the wall of differential

cylinder; dP is:

dFc
 dP   2 rdr
2rb

■ The dP between radius r1 (at pressure P1) and r2 (at pressure P2)
is then:
 (r2  r1 )
2 2 2
P2  P1 
2
Estimating the centrifuge feed inlet location

■ b) Continuous liquid centrifuge

■ At the separation zone (neutral zone) of radius rn, the pressure of each
component must be equal:
 A 2 (rn 2  r12 )  B 2 (rn 2  r2 2 )

2 2

(  r   B r2 )
2 2
2
 rn  A 1
 A  B

where
ρA = density of the heavier/denser liquid
ρB = density of the lighter/less dense liquid
Estimating the centrifuge feed inlet location

■ Example 2
If a cream separator has discharge radii of 5 cm and 7.5 cm, and
if the density of skim milk is 1032 kgm-3 and that of cream is 915
kgm-3, calculate the radius of the neutral zone so that the feed
inlet can be designed.

■ Homework
In a centrifuge separating oil (of density 900 kg m -3) from brine
(of density 1070 kg m-3), the discharge radius for the oil is 5 cm.
Calculate a suitable radius for the brine discharge and for the
feed intake so that the machine will work smoothly assuming
that the volumes of oil and of brine are approximately equal.
Liquid centrifuge: conical bowl

Liquid/solid centrifuges: a)telescoping, b) horizontal bowl

 3. Filtration
■ A liquid containing particulate solids is forced through a screen
of which the particles cannot go through: filtration
■ The restrained particles that cannot go through the screen will
then buildup to a filter cake
■ Sometimes the filter cake is the desired product and vice versa
Principle of
Filtration
Principle of Filtration
Constant Rate and Pressure
Filtration
Cake Filtration
Cake Filtration
Example of Cake- forming Filters

• Filter presses
• Belt filters
• Vacuum filters:
- Rotary vacuum belt filters
- Rotary vacuum precoat filters
- Vacuum disk filters
Filtration
■ The screens can be made from:
– Fabric filter cloths
– Meshes (similar to sieves)
– Beds of particles

■ The general rate of flow through the filtration system is given

by:
dV AP

d R
where:

dV/dθ = volumetric flowrate

A = filter area
ΔP = pressure drop across the filter
R = resistance to flow through the filter
Filtration
 Also: R  r ( Lc  L)
wV
Lc 
Resistance to flow through A
the filter wV
where
 R  r (  L)
A
μ = fluid viscosity
dV AP
r = specific resistance of filter  
Lc = thickness of filter cake d r ( wV  L)
L = equivalent thickness of the filter cloth & precoat A
w = fractional solid content per unit vol. of liquid
V = vol. of fluid has passed through the filter
A = area of filter surface where the cake forms
Filtration

 This is the fundamental filtration equation:

dV AP
 
d r ( wV  L)
A

 Two types of typical filtration application:

 Constant-rate filtration at early stage of filtration process
(when the cake is thin)
 Constant-pressure filtration when the cake has been built
up
Filtration: Constant-rate filtration
■ Resistance offered to the flow is constant hence constant-rate
filtration:
dV V AP
 
d A r ( wV  L)
A
V  wV 
 P  r   L
A  A 
■ Will allow us to determine the pressure drop needed for a
required flow rate
Filtration: Constant-pressure filtration

■ Flow occurs under constant pressure drop:

 wV 
APd  r   L dV
 A 

■ Integrating from V = 0 at θ = 0, to V = V at θ = θ:

A rw  V  rL
  
V 2P  A  P
Filtration: Constant-pressure filtration
 We can plot θ/(V/A) against (V/A):
A rw  V  rL
  
V 2P  A  P
 It will be a straight line with the slope:
rw
2P
 The intercept on the θ/(V/A) axis will be:
rL
P
 Example :

A filtration test was carried out, with a particular product slurry, on a

laboratory filter press under a constant pressure of 340 kPa and volumes
of filtrate were collected as follows:

The area of the laboratory filter was 0.186 m2. In a plant scale filter, it is
desired to filter a slurry containing the same material, but at 50% greater
concentration than that used for the test, and under a pressure of 270
kPa. Estimate the quantity of filtrate that would pass through in 1 hour if
the area of the filter is 9.3 m2.
 From the experimental data:

V (kg) 20 40 60 80

t (s) 480 1560 3270 5580

V/A (kg/m2) 107.5 215 323 430

t/(V/A) (s m2 kg-1) 4.47 7.26 10.12 12.98

Filtration graph:

From the plotted graph;

Slope, m = ?
Intercept, c = ?
4. Sieving - Size Determination
Sieving
 Restraint is imposed on some of the particles by mechanical screens that
prevent their passage.
 using increasingly smaller screens, to give a series of particles classified
into size ranges. The fluid, usually air, can effectively be ignored in this
operation which is called sieving.
 the material is shaken or agitated above a mesh or cloth screen; particles of
smaller size than the mesh openings can pass through under the force of
gravity.
 rates of throughput of sieves are dependent upon a number of factors:
 nature and the shape of the particles,
 frequency and the amplitude of the shaking,
 methods used to prevent sticking or bridging of particles in the
 apertures of the sieve and
 tension and physical nature of the sieve material.
 Sieving
 Sieving is a mechanical size
separation process.
 Widely used in the food
industry for :

* separating fine from

larger particle

* removing large solid

Particle from liquid stream
 Sieve Analysis

Involves :

- Passing the material being sized through openings of a part

icular standard size in a screen.

- The particle-size distribution is then reported as the weight

percentage retained on each of a series of standard sieves of
decreasing size and the percentage passed of the finest size.
Process
 Sieving is a gravity-driven process. usually a stack
of sieves are used when fraction of various sizes are
to be produce from a mixture of particle size

 The shaker may be in the form of an eccentric drive

which a screens a gyratory or oscillating motion or
vibrator which gives the screens small-amplitude,
high frequency, up and down motion

 When the sieve are inclined, the particles retained

on the screen fall off at the lower end and are
collected by a conveyor. Screening and particle size
separation can thus be carried out automatically
 Standard sieve size

 Sieves may be designated by the opening size, US sieve mesh or

Tyler sieve mesh

 The US-sieve mesh designation is the metrication

 The Tyler mesh designation refer to the number of opening per inch.

 The two mesh designations have equivalent opening size although

the sieve number designations are not exactly the same.
Standard US-sieve size
Method for sieve analysis

1. The percentage frequency curve graph

2. The cumulative percentage curve graph or The

probability curve graph

3. Calculation method
1. The percentage frequency curve graph

Figure 1: Schematic of relative percentage frequency

distribution curve.
2. The probability curve graph
■ Plot opening sieve diameter against probability percentage
■ The diameter at 0.5 or 50% probability is particle size

Figure 2 : Schematic of the probability curve

The cumulative percentage curve graph

Figure 3: Schematic of cumulative percentage

frequency distribution curve.
3. Calculate method
Method 1
1
Particle size =  Xi 
  Dpi 
 

Method 2
  (Wt.x log dia 
Particle size = log 
1 

 Wt. 
EXAMPLE:
The mass fraction of a sample of milled corn retained on each of a series of
sieves. Calculate a mean particle diameter which should be specified for this
mixture.
U.S. Micron Wt.
X (%) % accumulate
Sieve Size grams
6 3,360 1.6 1.62 1.62
8 2,380 3.2 3.24 4.85
12 1,680 7.9 7.99 12.84
16 1,191 19.4 19.62 32.46
20 841 18 18.20 50.66
30 594 15 15.17 65.82
40 420 11.6 11.73 77.55
50 297 8 8.09 85.64
70 212 6.6 6.67 92.32
100 150 3.4 3.44 95.75
140 103 3.2 3.24 98.99
200 73 0.9 0.91 99.90
270 53 0.1 0.10 100.00
Pan 37 0 0.00 100.00
Sum. 98.9 98.9 100.00  
The percentage frequency curve graph
Frequency curve

25.00

20.00
% Wt.(frequency)

15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000

seive
 The accumulative percentage curve graph

accumulative arithmetic curve

100.00
90.00
80.00
70.00
60.00
Percent

50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
3 ,3 6 0 2 ,3 8 0 1,6 8 0 1,19 1 841 59 4 420 297 2 12 150 10 3 73 53 37

seive
Method 1
U.S. Micron Wt.
% Xi Dpi Xi/Dpi
Sieve Size grams
6 3,360 1.6 1.62 0.016 3,680 4.40E-06
8 2,380 3.2 3.24 0.032 2870 1.13E-05
12 1,680 7.9 7.99 0.080 2030 3.93E-05
16 1,191 19.4 19.62 0.196 1435.5 1.37E-04
20 841 18 18.20 0.182 1016 1.79E-04
30 594 15 15.17 0.152 717.5 2.11E-04
40 420 11.6 11.73 0.117 507 2.31E-04
50 297 8 8.09 0.081 358.5 2.26E-04
70 212 6.6 6.67 0.067 254.5 2.62E-04
100 150 3.4 3.44 0.034 181 1.90E-04
140 103 3.2 3.24 0.032 126.5 2.56E-04
200 73 0.9 0.91 0.009 88 1.03E-04
270 53 0.1 0.10 0.001 63 1.60E-05
Pan 37 0 0.00 0.000 45 0.00E+00
Sum.   98.9 100.00     1.87E-03

D = 1/(Xi/ Dpi) = 1/1.87E-03 = 535.75 m

Method 2
U.S. Micron Wt.
log dia Wt*log dia
Sieve Size grams
6 3,360 1.6 3.526 5.642
8 2,380 3.2 3.377 10.805
12 1,680 7.9 3.225 25.480
16 1,191 19.4 3.076 59.673
20 841 18 2.925 52.646
30 594 15 2.774 41.607
40 420 11.6 2.623 30.430
50 297 8 2.473 19.782
70 212 6.6 2.326 15.354
100 150 3.4 2.176 7.399
140 103 3.2 2.013 6.441
200 73 0.9 1.863 1.677
270 53 0.1 1.724 0.172
Pan 37 0 1.568 0.000

Sum. 98.9   277.11

1  
 (Wt . x log dia   277.11 
 
Dvg  log   10  98.9 
 633.72 m.

 Wt.  