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CONCEPT
36.1
Figure 36.1 Plants or pebbles? Adaptations for acquiring resources
KEY CONCEPTS
were key steps in the evolution
of vascular plants
36.1 Adaptations for acquiring resources were key
steps in the evolution of vascular plants EVOLUTION Land plants typically inhabit two worlds—
36.2 Different mechanisms transport substances over above ground, where their shoot systems acquire sunlight and
short or long distances CO2, and below ground, where their root systems acquire
36.3 Transpiration drives the transport of water and water and minerals. Without adaptations that allow acquisi-
minerals from roots to shoots via the xylem tion of these resources, plants could not have colonized land.
36.4 The rate of transpiration is regulated by stomata The algal ancestors of land plants absorbed water, miner-
36.5 Sugars are transported from sources to sinks via als, and CO2 directly from the water in which they lived.
the phloem Transport in these algae was relatively simple because every
36.6 The symplast is highly dynamic cell was close to the source of these substances. The earliest
land plants were nonvascular plants that grew photosyn-
OVERVIEW
thetic shoots above the shallow fresh water in which they
lived. These leafless shoots typically had waxy cuticles and
Underground Plants few stomata, which allowed them to avoid excessive water
The Kalahari Desert of southern Africa receives only about loss while still permitting some exchange of CO2 and O2 for
20 cm of precipitation a year, almost entirely during the photosynthesis. The anchoring and absorbing functions of
summer, when daytime temperatures reach a scorching early land plants were assumed by the base of the stem or by
35–45°C (95–113°F). Many animals escape the desert heat threadlike rhizoids (see Figure 29.8).
Through stomata, leaves take in CO2 and release O2. Sugars are produced by photosynthesis in the leaves.
O2
CO2
Light
1 mm
Figure 36.4 Leaf area index. The leaf area index of a single
Figure 36.3 Emerging phyllotaxy of Norway spruce. This plant is the ratio of the total area of the top surfaces of the leaves to
SEM, taken from above a shoot tip, shows the pattern of emergence the area of ground covered by the plant, as shown in this illustration of
of leaves. The leaves are numbered, with 1 being the youngest. (Some two plants viewed from the top. With many layers of leaves, a leaf
numbered leaves are not visible in the close-up.) area index value can easily exceed 1.
With your finger, trace the progression of leaf emergence, starting Would a higher leaf area index always increase the amount of
? with leaf number 29. What is the pattern? ? photosynthesis? Explain.
The compartmental structure of plants provides three routes plant cells use the energy in the H gradient and membrane
for transport within a plant tissue or organ: the apoplastic, potential to drive the active transport of many different
symplastic, and transmembrane routes (Figure 36.6). In the solutes. For instance, cotransport with H is responsible
apoplastic route, water and solutes (dissolved chemicals) for absorption of neutral solutes, such as the sugar sucrose,
move along the continuum of cell walls and extracellular by phloem cells and other plant cells. An H /sucrose
spaces. In the symplastic route, water and solutes move along cotransporter couples movement of sucrose against its con-
the continuum of cytosol. This route requires substances to centration gradient with movement of H down its electro-
cross a plasma membrane once, when they first enter the chemical gradient (Figure 36.7b). Cotransport with H also
plant. After entering one cell, substances can move from cell facilitates movement of ions, as in the uptake of nitrate
to cell via plasmodesmata. In the transmembrane route, water (NO3!) by root cells (Figure 36.7c).
and solutes move out of one cell, across the cell wall, and The membranes of plant cells also have ion channels that
into the neighboring cell, which may pass them to the next allow only certain ions to pass (Figure 36.7d). As in animal
cell in the same way. The transmembrane route requires re- cells, most channels are gated, opening or closing in response
peated crossings of plasma membranes as substances exit to stimuli such as chemicals, pressure, or voltage. Later in this
one cell and enter the next. These three routes are not mutu- chapter, we discuss how K ion channels in guard cells func-
ally exclusive, and some substances may use more than one tion in opening and closing stomata. Ion channels are also
route to varying degrees. involved in producing electrical signals analogous to the ac-
tion potentials of animals (see Chapter 48). However, these
Short-Distance Transport of Solutes signals are 1,000 times slower and employ Ca2 -activated
Across Plasma Membranes anion channels rather than the Na ion channels used by
animal cells.
In plants, as in any organism, the selective permeability of
the plasma membrane controls the short-distance movement
Short-Distance Transport of Water
of substances into and out of cells (see Chapter 7). Both ac-
Across Plasma Membranes
tive and passive transport mechanisms occur in plants, and
plant cell membranes are equipped with the same general The absorption or loss of water by a cell occurs by osmosis,
types of pumps and transport proteins (channel proteins, car- the diffusion of free water—water that is not bound to
rier proteins, and cotransporters) that function in other cells. solutes or surfaces—across a membrane (see Figure 7.14).
In this section, we focus on some ways that plants differ from The physical property that predicts the direction in which
animals in solute transport across plasma membranes. water will flow is called water potential, a quantity that
Hydrogen ions (H ), rather than sodium ions (Na ), play includes the effects of solute concentration and physical
the primary role in basic transport processes in plant cells. pressure. Free water moves from regions of higher water po-
For example, in plant cells the membrane potential (the tential to regions of lower water potential if there is no bar-
voltage across the membrane) is established mainly through rier to its flow. For example, if a plant cell is immersed in a
the pumping of H by proton pumps (Figure 36.7a), rather solution that has a higher water potential than the cell,
than the pumping of Na by sodium-potassium pumps. water will move into the cell. As it moves, water can per-
Also, H is most often cotransported in plants, whereas Na form work, such as cell expansion. The word potential in
is typically cotransported in animals. During cotransport, the term water potential refers to water’s potential energy—
(a) Initial conditions: cellular ψ > environmental ψ. The cell (b) Initial conditions: cellular ψ < environmental ψ. There is a
loses water and plasmolyzes. After plasmolysis is complete, the net uptake of water by osmosis, causing the cell to become
water potentials of the cell and its surroundings are the same. turgid. When this tendency for water to enter is offset by the
back pressure of the elastic wall, water potentials are equal for
the cell and its surroundings. (The volume change of the cell is
exaggerated in this diagram.)
Figure 36.9 Water relations in plant cells. In these experiments, flaccid cells (cells in which the protoplast contacts the cell wall but lacks
turgor pressure) are placed in two environments. Blue arrows indicate initial net water movement.
Aquaporins: Facilitating Diffusion of Water clogged drain, you know that the volume of flow depends on
the pipe’s diameter. Clogs reduce the effective diameter of the
A difference in water potential determines the direction of
drainpipe. Such experiences help us understand how the struc-
water movement across membranes, but how do water mol-
tures of plant cells specialized for bulk flow fit their function.
ecules actually cross the membranes? Water molecules are
Like the unplugging of a kitchen drain, the absence or reduc-
small enough to diffuse across the phospholipid bilayer, even
tion of cytoplasm in a plant’s “plumbing” allows for efficient
though the bilayer’s interior is hydrophobic. However, their
bulk flow through the xylem and phloem. Bulk flow is also en-
movement across biological membranes is too rapid to be ex-
hanced by the perforation plates at the ends of vessel elements
plained by unaided diffusion. The transport of water mol-
and the porous sieve plates connecting sieve-tube elements.
ecules across membranes is facilitated by transport proteins
Diffusion, active transport, and bulk flow act in concert to
called aquaporins (see Chapter 7). These selective channels
transport resources throughout the whole plant. For example,
affect the rate at which water moves osmotically across the
bulk flow due to a pressure difference is the mechanism of
membrane. Aquaporin channel proteins are highly dynamic:
long-distance transport of sugars in the phloem, but active
Their permeability is decreased by increases in cytosolic Ca2
transport of sugar at the cellular level maintains this pressure
or decreases in cytosolic pH.
difference. In the next three sections, we examine in more de-
Long-Distance Transport: The Role of Bulk Flow tail the transport of water and minerals from roots to shoots,
the control of evaporation, and the transport of sugars.
Diffusion is an effective transport mechanism over the spatial
scales typically found at the cellular level. However, diffusion
is much too slow to function in long-distance transport within
CONCEPT CHECK 36.2
a plant. Although diffusion from one end of a cell to the other 1. If a plant cell immersed in distilled water has a ψS of
takes just seconds, diffusion from the roots to the top of a !0.7 MPa and a ψ of 0 MPa, what is the cell’s ψP? If
giant redwood would take several centuries. Instead, long- you put it in an open beaker of solution that has a ψ
distance transport occurs through bulk flow, the movement of !0.4 MPa, what would be its ψP at equilibrium?
of liquid in response to a pressure gradient. The bulk flow of 2. How would a reduction in the number of aquaporin
material always occurs from higher to lower pressure. Unlike channels affect a plant cell’s ability to adjust to new
osmosis, bulk flow is independent of solute concentration. osmotic conditions?
Long-distance bulk flow occurs within the tracheids and ves- 3. How would the long-distance transport of water be
sel elements of the xylem and within the sieve-tube elements affected if tracheids and vessel elements were alive at
of the phloem. The structures of these conducting cells facili- maturity? Explain.
tate bulk flow. As you saw in Figure 35.10, mature tracheids and 4. WHAT IF? What would happen if you put plant
vessel elements are dead cells and therefore have no cytoplasm, protoplasts in pure water? Explain.
and the cytoplasm of sieve-tube elements is almost devoid of For suggested answers, see Appendix A.
internal organelles. If you have ever dealt with a partially
Pathway
through 4
symplast
5
5 Water from the xylem is pulled into 4 The increased surface tension
the surrounding cells and air spaces to shown in step 3 pulls water from
replace the water that was lost. surrounding cells and air spaces.
Cuticle Xylem
Upper
epidermis
3 The evaporation of the water film causes the
air-water interface to retreat farther into the cell wall
and to become more curved. This curvature increases
the surface tension and the rate of transpiration.
Microfibrils in
cell wall of
Mesophyll
Air mesophyll cell
space
Radially oriented
cellulose microfibrils
Cell
wall
Vacuole
Guard cell
(a) Changes in guard cell shape and stomatal opening and closing
Figure 36.14 An open stoma (left) and closed stoma (LMs). (surface view). Guard cells of a typical angiosperm are illustrated in
their turgid (stoma open) and flaccid (stoma closed) states. The radial
orientation of cellulose microfibrils in the cell walls causes the guard
cells to increase more in length than width when turgor increases.
depends largely on the number of stomata and the average Since the two guard cells are tightly joined at their tips, they bow
size of their pores. outward when turgid, causing the stomatal pore to open.
The stomatal density of a leaf, which may be as high as
20,000 per square centimeter, is under both genetic and envi-
ronmental control. For example, as a result of evolution by H2O H2O H2O
H2O
natural selection, desert plants are genetically programmed
to have lower stomatal densities than do marsh plants. Sto- H2O
K+ H2O
matal density, however, is a developmentally plastic feature
of many plants. High light exposures and low CO2 levels dur-
ing leaf development lead to increased density in many
species. By measuring the stomatal density of leaf fossils, H2O
scientists have gained insight into the levels of atmospheric H2O H 2O H2O
CO2 in past climates. A recent British survey found that
stomatal density of many woodland species has decreased
(b) Role of potassium in stomatal opening and closing. The trans-
since 1927, when a similar survey was made. This observa-
port of K+ (potassium ions, symbolized here as red dots) across the
tion is consistent with other findings that atmospheric CO2 plasma membrane and vacuolar membrane causes the turgor
levels increased dramatically during the late 20th century. changes of guard cells. The uptake of anions, such as malate and
chloride ions (not shown), also contributes to guard cell swelling.
Figure 36.15 Mechanisms of stomatal opening
Mechanisms of Stomatal Opening and Closing and closing.
When guard cells take in water from neighboring cells by os-
mosis, they become more turgid. In most angiosperm species,
the cell walls of guard cells are uneven in thickness, and the The absorption of K causes the water potential to become
cellulose microfibrils are oriented in a direction that causes more negative within the guard cells, and the cells become
the guard cells to bow outward when turgid (Figure 36.15a). more turgid as water enters by osmosis. Because most of the
This bowing outward increases the size of the pore between K and water are stored in the vacuole, the vacuolar mem-
the guard cells. When the cells lose water and become flaccid, brane also plays a role in regulating guard cell dynamics.
they become less bowed, and the pore closes. Stomatal closing results from a loss of K from guard cells to
The changes in turgor pressure in guard cells result primarily neighboring cells, which leads to an osmotic loss of water.
from the reversible absorption and loss of K . Stomata open Aquaporins also help regulate the osmotic swelling and
when guard cells actively accumulate K from neighboring epi- shrinking of guard cells.
dermal cells (Figure 36.15b). The flow of K across the plasma
membrane of the guard cell is coupled to the generation of a
Stimuli for Stomatal Opening and Closing
membrane potential by proton pumps (see Figure 36.7a).
Stomatal opening correlates with active transport of H out In general, stomata are open during the day and mostly
of the guard cell. The resulting voltage (membrane potential) closed at night, preventing the plant from losing water under
drives K into the cell through specific membrane channels. conditions when photosynthesis cannot occur. At least three
100 µm
Trichomes Crypt Stoma Lower epidermal
(“hairs”) tissue
This is a close-up
view of stems of
old man cactus
(Cephalocereus
senilis), a Mexican
desert plant. The
long, white, hairlike
bristles help reflect
the sun.
CONCEPT
36.5 Movement from Sugar Sources to Sugar Sinks
Sugars are transported from sources In angiosperms, the specialized cells that are conduits for
translocation are the sieve-tube elements. Arranged end to
to sinks via the phloem end, they form long sieve tubes (see Figure 35.10). Between
You have read how water and minerals are absorbed by root these cells are sieve plates, structures that allow the flow of
cells, transported through the endodermis, released into the sap along the sieve tube.
vessel elements and tracheids of the xylem, and carried to the Phloem sap, the aqueous solution that flows through
tops of plants by the bulk flow driven by transpiration. How- sieve tubes, differs markedly from the xylem sap that is trans-
ever, transpiration cannot meet all the long-distance trans- ported by tracheids and vessel elements. By far the most
port needs of the plant. The flow of water and minerals from prevalent solute in phloem sap is sugar, typically sucrose in
soil to roots to leaves is largely in a direction opposite to the most species. The sucrose concentration may be as high as
direction necessary for transporting sugars from mature 30% by weight, giving the sap a syrupy thickness. Phloem
leaves to lower parts of the plant, such as root tips that re- sap may also contain amino acids, hormones, and minerals.
quire large amounts of sugars for energy and growth. The In contrast to the unidirectional transport of xylem sap
transport of the products of photosynthesis, known as from roots to leaves, phloem sap moves from sites of sugar
translocation, is carried out by another tissue, the phloem. production to sites of sugar use or storage (see Figure 36.2). A
Key
ATP Sucrose
Apoplast H+ H+
Bundle- Phloem S
Symplast Mesophyll cell sheath cell parenchyma cell Low H+ concentration
(a) Sucrose manufactured in mesophyll cells can travel via (b) A chemiosmotic mechanism is responsible for the
the symplast (blue arrows) to sieve-tube elements. In active transport of sucrose into companion cells and
some species, sucrose exits the symplast near sieve sieve-tube elements. Proton pumps generate an H+
tubes and travels through the apoplast (red arrow). It is gradient, which drives sucrose accumulation with the
then actively accumulated from the apoplast by help of a cotransport protein that couples sucrose
sieve-tube elements and their companion cells. transport to the diffusion of H+ back into the cell.
pressure forced out phloem sap into the stylets, the researchers sepa-
2 This uptake of water rated the aphids from the stylets, which then acted as taps exuding sap
generates a positive for hours. Researchers measured the sugar concentration of sap from
pressure that forces stylets at different points between a source and sink.
the sap to flow along
the tube.
25 µm
3 The pressure is relieved
by the unloading of Sieve-
Sink cell sugar and the tube
(storage consequent loss of element
root) water at the sink.
4 In leaf-to-root
4 3 translocation, xylem
Sucrose
H2O recycles water from
sink to source. Sap
droplet Stylet Sap droplet
Figure 36.18 Bulk flow by positive pressure (pressure Aphid feeding Stylet in sieve-tube Separated stylet
flow) in a sieve tube. element exuding sap
RESULTS The closer the stylet was to a sugar source, the higher its
sugar concentration.
CONCLUSION The results of such experiments support the pressure-
Sinks vary in energy demands and capacity to unload flow hypothesis, which predicts that sugar concentrations should be
higher in sieve tubes closer to sugar sources.
sugars. Sometimes there are more sinks than can be sup-
ported by sources. In such cases, a plant might abort some SOURCE S. Rogers and A. J. Peel, Some evidence for the existence of tur-
gor pressure in the sieve tubes of willow (Salix), Planta 126:259–267 (1975).
flowers, seeds, or fruits—a phenomenon called self-thinning.
WHAT IF? Spittlebugs are xylem sap feeders that use strong mus-
Removing sinks can also be a horticulturally useful prac-
cles to pump xylem sap through their guts. Could you isolate xylem sap
tice. For example, since large apples command a much bet- from the excised stylets of spittlebugs?
ter price than small ones, growers sometimes remove
flowers or young fruits so that their trees produce fewer but
larger apples.
O2 CONCEPT 36.4
CO2 The rate of transpiration is regulated by stomata (pp. 776–778)
Minerals H2O
• Transpiration is the loss of water vapor from plants.
Wilting occurs when the water lost by transpiration is not
• Leaves typically function in gathering sunlight and CO2. Stems replaced by absorption from roots.
serve as supporting structures for leaves and as conduits for the • Stomata are the major pathway for water loss from plants.
long-distance transport of water and nutrients. Roots mine the soil Guard cells widen or narrow the stomatal pores. When
for water and minerals and anchor the whole plant. Mycorrhizae guard cells take up K , the pore widens. The opening
are mutualistic associations formed between roots and certain soil and closing of stomata is controlled by light, CO2, the
fungi that aid in the absorption of minerals and water. drought hormone abscisic acid, and a circadian
• Natural selection has produced plant architectures that opti- rhythm.
mize resource acquisition in the ecological niche in which the • Reduced leaves and CAM photosynthesis are examples of
plant species naturally exists. adaptations to arid environments.
?
How did the evolution of xylem and phloem contribute to the ? Why are stomata necessary?
successful colonization of land by vascular plants?
• Water and minerals from the soil enter the plant through the ? By what mechanisms is symplastic communication regulated?
epidermis of roots, cross the root cortex, and then pass into the