Grimes, The Effects of Student Participation in FLES

THE EFFECTS OF STUDENT PARTICIPATION IN FLES* PROGRAMS ON
STANDARDIZED TEST SCORES
A Dissertation
Submitted to the Graduate School
of
Tennessee State University
in
Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of
Doctor of Education
Graduate Research Series No. ____________
Justin C. Grimes
August 2008
3320218
Copyright 2008 by
Grimes, Justin C.
All rights reserved
3320218
2008
THE EFFECTS OF STUDENT PARTICIPATION IN FLES* PROGRAMS ON
STANDARDIZED TEST SCORES
A Dissertation
Submitted to the Graduate School
of
Tennessee State University
in
Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of
Doctor of Education
Justin C. Grimes
August 2008
Copyrighted © 2008
by
Justin C. Grimes
All rights reserved

To the Graduate School:
We are submitting a dissertation by Justin C. Grimes
entitled “The Effects of Student Participation in FLES*
Programs on Standardized Test Scores.” We recommend that it
be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the degree, Doctor of Education in Educational
Administration.
Denise Dunbar _
Chairperson
___Beth Christian
Committee Member
___Eleni C. Elder____
Committee Member
__Christon Arthur____
Committee Member
Accepted for the Graduate School:
Alex Sekwat__ ______

Dean of the Graduate School
iv
DEDICATION
This is dedicated to my wife and son. Samantha, thank
you for your love and support. You are my best friend and I
look forward to every day we spend together. I love you.
Tyler, you are my pride and joy. You mean more to me than
you will ever know.

v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
There are many people who helped make this study
possible. First would be Shelly Misenheimer. She showed
tremendous patience as she very politely invited me to her
classroom to observe her outstanding FLES* program and
repeatedly answered my questions regarding FLES* programs
in general. Had it not been for her assistance and the
assistance of her co-worker, Katherine Perry, this project
would have never been possible.
A special thanks to each member of my committee. I
appreciate them giving their time and effort to make this
possible. I especially would like to thank my advisor, Dr.
Denise Dunbar. She agreed to work with me on this project
when I was afraid nobody would. Her guidance and patience
have been invaluable.
Thank you to Dr. Ramón Magráns. Without him, I don’t
know where I would be today.
I would like to recognize both my current and former
students. They have politely listened to hours and hours of
boring stories regarding my dissertation and “my book.”

vi
Fortunately for them, I am finished and can now bore them
with hours and hours of new stories.
Thank you to my good friend, Robert French, who has
offered support and encouragement when I wanted to quit
this project (several times). I appreciate you inspiring me
to “stick with it”. Thank you to Dr. David Stafford for the
“tutoring” he provided to help get this done!
Most importantly, thank you to my parents and their
families. Thank you for the love and support you have
always given me. I am grateful to all of you for always
encouraging me, no matter what I endeavor I took on.

vii
ABSTRACT
JUSTIN C. GRIMES. The Effects of Student Participation in

FLES* Programs on Standardized Test Scores (under the
direction of DR. DENISE DUNBAR.)
This research studied the possible effects of student
participation in foreign language programs in elementary
schools on student performance on standardized tests. This
studied compared groups of students from two different
schools. One group participated in a structured foreign
language program; the other group did not participate in
any foreign language programs. This studied analyzed the
effects of participation on the math, reading/Language
Arts, social studies, and science sub-tests of the
standardized test for the state of Tennessee, the TCAP
test. The results showed a statistically significant
difference in student performance between students who
participated in the FLES* programs and students who did not
participate in FLES* programs. The participants scored
statistically significantly higher on each sub-test: math
(p =.02), reading/Language Arts (p = .03), science

viii
(p = .001), and social studies (p = .001). Despite the
statistical difference, an examination of the partial eta
squared coefficient showed no more than 2% of the variance
was accounted for, thus the educational relevance of the
outcome is minimal.
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER Page
LIST OF TABLES.........................................xi
LIST OF FIGURES........................................xiii
I. INTRODUCTION......................................1
Statement of the Problem..........................4

Purpose of the Study..............................5
Significance of the Study.........................5
Research Questions................................7
Limitations of the Study..........................8
Definitions of Terms..............................9
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE..............................13
Second Language Learning in the United States.....14

Second Language Learning and Other Countries......15
Advantages of Second Language Learning............18
History of Foreign Language Learning in the
United States.....................................21
History of Foreign Language Study in Elementary
Schools in the United States......................29
Types of FLES* Programs...........................36
Early Research on Foreign Language Study..........38
Foreign Language Study and Socio-Economic Status..43
The Effects of FLES* on Math Achievement..........45
FLES* Participation and Language Arts/Reading
Achievement.......................................47
Summary...........................................54
x
CHAPTER Page
III. METHODOLOGY.......................................57
Research Design...................................58
Population........................................58
Sample............................................59
Students Who Did Not Participate in the FLES*
Programs..........................................61
Students Who Participated in the FLES* Programs...61
Participation in the FLES* Program................62
Collection of Data................................63
Instrumentation...................................65
Validity and Reliability..........................65
Null Hypotheses...................................67
Data Analysis.....................................68
IV. ANALYSIS OF DATA...................................70
Chi Square Tests for Descriptive Statistics.......71

Difference on Proficiency Levels of Each
Sub-Test as Measured by One-Way ANOVAs............76
Findings..........................................78
Null Hypothesis 1 .............................78
Null Hypothesis 2 .............................84
Null Hypothesis 3 .............................89
Null Hypothesis 4 .............................93
V. SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND

RECOMMENDATIONS...................................97
Summary...........................................97
Findings..........................................98
Conclusions.......................................100
Recommendations for the Profession................102
Recommendations for Future Research...............103
REFERENCES.............................................106
APPENDIX ..............................................118
xi
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE Page
1. Foreign Language Teaching in Other Countries......16
2. Hypothesis Testing................................69
3. Frequency Counts for Selected Variables

Comparing the Two Schools for Three Years of
Aggregated Data...................................73
4. Frequency Counts for Proficiency Level Comparing

the Two Schools for Three Years of Aggregated
Data..............................................75
5. Standardized Test Scores Based on School-Year

Grouping. One Way ANOVA Tests with Scheffe Post
Hoc Tests.........................................77
6. Analysis of Math Scores Based on School-Year

Grouping and Grade Level Controlling for
Selected Variables................................80
7. Predicted Math Scores for School Year Grouping

and Grade.........................................82
8. Analysis of Reading Scores Based on School-Year

9. Predicted Reading Scores for School/Year Combination

and Grade.........................................87
10. Analysis of Science Scores Based on School-Year

11. Predicted Science Scores for School-Year

Grouping and Grade................................91
12. Analysis of Social Studies Scores Based on

School/Year Combination and Grade Level Controlling
for Selected Variables............................94
xii
TABLE Page
13. Predicted Social Studies Scores for School-Year

xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE Page
1. Predicted Math Scores for School/Year Combination

and Grade.........................................83
2. Predicted Reading Scores for School/Year Combination

and Grade.........................................88
3. Predicted Science Scores for School/Year Combination

and Grade.........................................92
4. Predicted Social Studies Scores for School-Year

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
It is suggested that second language learning is more
effective if it starts in elementary school than if it
starts in high school (Curtain, 1990; Dumas, 1999; Kim,
Relkin, Lee, & Hirsch, 1997; Nash, 1997). Research also
supports the theory that second language learning that
starts in elementary school improves student achievement in
content areas such as math, language arts, social studies,
and science (Armstrong & Rogers, 1997; Donoghue, 1965;
Johnston, Ellison, & Flores, 1961; Johnston, Flores, &
Ellison, 1963; Lopato, 1963; Marcos, 1998; Potts, 1967;
Saunders, 1998; Taylor-Ward, 2003).
Despite this research, only thirteen public school
systems in the state of Tennessee have foreign language
programs in the elementary school (Davis-Wiley, n.d.). Most
of these programs do not meet on a daily basis. Actually,
some of these programs meet as little as once a week for
only thirty minutes at a time (Davis-Wiley, n.d.). In fact,
there is little emphasis on early language learning in

2
Tennessee, as the State Department of Education provides
foreign language standards in the curriculum guides for
public schools but does not require it until the high
school level (TDOE, n.d.f).
Due to the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001,
teachers, schools, school systems, and state departments of
education are being held to high standards with a high
level of accountability. Most of the accountability is in
regards to standardized testing. Any subjects (such as
foreign languages) that are not directly tested on
standardized tests are largely ignored. The subjects tested
in Tennessee are Reading/Language Arts, Math, Science, and
Social Studies (TDOE, n.d.f).
Certain benchmarks must be reached on these
standardized tests, or the school is considered a high
priority school. According to NCLB, if a school remains on
the high priority list for five consecutive years, the
government could come in and take over the school (TDOE,
n.d.f). Popham (2005) states that stakeholders are spending
large amounts of money and effort to make sure the school,
and school system, reach the benchmarks set by the national
government. The amount of enrichment, diversity, or global
awareness a child receives in school is not as important as

3
the scores he/she receives on the standardized test. One of
the biggest priorities of schools in today’s society is to
make sure the students are successful on these tests
(Popham, 2005).
In the state of Tennessee, the standardized test given
at the elementary school level is known as the Tennessee
Comprehensive Assessment Program or the TCAP. This test is
given to all students in grades three through eight each
spring. The test is designed to measure student achievement
on a criterion-based scale for the child’s appropriate
grade level in the core subjects (TDOE, n.d.c).
Several new programs have been added to schools and
school systems in Tennessee to increase TCAP scores. Some
have been very successful; others have not. Even though
there is ample research to support the theory that second
language learning at an early age improves performance on
standardized tests, very few schools have added these
programs at the elementary school level (Davis-Wiley,
n.d.).
There is research measuring the effects of second
language learning in elementary school on a student’s
performance on standardized tests (Armstrong & Rogers,
1997; Saunders, 1998; Taylor-Ward, 2003). None of this

4
research measures the effects of second language learning
on elementary school students’ achievement on the TCAP
assessment. Research showing a positive correlation between
second language learning in elementary school and TCAP
scores could actually add validity to the idea of starting
second language programs at the elementary school level in
Tennessee as opposed to waiting until high school.
Statement of the Problem
Second language acquisition is easier for children who
begin at an early age (Curtain, 1990; Dumas, 1999; Kim,
Relkin, Lee, & Hirsch, 1997; Nash, 1997). Studies show that
exposure to a second language in elementary school does not
hinder student achievement in other subject areas, and most
research suggests that student performance will actually
improve if second language learning takes place (Armstrong
& Rogers, 1997; Donoghue, 1965; Johnston, Ellison, &
Flores, 1961; Johnston, Flores, & Ellison, 1963; Lopato,
1963; Marcos, 1998; Potts, 1967; Saunders, 1998; Taylor-
Ward, 2003).
As a whole, the state of Tennessee does not begin
second language teaching until middle school and many
systems wait until high school (National, n.d.a). Even
though there is research showing a positive correlation

5
between second language learning and standardized tests,
none of the current research examines the effects of second
language learning and student performance on the TCAP.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the
relationship between student participation in an FLES*
program and student achievement as measured by student
performance on the standardized test for the state of
Tennessee, the TCAP. The current research sought to
determine if the effects, if any, of second language
learning on students’ TCAP performance are similar to the
results found for second language learning on other states’
standardized tests. This will allow school systems to make
an informed decision about the value of having foreign
language programs at the elementary school level in the
state of Tennessee.
Significance of the Study
Schools throughout the state of Tennessee are
constantly trying new ideas and concepts to improve student
performance on the TCAP. These standardized test scores are
considered a significant instrument in measuring many
schools’ successes or failures. Student performance on

6
these tests frequently determines the implementation and
retention of many programs in a school or school system.
A small number of public elementary schools throughout
Tennessee have foreign language classes in the curriculum
(National, n.d.a). This research measured the effects that
foreign language study in elementary school has on student
performance on the TCAP. The research measured whether
there was a statistically significant difference in
performance on the TCAP between students who participated
in foreign language programs in elementary school and
students who did not participate in foreign language
programs in elementary school.
If this study supports the findings of similar studies
in other states, it could be very beneficial to the
students and the school systems of Tennessee. Prior
research suggests that second language learning at an early
age increases a child’s ability to master the second
language (Curtain, 1990; Dumas, 1999; Kim et al., 1997;
Nash, 1997). With second language learning beginning in
elementary school instead of middle or high school,
students will have a better opportunity to master a second
language. At the same time, student performance on the TCAP
may also increase. Early instruction will be very

7
beneficial to all stakeholders of Tennessee schools.
Tennessee schools could implement foreign language programs
in elementary schools in order to help raise TCAP scores,
while also increasing second language learning.
Research Questions
The following questions guided the study:
1. Does participation in foreign language programs in
elementary school affect student achievement in math?
elementary school affect student achievement in
reading/Language Arts?
elementary school affect student achievement in
science?
elementary school affect student achievement in Social
Studies?
Limitations of the Study
This study was subject to the following limitations:
1. Each elementary school that offered foreign language
programs did so for every student. Because of this,
certain uncontrolled variables existed. They included
but were not limited to: teacher ability, parental

8
emphasis on education, teacher and student attendance,
student intelligence, and technology and methodology
improvements within the academic environment.
2. Only public schools in the state of Tennessee are
mandated to administer the TCAP; therefore, the
results of this study may not be applicable to private
schools nor the students who attend those private
schools.
3. Foreign language knowledge was not measured in this
study. The amount of a foreign language known by
students involved in this study at any time was not
relevant. Only the fact that the student had been
exposed to a foreign language during the course of the
school year was relevant. The effects of foreign
language mastery or the effects of bilingualism on the
TCAP were not examined.
4. Due to time limitations, the long-term effects of
foreign language study were not examined.
5. The current data did not allow for repeated measures
to be conducted. Therefore the effects of foreign
language participation on the performance of any one
particular student were not measured.

9
6. As with all educational research, certain variables
could not be controlled. These variables included the
teacher attrition, the support a child receives at
home, a child’s intelligence, and a child’s interest
or desire to be in school and be successful.
Definitions of Terms
For the purpose of this study, the following
definitions were used.
Academic Achievement - (Also see Student Achievement)
a measure of student success based on his/her performance
on the standardized test for the State of Tennessee, the
Tennessee Comprehensive Assessment Program (TCAP).
Benchmarks - Certain goals set by the national
government for students, schools, and school systems to
reach in regards to the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001.
Core Classes (Subjects) - Classes that are mandated at
the Elementary School Level by the state of Tennessee.
These include but are not limited to: Math, Science,
Reading/Language Arts, and Social Studies.
Dosage - The amount of time spent in a FLES* program.
This can be measured in minutes or hours per day, or it can
be measured in number of years a student is involved in the
program.
10
FLES - (Foreign Language in Elementary School)
Elementary school programs that meet approximately 30-55
minutes daily to teach and expose the students to a second
language. Unlike Foreign Language Exploratory Programs
(FLEX), the goal of FLES is to make the students proficient
in the second language.
FLES* - (Foreign Language in Elementary School Star)
The generalized term for elementary school foreign language
programs. This term includes immersion, partial immersion,
Foreign Language in Elementary School Programs (FLES), and
Foreign Language Exploratory Programs (FLEX).
FLEX - (Foreign Language Exploratory Program) This
program is designed to expose elementary school age
children to foreign language and different cultures. It is
not taught on a daily basis. These programs usually last
two to nine weeks, meeting two to three times each week.
The goal of these programs is to introduce second languages
and other cultures to children, not to make students
proficient in the language.
Grade Level – The grade the participants in this study
were in when the TCAP was administered to them.
NNELL - (National Network for Early Language Learning)
an educational community providing leadership in support of

11
successful early language learning and teaching (NNELL,
n.d.)
Immersion - Foreign Language Programs where all
subjects are taught to all students in a foreign language.
In these programs, the same content and standards are being
taught; only they are being taught in a foreign language on
a daily basis.
Partial Immersion - A foreign language program in
which a selected part of the core content is taught in the
target language on a daily basis.
Proficiency Level – The TCAP tests results are broken
into 3 categories, Below Proficient, Proficient, and Above
Proficient, which are the proficiency levels. All scores at
the “proficient” or “above proficient” level are considered
satisfactory and on or above grade level. “Below
proficient” indicates that the child has not achieved at
grade level in that particular sub-test area.
School-Year Combination – For this particular study,
the data collected was grouped based on the school the
participant attended and the year the test was taken. This
grouping was done in order to compare student achievement
between the two schools for different years.

12
Second Language/Foreign Language - Any language that
is not a child’s native language and is not spoken in the
home.
Student Achievement - Student learning as measured by
the scores on the Tennessee Comprehensive Assessment
Program (TCAP).
Target Language - The foreign language that is being
taught to students in hopes of making the students
proficient in the language.
TCAP (Tennessee Comprehensive Assessment Program) - A
criterion based standardized test that is given to all
public school students in the state of Tennessee, grades
three through eight.
TDOE (Tennessee Department of Education) - State
Department that oversees all aspects of education on a
state level. This includes but is not limited to funding,
testing, curriculum development, and student achievement.

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
In the last twenty years, the move towards foreign
language teaching in elementary schools has increased
dramatically (National Directory, n.d.). From 1987 to 1997
there was a 48% increase in the number of elementary
schools offering foreign language programs; the figures
were 21% of schools in 1987 and 31% in 1997 (Foreign
Language Enrollment, 2006; Rhodes & Branaman, 1999). There
are approximately four million students in elementary
schools in the United States involved in some type of
foreign language program (Rhodes & Branaman, 1999). The
amount of contact hours, the types of programs offered, and
the age at which these students begin these programs
differs with each school.
The following review of literature will examine
foreign language study in the United States. Foreign
language study in the United States will be compared to
foreign language study in other countries. The history of
foreign language in the United States is outlined as well

14
as the history of FLES* programs in the United States.
There are detailed descriptions of different FLES*
programs. There are summaries of previous studies that
involved student participation in FLES* programs and the
effects it has on student performance. Specifically, there
are reviews of the research on FLES* participation and the
effects on student performance on standardized tests;
especially the math sub-tests, language arts sub-tests, and
reading sub-tests.
Second Language Learning in the United States
Despite this growth of elementary school foreign
language programs, the United States still lags behind the
rest of the world in terms of second language learning.
Only seven states in the United States require foreign
language to be taught at the elementary school level
(Ember, 2004). The majority of students in this nation
begin second language learning in high school. That is a
stark contrast to many other countries throughout the
world, which begin second language learning as early as age
six. Many other countries also make second language
learning mandatory in school. In the United States it is
optional (Pufahl, Rhodes, & Christian, 2000).

15
Tennessee is even further behind. In Tennessee there
are only 36 public elementary schools registered on the
National Directory of Early Foreign Language Programs or
listed on the Center of Applied Linguistics’ national
directory of schools with foreign languages (National
Directory, n.d.). This implies that of 987 public
elementary schools in Tennessee, only 36 schools offer
foreign language programs.
Second Language Learning and Other Countries
Pufahl et al. (2000) of the Center for Applied
Linguistics examined second language teaching in 19
countries throughout the world. In this study, 22 educators
were interviewed about second language learning and the
basic philosophy of second language learning in those
countries. Four of these countries begin second language
instruction as early as age six. Fifteen countries offer
foreign languages to students under the age of ten. In the
United States, students begin foreign language study when
they are approximately 14 years old (Pufahl et al., 2000).

16
Table 1
Foreign Language Teaching in Other Countries
COUNTRY FIRST AVERAGE COMPULSORY ADDITIONAL

FOREIGN STARTING FOREIGN LANGUAGES
LANGUAGE AGE
AUSTRALIA FRENCH 6 NO GERMAN, GREEK,
ITALIAN, JAPANESE
AUSTRIA ENGLISH 6 YES FRENCH, ITALIAN
BRAZIL ENGLISH 11 OR 12 YES GERMAN, SPANISH,

FRENCH
CANADA FRENCH 10 YES GERMAN, SPANISH,
ITALIAN, JAPANESE
CHILE ENGLISH >12 UNKNOWN FRENCH, GERMAN,
ITALIAN
CZECH ENGLISH & 9 YES (2) FRENCH, RUSSIAN,
REPUBLIC GERMAN SPANISH
DENMARK ENGLISH 10 YES (2) FRENCH, SPANISH,
GERMAN
FINLAND ENGLISH 9 YES (2) SWEDISH, FINISH,
GERMAN
GERMANY ENGLISH 8 YES (2) FRENCH, SPANISH
ISRAEL ENGLISH 10 YES HEBREW, FRENCH,

ARABIC
ITALY ENGLISH 8 YES FRENCH, GERMAN,
SPANISH, RUSSIAN
KAZAKHSTAN ENGLISH 10 YES GERMAN, FRENCH
LUXEMBOURG GERMAN & 6 AND 7 YES (2) ENGLISH, ITALIAN

FRENCH
MOROCCO FRENCH 7 YES ENGLISH, SPANISH,
GERMAN
NETHERLANDS ENGLISH 10 OR 11 UNKNOWN GERMAN, FRENCH
NEW ZEALAND FRENCH >12 UNKNOWN JAPANESE, MAORI,

GERMAN
PERU ENGLISH >12 UNKNOWN FRENCH
SPAIN ENGLISH 8 YES FRENCH, GERMAN,

ITALIAN
THAILAND ENGLISH 6 YES FRENCH, GERMAN,
CHINESE, ARABIC
UNITED STATES SPANISH 14 NO FRENCH, CHINESE,
GERMAN
Source: Pufahl et al. (2000)
17
Pufahl et al. (2000) also outline what specific
teaching strategies are successful in other countries. The
following is a list of some of these strategies used in
other countries.
1. Start early. Early learning of foreign languages in
elementary and preschool leads to higher achievement
levels of multiple language proficiency (Pufahl et
al., 2000).
2. A Well-Articulated Framework. Having a national,
designed curriculum allows for a “strategic, coherent
and transparent system of foreign language education”
(Pufahl et al., 2000 p. 8). This helps guide
individual schools with program development and
evaluation.
3. Rigorous Teacher Education. Well-trained teachers are
crucial for having high quality foreign language
programs. English teachers in Morocco are some of the
best-trained professionals in the country. In Germany,
one must have a degree that is the equivalent of a
Masters degree in order to become a teacher. In
addition, prospective teachers must complete a one and
a half year internship program before being qualified
to teach (Pufahl et al., 2000).

18
4. Use of Technology. Several countries involved in this
survey pinpointed a large reliance on technology in
foreign language programs. This technology included
educational equipment such as smart-boards,
televisions, DVD and VCR players, and the use of the
inter-net and World-Wide Web.
After conducting the survey and analyzing the data,
Pufahl et al. (2000) formulated ideas that could improve
second language learning programs in this country. The
number one topic mentioned is starting second language
education at an early age. Pufahl et al. state that
starting second language learning early in life has
positive effects on a child’s development. This is
specifically in regards to developing language skills and
developing positive attitudes towards other cultures. It
also helps increase self-esteem in students.
Advantages of Second Language Learning
Numerous studies cite the advantages of being
bilingual, including personal benefits, academic benefits,
and cognitive benefits (Marcos, 1998). Villano (1996)
believes a person who speaks more than one language has a
larger access to people and resources than a person who
only speaks one language. Fluency in other languages

19
increases travel opportunities and helps people to
understand the human race from a wider perspective. It also
allows for better job opportunities as well as increases
earning potential.
Bamford and Mizokawa (1991) believe that students of
second languages are often more creative as well as better
problem solvers than students who only study one language.
Hamayan (1986) states that children who have an adequate
exposure to more than one language are more flexible and
creative than students who do not study second languages.
Hamayan continues to state that second language students
have the ability to reach high levels of cognitive
development not usually obtainable by monolingual students.
Other studies have supported the theory that bilingual
individuals score higher in both verbal and non-verbal
sections on tests of intelligence (Cooper, 1987; Eddy,
1981; National, 2003). This leads to the theory that
studying second languages increases intelligence (Hakuta,
1985; Weatherford, 1986). Academically, students who study
foreign languages in school at any level generally perform
better on the college entrance exams (the ACT and the SAT)
than students who do not study a second language (Cooper,
1987; Eddy, 1981).

20
Marcos (1998) states that society, as a whole, also
benefits from bilingualism and multilingualism. The economy
can greatly improve with a greater number of Americans
having the ability to communicate with more people
worldwide. Performance in many job fields today can improve
with multi-lingual skills. These jobs include the
healthcare profession and public service professions such
as law enforcement officers, politicians, and educators.
Second language learning not only improves communication
skills, but it also increases understanding between
different cultures and ethnic groups (Marcos, 1998).
Curtain (1990) also believes there are numerous
benefits for learning a second language, especially at a
young age. Studying a second language helps students
understand that there are others in the world beside just
themselves. Students who study second languages are less
self-centered and more open to ideas, thoughts and beliefs
that differ from their own.
Curtain and Pesola (1994) state that the studying of a
second language increases memory and listening skills.
Language learning skills transfer from one language to
another. This implies that the learning of a second

21
language increases the ability to learn additional
languages.
History of Foreign Language Study in the United States
Throughout the history of the United States foreign
language study has taken several different turns. The first
documented accounts of foreign language study in the United
States are in the pre-civil war era when students studied
Latin and Greek. These languages were believed to improve
the intellectual development of the children studying the
language (Taylor-Ward, 2003).
The Modern Language Association was founded in 1883 in
order to promote the teaching and learning of foreign
languages in the United States. The teaching of the
classical languages of Latin and Greek was already
established; thus, the teaching of modern language evolved
following a similar format. During this time period,
students were taught translation and vocabulary from
readings and word lists. The early time period of foreign
language teaching did not place a large emphasis on
listening or speaking (Taylor-Ward, 2003).
Because of the Modern Language Association, American
students in the late 1800s were introduced to modern
languages such as French and German (Grittner, 1977). The

22
most popular foreign language for students in the United
States during this time period was German. The popularity
of German was due to the large influx of German immigrants
into the U.S. during this time period (Grittner, 1977;
Lipton, 1998).
Between 1880 and 1915 foreign language study
flourished throughout the United States. It is stated that
anywhere between 35.9% (Foreign Language Enrollments, 2006)
and 83% (Grittner, 1977) of high school students studied a
foreign language in the early 1900s.
In the 1920s, a decline of foreign language study,
particularly German, began. This decline is attributed
primarily to a large anti-German sentiment throughout the
United States after War World I (Grittner, 1977). An
isolationism movement by the United States compounded this
decline. After World War I, the United States began to
isolate itself from the rest of the world. As the United
States changed political philosophy, the country changed
the educational philosophy as well. Education began to
focus on practical experiences that students would
encounter on a day-to-day basis. Because of this, foreign
language teaching was perceived as not as relevant and was

23
often omitted from the school curriculum (Taylor-Ward,
2003).
In 1954, the head of the Modern Language Association,
William Riley Parker, published The National Interest and
Foreign Languages. This publication brought attention to
the need for foreign language study and the impact it would
have on national security. It also created national
awareness for the need of foreign language study in the
United States (Taylor-Ward, 2003).
In 1957, the Russian satellite, Sputnik was put into
orbit. The launching of Sputnik caused alarm in many
Americans and brought a new light to education in the
United States. Citizens believed the education system in
this country lagged behind Russia’s educational system. To
counteract this, the National Defense Education Act (NDEA)
of 1958 was created. The NDEA focused on areas of
improvement in several school subjects, such as math,
science, and foreign languages. This act funded teacher
training and created teaching material for foreign language
teachers at the primary and secondary school levels
(Lantolf, 2001; Taylor-Ward, 2003). The NDEA was the first
attempt by the government to develop foreign language
teaching and learning in the United States (Curtain &

24
Pesola, 1994). With the nation placing a new emphasis on
foreign language learning, participation in foreign
language programs began a slow but steady increase, which
continued through the 1960s (Foreign Language Enrollments,
2006; Lipton, 1994).
It was during this same time period that B.F.
Skinner’s theory of language learning led to the
development of the Audio-Lingual Method of teaching. This
was a new focus for second language learning that had been
implemented in schools previously. The traditional method
of translation was replaced in order to emphasize listening
and speaking. The translation method, which had been used
in most schools, focused primarily on reading and writing
(Saunders, 1998).
During the seventies, foreign language study began to
decline once again (Foreign Language Enrollments, 2006).
This was attributed mainly to strict guidelines for foreign
language programs designed by the Modern Language
Association. These guidelines were created to improve
foreign language programs in the United States (Narea,
2004). Instead, these programs suffered as interest and
enrollment decreased. In 1976, a mere 22% of high school

25
students were enrolled in foreign language classes (Foreign
Language Enrollments, 2006).
The decline in foreign language study caused U.S.
President Jimmy Carter to release the 1979 President’s
Commission of Foreign Languages and International Studies
(Taylor-Ward, 2003). Once again, this made foreign language
study a priority in the schools throughout the nation
(Taylor-Ward, 2003). High school foreign language
enrollment steadily increased to 43.80% in 2000 (Foreign
Language Enrollments, 2006).
The increased enrollment over the last thirty years in
foreign language classes can be attributed to many factors
besides just government involvement. These factors include
the economy and political pressures (Narea, 2004).
In an article written for Education Week, Texas’
special education teacher, Jerry Jesness (2002), highlights
the national support for foreign language study. Jesness
states that one sign of support for foreign language study
is that colleges and universities are giving greater
admission consideration to the Scholastic Achievement Test
II. The SAT II tests foreign language knowledge. Jesness
also adds that many state funded colleges and universities

26
have added mandatory high school foreign language classes
as a requirement for admissions.
The latest federal educational legislation to impact
foreign language study is the No Child Left Behind Act of
2001 (U.S. Department, 2001). The No Child Left Behind Act
of 2001 singles out certain core curriculum subjects such
as English, math, science, civics and government,
economics, arts, history and geography, and foreign
language. The Foreign Language Assistance Act of 2001 (part
of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001) provides federal
funding for foreign language study at the elementary school
level. This funding is designated to improve the quantity
and quality of foreign language teaching at all levels,
especially at the elementary school age (U.S. Department,
2001). This is an important landmark for Foreign Language
in Elementary Schools Star programs (FLES*). Before the No
Child Left Behind Act of 2001, FLES* programs were funded
by the individual school or school districts (Rhodes &
Branaman, 1998).
Even as a designated core subject area of the No Child
Left Behind Act of 2001, foreign language study is somewhat
neglected. Many stakeholders of a school place more
emphasis on content areas that are held accountable through

27
mandated testing (Taylor-Ward, 2003). In Tennessee these
subject areas include math, reading, language arts,
science, and social studies (TDOE, n.d.c).
The aftermath of September 11, 2001 has also brought
foreign language study into a new light. Taylor-Ward (2003)
reviewed the 2002 House Permanent Select Committee on
Intelligence which expressed concerns over homeland
security. The committee stated that the United States is
vulnerable to terrorist attacks due to the insufficient
number of citizens who speak world languages (Taylor-Ward,
2003). More bi-lingual and tri-lingual citizens would be of
great assistance with intelligence and counter terrorism
plots. The committee blamed the lack of foreign language
fluency to general isolationism, limited study abroad
opportunities, and limited foreign language study within
the United States (Taylor-Ward, 2003).
The federal government continues to make strong
financial commitments to second language learning in United
States schools. In October of 2006, the U.S. government
awarded 12.9 million dollars in grants to help expand
foreign language programs in different school districts in
22 states. This grant funding program was part of President
Bush’s National Security Languages Initiative. When coupled

28
with the Foreign Language Assistance Program, the two
programs combined for a total amount of aide spent on
foreign language programs of 22 million dollars in 2006
alone (Bradshaw, 2006).
One aim of the National Security Language Initiative
is to increase the number of speakers of certain critical
foreign languages in the United States. These languages
include Arabic, Chinese, Russian, Hindi, and Farsi
(Bradshaw, 2006). A key part of the nation’s security after
9/11 is to be able to communicate with foreign governments
and people. This focus is especially important for these
critically needed languages that are not commonly taught in
many schools within the United States. The U.S. Secretary
of Education claims that these languages are critical not
only to the national security of this country, but the
economy as well (Bradshaw, 2006).
Bradshaw (2006) believes that people in the United
States must be able to understand and convey respect for
other cultures. They must be able to provide opportunities
for others to learn about this country and those who live
here. In order to do this, the citizens of this country
must be able to communicate in different languages.
Americans, in general, cannot do that (Bradshaw, 2006).

29
Because of this, the United States Department of
Education, the U.S. Department of State, the U.S.
Department of Defense, and the Office of the Director of
National Intelligence are working to improve second
language learning in the United States. These departments
intend to increase the foreign language learning available
in kindergarten, and to improve and expand existing
programs in all grade levels. There is also a concentrated
effort to increase opportunities to learn new languages in
the workforce (Bradshaw, 2006).
History of Foreign Language Study in Elementary Schools in
the United States
Lipton wrote a retrospective of elementary school
foreign language programs in the United States that was
published in Hispania Magazine in 1998. This article
summarizes the past one hundred years of FLES*. This
article divides the growth of FLES* into three different
periods: 1898-1958, 1958-1978, and 1978-1998. Each period
has distinct characteristics and faced different
challenges.
According to Lipton (1998), the first period began
with only a few elementary foreign language programs
throughout the country. The National Education Association

30
and the Modern Language Association attempted to set goals
for foreign language study for all grades, kindergarten
through twelfth. In 1894, the National Education
Association recommended that foreign language study begin
at the elementary school level. In 1900, the Modern
Language Association suggested that foreign language should
be offered as an elective type program in elementary
school. The MLA added that foreign language study in
elementary school would have no value unless the student
intends to continue studying the language in secondary
school. During this time period, the belief was that only
higher-level students should study foreign languages
(Lipton, 1998).
Andersson (1969) reports the time between the 1920s
and the 1940s as a period of slow growth for FLES*. The
country, as a whole, did not value elementary foreign
language programs; therefore, many school systems
eliminated these programs. This changed in 1952 when the
National Commissioner of Education, Earl McGrath (1952),
spoke at the annual conference of the Central States Modern
Language Teachers Association. McGrath proposed that every
child be allowed the opportunity to study foreign languages
in elementary schools, not only children who choose to do

31
so. McGrath continued by saying with “a little ingenuity
and determination this opportunity could be extended to
hundreds of thousands” (p. 209). Andersson (1969)
recognizes McGrath as the first educational official to
endorse FLES*.
Lipton (1998) points out several milestones for FLES*
between 1952 and 1957. There was rapid growth for FLES*
programs. For the first time there was a national effort
put forth to grow FLES* programs and interest. Stakeholders
supported FLES* and were enthusiastic about joining one of
several nationwide FLES* programs. Overall, this was an
upbeat period for FLES* (Lipton, 1998).
Lipton (1998) defines the second time period of
foreign language learning as 1958-1978. During the
beginning of this time period, FLES* programs continued to
increase. However, towards the end of this stage both
interest and growth began to wane. This era did have
contributions to FLES* programs. Evaluation procedures for
FLES* programs were developed and used during this time
period. Instructional strategies during this time period
focused primarily on listening and speaking (Lipton, 1998).
In 1957, MacRae published her pedagogy text, Teaching
Spanish in the Grades. This book gave an outline and plan

32
of how to correctly begin FLES* programs, when to implement
ideas, and served as an overall roadmap for schools’
interest in FLES* programs. This reference helped advance
many programs during this time period. It is still
considered one of the leading references in FLES* programs
today (Taylor-Ward, 2003). Andersson’s book, published in
1969, Foreign Languages in the Elementary School: A
Struggle Against Mediocrity, also discusses FLES* programs
in detail. This book offers specific details of how to
improve the nation’s existing programs.
Research began to emerge during this time period
regarding the effectiveness of foreign language programs.
Johnson, Ellison, and Flores (1961) conducted one of the
more significant studies during this time period. This
study examined the effects of foreign language study on
students’ progress in other parts of the elementary
curriculum. There was concern that implementing foreign
language programs into the regular school day would
jeopardize student success in other parts of the
curriculum. Johnson et al.’s findings were in direct
contrast with that theory. The data from this research
reported that foreign language study did not interfere with
basic skill learning such as language arts, reading, and

33
math; actually, it improved student performance in these
areas.
Between 1978 and 1998 FLES* programs continued to grow
in the nation. For the first time, there were national
foreign language standards for K-12. These provided
direction and framework for FLES* programs. National
conferences were being held which created even more
exposure and awareness to FLES* programs (Lipton, 1998).
A major step for FLES* occurred during 1985. Rosemarie
Benya organized and presided over the first SLAC conference
(Second Language Acquisition by Children). This meeting
allowed for collaboration among supporters of second
language learning (Lipton, 1998). Additionally, the
National FLES* Institute was created in 1986 at the
University of Maryland. This institute is still in
operation today. It provides many services for FLES*
programs, including teacher training, research facilities,
and a clearinghouse for FLES* information (Lipton, 1998).
Lipton (1998) states that the period between 1978 and
1998 was, overall, a positive time for FLES* programs. The
development of national organizations helped bring more
awareness to FLES* programs and the writing of new national
standards gave direction to start-up programs (Lipton,

34
1998). Also increasing awareness in 1993 was the creation
of “National FLES* Day.” National FLES* Day is celebrated
on the first Monday in March and coincides with the start
of National Foreign Language Week (Lipton, 1998). Overall
enrollment in foreign language programs between 1978 and
1998 increased significantly from 23% in 1978 to 42% in
2000 (Foreign Language Enrollments, 2006).
The time period of 1998-2006 also saw an increased
interest in FLES* programs, and a large push by the federal
government to improve second language teaching in the early
grades. Legislation by the federal government at the first
part of the twenty-first century held that students leaving
grades four, eight, and twelve should show competence in
challenging subject matter, including foreign languages
(Tucker & Donato, 2001).
In a report released in September of 2001, the House
Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence identified
language as the single greatest need in the intelligence
community (H.R. Rep. No. 107-219, 2001). Senator Simon
claimed that there are federal agencies that need
proficient personnel in over one hundred different
languages (Malone, Rifkin, Christian, & Johnson, 2004).

35
In order to meet these demands, FLES* programs will
need to continue to grow and expand (Tucker & Donato,
2001). Along with this growing demand are new concerns. The
nation faces a shortfall of certified foreign language
teachers. Certified elementary school level foreign
language teachers are in high demand but short supply
(Schrier, 2002). Schrier adds that many elementary school
foreign language teachers are retiring.
The trend of teachers leaving the profession creates a
problem because there are simply not enough new teachers
qualified to replace them. Compounding the problem is that
the majority of elementary school level foreign language
teachers who are graduating are certified in one language,
usually Spanish, which limits the number of languages that
can be offered in the elementary schools if any can be
offered at all (Schrier, 2002).
Rhodes and Branaman (1998) concur with Schrier. Nearly
half of the elementary foreign language teachers are
actually regular classroom teachers whose native language
is the target language being taught in the FLES* program.
In 1998, only nineteen percent of FLES* teachers were
certified foreign language teachers. This signifies a lack
of teacher training programs and certification programs;

36
therefore, leading to a lack of qualified personnel for
FLES* teaching positions (Rhodes and Branaman, 1998).
Types of FLES* Programs
There are several different types of FLES* programs.
Rhodes, Tucker, and Clark (1981) outline the differences of
each program. Each program is unique and offers a different
experience for the students. Each program has different
goals and expectations for the participants.
Foreign Language Experience, or FLEX (Lipton, 1990,
refers to this program as foreign language exploratory), is
a program in which students are introduced to different
languages and cultures in the elementary school grades.
FLEX programs are done more for an enrichment aspect
instead of attempting to develop fluency in the students.
These programs usually meet anywhere between two and nine
weeks. FLEX programs do not have language fluency goals.
The main idea behind FLEX programs is to introduce
different languages and cultures to children. Many FLEX
programs will expose students to different languages during
the school year. The FLEX program allows students to decide
which language or languages they would want to study more
in-depth in the future (Lipton, 1990; Rhodes, Tucker, &
Clark, 1981).
37
A second program mentioned by Rhodes et al. (1981) is
the Foreign Language in Elementary Schools, or FLES. FLES
is the most popular program in use today. In FLES, one
foreign language is taught for a minimum of two years on a
daily basis. Each day, the target language is taught
between thirty and fifty-five minutes. By teaching the
foreign language for a longer time period on a daily basis,
the students have a better chance to develop proficiency in
the language. The FLES program also lays solid footing for
more in depth language training in either middle school or
high school (Lipton, 1990; Rhodes et al., 1981).
The third type of FLES* is immersion. Genesee (1985)
divided immersion into several different categories: early
immersion, delayed immersion, total immersion, and partial
immersion. Rhodes et al. (1981) also added two-way
immersion as an immersion category. In immersion programs,
the students are taught state standards in a selected
foreign language for either part or all of the day
(Genesee, 1985).
In early immersion, students are taught in the foreign
language as soon as they start school. By this method, the
children learn to understand and communicate in the target
language as they are learning the skills required at

38
specific grade levels. Delayed immersion is similar;
however, the students are not exposed to the second
language at as early of an age. Delayed immersion usually
begins no earlier than third grade, possibly later
(Genesee, 1985).
Partial immersion is a program in which part of the
school day is taught in the target language, while part of
the day is taught in the native language. The state
standards are taught in the target language and then
reinforced in English during the second part of the day.
Total immersion programs are where the entire school day is
taught in the target language. The state standards are
still taught and the students are still required to master
the standards as if the standards were being taught in the
students’ native language. All immersion programs are
designed to promote target language proficiency. Immersion
programs should be implemented over several years of a
child’s school career, not just one or two years (Genesee,
1985).
Early Research on Foreign Language Study
Much research has been done on the effects of foreign
language study at all grade levels. None of it has involved
students from Tennessee.

39
Early research involving participation in FLES* and
student achievement was conducted in the 1960s in New York
City. In this study, Lopato (1963) compared the performance
of third grade students enrolled in an FLES program to
students who were not enrolled in any FLES* programs. The
FLES programs in this study were French programs, which met
every day for approximately fifteen minutes.
In Lopato’s 1963 study, there were two experimental
groups and two control groups. One of each group came from
a school in New York City, while the other groups came from
a Long Island school. Factors such as age, intelligence,
and socio-economic status were all considered and
controlled.
Lopato (1963) administered a pre-test and a post-test
of the Stanford Achievement Test. Results of the study
showed no significant difference in reading or language
achievement. The experimental group did show a
statistically significant increase in student performance
on the spelling and arithmetic sections of the exam that
were not observed in the control group’s performance. The
findings of this study supported Lopato’s theory that even
though instructional time might be lost in core subject

40
areas, student performance on standardized test in those
subject areas will not suffer (Lopato, 1963).
Johnson et al. reported similar findings in 1961 and
1963. This research examined differences in student
achievement on the Science Research Association Achievement
Series Test (SRAAST). The control group of this experiment
did not participate in an FLES* program, while the
experimental group did. During both studies, the control
groups and the experimental groups were administered pre-
tests and post-tests of the SRAAST. The results of the 1961
study showed greater achievement by the control group on
the SRAAST than the experimental group. Though the control
group outperformed the experimental group, the difference
was not statistically significant. The results of this test
did not support the hypothesis that involvement in an FLES
program improved student achievement on standardized tests.
On the other hand, it did suggest that losing instructional
time in core courses due to implementing FLES* programs
does not hurt student achievement on standardized tests
(Johnson et al., 1961).
The second study done by Johnson et al., in 1963, took
place in Chicago, Illinois. This study involved 180 fourth
grade students. The experimental group took 20 minutes of

41
Spanish lessons each day. The control group did not
participate in any foreign language program. The results of
this study were similar to the results of other studies.
There were slight achievement gains by the experimental
group that were not demonstrated by the control group.
These gains were not significantly higher. This study
concluded that lost instructional time in core classes due
to the implementation of FLES* programs did not result in
poorer performance in core subject areas (Johnson et al.,
1963).
Several other studies supported these findings. Potts
conducted a study in 1967 regarding FLES* and native
language reading achievement. Potts found no adverse effect
on native language reading achievement by students who
studied a second language in elementary school (Potts,
1967).
Rafferty conducted a landmark study in Louisiana in
1986. Rafferty studied the effects of participation in
FLES* programs on student performance on the English and
Math sub-tests of the Louisiana Basic Skills Test. This
study involved 13,200 randomly selected students from
public elementary schools throughout the state of
Louisiana. All students involved in this study were from

42
grades three through five. Each student came from an
English-only household. Rafferty examined the subtest
scores on the Louisiana Basic Skills Test for students who
were involved in a FLES* program in the school and compared
them to students who were not involved in any FLES* program
through the school.
Rafferty’s (1986) results indicated that regardless of
a child’s race, sex, or academic level, students
participating in foreign language classes performed
significantly higher on the language arts section of the
standardized test than non-participants. This improvement
was evident for students in third, fourth, and fifth
grades. Rafferty’s results suggest that studying a second
language actually improves English language skills. The
results also support the theory that poor-performing
English students should be encouraged, not discouraged,
from taking a second language.
Rafferty (1986) also found that fifth grade students
involved in FLES* programs outperformed fifth grade non-
participants on the math section of the test. FLES*
students from the fourth grade actually performed lower
than non-participants on the math sub-tests. Rafferty
explained that this might be caused by the simplicity of

43
the test and that cognitive skills were not tested with
this particular test. Had cognitive functioning been
measured, Rafferty states that younger grade levels might
also have shown an improvement on the math portion of the
test (Rafferty, 1986).
Taylor-Ward (2003) explained that in the early stages
of FLES* research on academic achievement, the focus was on
the negative effects FLES* programs had on students’
academic achievement in core subject areas. Lopato (1963),
Johnson et al. (1961, 1963), and Potts (1967) all supported
the belief that the academic achievement of students who
participated in FLES* programs did not suffer. To the
contrary, the academic achievement usually improved
(Lopato, 1963; Johnson et al., 1961, 1963; Potts, 1967).
Foreign Language Study and Socio-Economic Status
In 1990, Lang examined the effects of student
involvement in FLES* on English language achievement as
measured by the norm-referenced California Achievement
Tests. In doing so, Lang compared participants and non-
participants in FLES* programs in grade levels four, six,
and nine in the state of Louisiana.
Lang (1990) analyzed the demographics of his sample to
determine whether a child’s socio-economic status

44
contributed to the effects of FLES* participation on the
child’s performance on the California Achievement Test.
Lang’s results showed that the performance of students
involved in FLES* programs was significantly better than
that of students who did not participate in FLES* programs.
These results were evident regardless of the child’s socio-
economic status (Lang, 1990).
In 1999 Caldas and Boudreaux conducted research to
find predictors of math and language arts performance. This
study included 1,941 students enrolled in grades 3, 5, and
7 in thirteen different Louisiana schools. Caldas and
Boudreaux compared performance on standardized tests by
students who participated in French-immersion programs to
that of students who were not involved in the immersion
programs. The findings of this study supported the
hypothesis that participation in an FLES* program increases
student performance on standardized test in the areas of
English and math, especially for students in high poverty
schools. Students from high poverty schools actually showed
significantly higher gains on the English sub-test after
participating in the French immersion program than French
immersion students who were not from high poverty schools.

45
These gains were also found for math scores, although not
as significant.
The Effects of FLES* on Math Achievement
Armstrong and Rogers (1997) examined the effects of
participation in FLES* programs on student achievement in
the different sub-categories of reading, math, and language
arts. This study included 100 third graders in two
different schools. There were two different control groups
at each school and one experimental group for each school.
The experimental group participated in an FLES Spanish
program three times per week for thirty minutes. Each
control group and experimental group took the standardized
Metropolitan Test and the Otis-Lennon School Abilities Test
as pre-tests and post-tests to measure improvement.
The results of the study showed a statistically
significant difference in student performance on the math
section of the standardized tests between the experimental
group and the control group (Armstrong & Rogers, 1997). The
experimental group showed a statistically significant
improvement in student achievement in the math scores that
was not present in the control group. Armstrong and Rogers
comment that there was a statistically significant increase
in the math achievement of the experimental group, even

46
though these students lost instructional time in math to
allow for the foreign language instruction during the
regular school day.
In 1998, Saunders examined the effects of studying a
foreign language in elementary school on the Iowa Test of
Basic Skills. This study was conducted on third grade
students enrolled in the Georgia School Foreign Language
Model Program. Saunders compared the control group,
students who were not involved in any FLES* programs, to
the experimental group comprised of students who were
involved in an FLES* program. The experimental group
received 30 minutes of instruction every school day for
four years. The members of the experimental group were also
one year younger than the control group (Saunders, 1998).
In Saunders’ (1998) study, the performance on the math
section of the Iowa Test of Basic Skills by the
experimental group was statistically significantly higher
than the performance of the control group. This was despite
the fact that the control group was one year older than the
experimental group. The experimental group also
outperformed the control group on the reading section of
the exam, but the difference was not statistically
significant (Saunders, 1998).

47
Taylor-Ward’s 2003 study is well known for the
information it provides on FLES* programs. Her study
examined the relationship between elementary foreign
language study in grades three through five and academic
achievement on the Iowa Test of Basic Skills and the fourth
grade Louisiana Educational Assessment Program (LEAP) for
the twenty-first century. Taylor-Ward’s results showed that
students who were involved in the FLES* programs in the
state of Louisiana consistently outperformed students who
were not involved in the FLES* programs. Specifically, the
study found that the improvement in math scores of the
fourth graders who participated in the FLES* program was
significantly statistically higher than the improvement of
students who were in the control group and did not
participate in the FLES* programs. Furthermore, the third
grade members of the experimental group also had a higher
level of improvement on the math sub-section of the test;
however, it was not statistically significant. The fifth
grade members of the experimental group did not show an
increase in math scores (Taylor-Ward, 2003).
FLES* Participation and Language Art/Reading Achievement
In 1991, Garfinkel and Tabor examined the effects of
prolonged involvement in FLES* programs on reading

48
achievement. This study compared reading achievement for
students with two years (the third and fourth grades) of
participation in FLES* programs to the reading achievement
of students who were involved in FLES* programs for four
years (the third through sixth grades).
Overall, the additional years of involvement in the
FLES* program did not have a statistically significant
effect on reading achievement. However, there was a
statistically significant correlation between improved
reading scores and four years of participation in an FLES*
program for children in low ability groups. These findings
led Garfinkel and Tabor to conclude that children in low
ability groups who participate in FLES* programs for four
years will show a statistically significant improvement in
reading scores (Garfinkel & Tabor, 1991).
In a study of FLES* programs and student achievement,
Taylor-Ward (2003) examined the effects of FLES*
participation on several subjects, including language arts
and reading. This study involved third grade through fifth
grade students. The experimental group was involved in
FLES* programs, and the control group was not involved in
FLES* programs. Both groups of students took pre-tests and
post-tests to measure academic achievement gains.

49
On the Language Arts sub-test the experimental group’s
improvement was statistically significantly higher that the
improvement of the control group. This improvement was
evident by both the fourth grade experimental group and the
fifth grade experimental group. The third grade
experimental group also showed higher achievement than the
control group, but the increase was not significantly
different (Taylor-Ward, 2003).
In this study, Taylor-Ward (2003) also examined the
effects of FLES* participation on reading scores of
standardized tests. Even though overall scores showed a
statistically significant increase by the experimental
group which was not present in the control group, reading
scores were not as affected.
Taylor-Ward (2003) also noted that the third grade
students who participated in the FLES* programs scored
higher on the reading sub-test than the students who did
not participate in the FLES* programs. The difference
however was not significant. Fifth grade members of the
control group actually performed statistically
significantly better on the reading sub-test than members
of the experimental group. The fourth grade students were

50
not tested in the sub category of reading (Taylor-Ward,
2003).
In reviewing this study, Taylor-Ward (2003) mentions
that most FLES* programs emphasize listening, speaking, and
understanding. Because of this, reading is not done very
often in many FLES* programs. The lack of reading emphasis
could explain the lack of improvement in reading scores by
the experimental group (Taylor-Ward, 2003).
Armstrong and Rogers (1997) examined the effects of
FLES* participation on the Language Arts portion of
standardized tests. Armstrong and Rogers studied the scores
from 100 third grade students enrolled in two different
public schools in Pittsburg, Kansas. The students involved
in this study were administered pre-tests and post-tests.
The tests used were the Metropolitan Achievement Test and
the Otis-Lennon Schools Ability test. The experimental
group in this study received thirty minutes of Spanish
instruction every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday mornings
for thirty minutes. The control group followed the normal
third grade curriculum during this time.
At the end of one semester, both groups were
administered post-tests. The experimental group had
statistically significant higher achievement on the

51
Language Arts portion of the post-tests than the control
group. Armstrong and Rogers (1997) concluded that
participation in FLES* programs helped third grade students
achieve higher Language Art scores on standardized tests
than students who did not participate in FLES* programs.
In the same study, Armstrong and Rogers (1997)
analyzed the effect of FLES* participation on reading
scores. Similar to the results of Taylor-Ward’s 2003 study,
the reading scores of the experimental group were not
statistically significantly higher than the reading scores
of the control group. Armstrong and Rogers also stated that
the lack of emphasis on reading in the FLES* program led to
the lack of improvement in the reading scores of the
experimental group.
In 1999, Caldas and Boudreaux released the results of
their study involving over 1900 elementary school students
in grades 3, 5, and 7 throughout the state of Louisiana. In
this study, students were divided into two groups. The
experimental group consisted of students who were involved
in a French immersion program during the school day. The
control group was made up of students who were not in any
type of FLES* or immersion program.

52
At the end of the school year, each student took the
standardized test from the state of Louisiana, the LEAP
test. The scores of the two groups were compared and
analyzed. Overall, students from the experimental group
scored significantly higher on the Language Arts portion of
the LEAP test than did students in the control group. The
higher Language Art scores by the experimental group were
evident in many different sup-groups of the population:
White students, African-American students, and students
from schools with a large percentage of students who live
in poverty. Caldas and Boudreaux concluded that
participation in FLES* programs helped to increase Language
Art scores for students regardless of race or socio-
economic status.
Saunders’s 1998 study of third grade FLES
participation on student performance on standardized tests
also compared the reading performance of FLES* participants
to that of non-participants. Similar to other studies, this
research did not show a statistically significant
difference on the reading sub-test between the experimental
and the control groups. The experimental group did have
higher reading scores than the control group, but the

53
difference was not statistically significant (Saunders,
1998).
Saunders (1998) explains why the reading scores of the
FLES* participants might not be as affected by their
participation as were their math scores. This study used
third grade students. Saunders suggests that third grade
students are much more advanced in the areas of math than
in the areas of English reading. Whereas most schools begin
both reading and math in the first grade or earlier, math
is emphasized more in the younger grades than reading.
Saunders continues to outline how first and second grade
reading actually emphasizes vocabulary, word recognition,
and memorization of phonetics and sounds. Math teaching
actually begins operation practice (addition and
subtraction) as early as the first grade (Saunders, 1998).
Saunders (1998) claims that because of this, students
who are involved in FLES* programs in the third grade are
actually able to reinforce the math skills already learned
while learning a foreign language. With most FLES* programs
emphasizing speaking and listening, these programs do not
reinforce English skills that have already been learned
(Saunders, 1998).
54
Schuster completed one of the more recent studies
involving FLES* participation and student achievement in
Kansas in 2005. Schuster analyzed the effects of English
academic achievement when students were involved in FLES*
programs. In this study, Schuster’s control group was
composed of students from eight different elementary
schools in the local school district who were not involved
in an FLES* program. The experimental group was made up of
students from five different elementary schools that had
some type of FLES* programs (Schuster, 2005).
The members of Schuster’s (2005) experimental group
participated in the FLES* program in grades two through
five. In grades six, the experimental group and the control
group were administered the Iowa Test of Basic Skills. The
analysis of data showed no statistically significant
differences in performance on the English sub test between
the control group and the experimental group. This was
despite the fact that the control group of students
actually had more on time task with English lessons than
the experimental group (Schuster, 2005).
Summary
There has been extensive research regarding foreign
language study in the United States. Unfortunately,

55
foreign language study in the United States is not on par
with foreign language studies in other developed nations
(Pufahl et al., 2001). Of the foreign language programs
that are available in the United States, many of them are
not available to children until middle school or high
school (Foreign Language Enrollments, 2006).
Even though the history of FLES* programs has been
well documented, there is little push on the national level
to implement these programs (Lipton, 1998). The tragic
events of 9/11 brought more awareness to the lack of
language knowledge in this country and a few new programs
have been implemented to support current FLES* programs and
to help institute new ones (Taylor-Ward, 2003). The No
Child Left Behind Act of 2001 also emphasizes the need to
improve foreign language programs in this country (Taylor-
Ward, 2003).
The research reviewed in this chapter has demonstrated
the advantages of learning a second language as well as the
effects of second language learning on student achievement.
None of the research indicated adverse effects on student
achievement by studying a second language. Several studies
supported the theory that second language learning actually
improves academic achievement in other subject areas

56
(Armstrong & Rogers, 1997; Donoghue, 1965; Johnston et al.,
1961, 1963; Lopato, 1963; Marcos, 1998; Potts, 1967;
Saunders, 1998; Taylor-Ward, 2003).
The majority of the studies reviewed in this chapter
used the Iowa Test of Basic Skills or the standardized test
that is given in the particular state where the research
was being conducted. None of the previous research
regarding student participation in FLES* programs examined
the effects of participation on the standardized test for
the state of Tennessee, the T-CAP. This is an area where
further research is needed.

CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
Tennessee, the TCAP. There are significant data to support
the theory that participation in FLES* programs improve
student performance on standardized tests (Armstrong &
Rogers, 1997; Donoghue, 1965; Johnston et al., 1961, 1963;
Lopato, 1963; Marcos, 1998; Potts, 1967; Saunders, 1998;
Taylor-Ward, 2003).
This study looked specifically at student performance
on the Tennessee Comprehensive Achievement Program (TCAP)
sub-tests in math, science, reading and language arts, and
social studies. The performance of students who
participated in FLES* programs was compared to that of
students who did not participate in FLES* programs.

58
Research Design
This research utilized a causal comparative design
with archival data. Both the FLES* participant and the
non-participant groups were intact prior to this study.
This study compared the achievement of the non-participant
group of students who attended Macon-Hall Elementary School
from 2005-2007 to the participant group of students who
attended Sycamore Elementary School from 2005-2007.
Population
The population for this study was all third, fourth,
and fifth grade students in public elementary schools in
the Shelby County School System. The Shelby County School
System is comprised of schools that are located in Shelby
County, Tennessee, but not inside the city limits of
Memphis, Tennessee. The Shelby County School System is made
up of 49 schools. Twenty-nine schools in the Shelby County
School System are elementary schools. There are
approximately 14,000 students enrolled in elementary
schools in the Shelby County School System (n.d.).

59
Sample
The sample used for this study included third, fourth,
and fifth grade students from Sycamore Elementary School
and Macon Hall Elementary School in the Shelby County
School System during the school years 2005 through 2007.
Sycamore Elementary School is located in Collierville,
which is a suburb of Memphis, Tennessee. The estimated
population of Collierville is 43,022 (U.S. Census Bureau,
n.d.). Macon Hall Elementary School is located in Cordova,
which is also a suburb of Memphis, Tennessee in Shelby
County. Cordova has a population of 29,535 (U.S. Census
Bureau, n.d.).
At the time of the study, Sycamore Elementary School
was comprised of 650 students in grades Kindergarten
through fifth grade. The two-story school was opened in the
school year 2000-2001. The building has 64 classrooms, one
computer lab, two science labs, two music classrooms, two
art rooms, and a gymnasium and cafeteria. It has internet
access in each classroom as well as the library. At the
time of this study it employed 35 teachers and 20
educational specialists who worked in different academic
programs. The principal had been in her position since the

60
opening of the school in 2000 (Sycamore Elementary School,
n.d.).
The ethnic make-up of Sycamore Elementary School was
predominately Caucasian, which comprised 65% (422 students)
of the school population. Just over 30% (195 students) of
the school population was African-American, less than 6%
(39 students) was Asian, and just under 3% (19 students)
was Hispanic (TDOE, n.d.e).
There were a total of 124 students involved in the
free/reduced lunch program. The total percentage of the
school’s population involved in the free/reduced lunch
program was 19%. Ninety-five students received free
lunches. Twenty-nine students received lunches at a reduced
price (TDOE, n.d.e).
Over 70% of the students at Sycamore Elementary School
lived with both parents. Twenty-one percent lived with a
single parent or with a non-parental guardian. Eight
percent lived with one parent and a stepparent (TDOE,
n.d.e).
At the time of this study, Macon Hall Elementary
School had 1,010 students and was comprised of Kindergarten
through fifth grades. Macon Hall Elementary School opened
in 1997. It has 70 classrooms, one library, one computer

61
lab, one gymnasium, and one cafeteria. Each classroom is
equipped with the internet and the library has internet
access as well. At the time of this study, 70 teachers were
employed at Macon Hall Elementary School and 16 Educational
Specialists. As with Sycamore Elementary, the principal of
Macon Hall had been in that position since the opening of
the school in 1997 (M. A. Lutes, personal communication,
February 15, 2008).
Macon Hall had 459 (48%) Caucasian students, 378 (40%)
African-American students, 61 (6%) Asian/Pacific Island
students, and 51 (5%) Hispanic students. The number of
students at Macon Hall who were considered economically
disadvantaged was 205 (21%) (TDOE, n.d.d).
Students Who Did Not Participate in the FLES* Program
The students who did not participate in an FLES*
program were referred to as non-participants in this study.
The non-participants were students who were enrolled in
either the third, fourth, or fifth grade during the school
years 2005 and 2007. These students attended Macon Hall
Elementary School which does not have a FLES* program.
Students Who Participated in the FLES* Program
The group of students who participated in the FLES*
program were referred to as participants in this study.

62
These students were enrolled in the third, fourth, or fifth
grades at Sycamore Elementary School during the 2005 to
2007 school years. The FLES* program used during this study
was implemented at Sycamore Elementary School in January of
2004. Therefore, each student who was enrolled in the
third, fourth, or fifth grade at Sycamore Elementary School
during the 2005 to 2007 school years participated in the
FLES* program. The FLES* program is a Kindergarten through
fifth grade program and was implemented in all grades at
the schools simultaneously (S. Misenheimer, personal
communication, October 15, 2007).
Participation in the FLES* Program
The FLES* program at Sycamore Elementary School is a
mandatory program that was implemented during January of
the 2003-2004 school year. The program was implemented in
all grades at Sycamore Elementary School at that time and
all students participated in the program. The participants
in this program studied an FLES* series developed by
Northern Arizona University/Project USA. This series was
adopted prior to the implementation of the FLES* program at
Sycamore Elementary School. The Northern Arizona
University/Project USA series was approved by the FLES*
director of Sycamore Elementary School and a committee of

63
school stakeholders (S. Misenheimer, personal
The participants participated in weekly Spanish
learning activities throughout the entire school year.
Each participant received approximately 90 minutes of
Spanish per week. This included 30 minutes of Spanish class
time in which the Spanish instructor conducted a weekly
Spanish lesson. Also, it included a 30 minute educational
video in which the weekly Spanish lesson was reinforced
through an age appropriate video (S. Misenheimer, personal
In addition, Spanish was integrated throughout the
daily activities of the school to compose 30 additional
contact minutes; including Spanish activities in non-
Spanish classes (such as math or science), morning
announcements being read in Spanish, and out-of-class
contact with the Spanish instructor. This was done for each
class throughout the Sycamore Elementary School (S.
Misenheimer, personal communication, October 15, 2007).
Collection of Data
After obtaining permission from the Director of
Research of Shelby County Schools, the researcher contacted
the principals of Sycamore Elementary School and Macon Hall

64
Elementary School. The researcher sent a letter outlining
the general purpose of the study and the need for the data
that would be used in this study. Even though this study
used archival data, the principals from each school had to
give their approval in order for this research to be
conducted. Approval to conduct this research was also
granted by The Institutional Review Board of Tennessee
State University. The approval of the committee was needed
in order to conduct this research.
The researcher then contacted the Director of Student
Testing who provided the TCAP scores and TCAP sub-test
scores in a spreadsheet format. Before providing this
information to the researcher, the students’ scores were
separated from the students’ names in order to ensure
anonymity.
The TCAP scores of the students who participated in
the FLES* program were then compared to the scores of
students who did not participate in the FLES* program. This
analysis was conducted using SPSS computer software to
determine whether student participation in FLES* programs
had an effect on student achievement.

65
Instrumentation
According to the Department of Education for the State
of Tennessee (n.d.a), the TCAP is a state-mandated, student
assessment program which measures student achievement in
grades K-12. The TCAP is designed as a criterion
referenced test that is administered in every public school
in the state of Tennessee (TDOE, n.d.b). This test is
given in the spring of every year during a three-week time
specified by the Department of Education of the State of
Tennessee. The TCAP is designed by CTB/McGraw-Hill LLC
(TDOE, n.d.b).
Validity and Reliability
Being a standardized test, the validity and
reliability of the TCAP is carefully analyzed by the
Department of Education of the state of Tennessee. Both
the validity and reliability are studied every year in
order to secure test results that will be able to withstand
constant analysis, and to retrieve data that can be used in
statistical research (TDOE, n.d.b).
Kirk (1978) states that any test or testing instrument
is only valid to the degree to which it measures what it is
intended to measure. The validity of a test can change
depending on the subjects taking the test and what the test
66
is intended to measure. A test can be very valid when it
is being used to analyze second grade math skills but the
same test would not be valid in determining second grade
reading scores.
In order to be considered valid, the TCAP adheres very
closely to the test blueprints. These test blueprints are
designed specifically for the TCAP, based on content
standards developed by the Tennessee State Department of
Education. The test blueprints are carefully aligned
between content standards of the individual grade and the
subject area being tested. These blueprints are designed
and analyzed in order to ensure that the TCAP measures what
it is intended to measure. These blueprints are revisited
each year and are modified as needed (TDOE, n.d.b).
Each year the TCAP is statistically analyzed in order
to measure the test reliability (TDOE, n.d.b). Test
reliability is the extent to which a test consistently
measures what it is designed to measure (Rudner & Schafer,
2001). Therefore, in order for a test to be reliable, the
test must consistently produce similar results each time it
tests the same subject. For any test results to be used for
research purposes, the test must be considered both
reliable and valid (Rudner & Schafer, 2001).

67
The Kuder-Richardson Formula (KR20) is used to measure
the reliability of the TCAP (TDOE, n.d.b). Kirk (1978)
explains that the Kuder-Richardson Formula (KR 20)
calculates how consistent the subject’s responses are
throughout the test. The subject’s responses are actually
compared to each other. The Kuder-Richardson Formula
(KR20) is the mean of all split-half coefficients. The
KR20 is more accurate with larger number of items on a
test. It can be concluded that longer tests should be more
reliable than shorter tests (Kirk, 1978). The TCAP is
measured every year using the KR20 method and is considered
to be reliable (TDOE, n.d.b).
Null Hypotheses
1. There will be no statistically significant difference
in academic achievement in math between students who
participated in the FLES* program and students who did
not participate in the FLES* program.
in academic achievement in reading/Language Arts
between students who participated in the FLES* program
and students who did not participate in the FLES*
program.
68
in academic achievement in science between students
who participated in the FLES* program and students who
did not participate in the FLES* program.
in academic achievement in social studies between
students who participated in the FLES* program and
students who did not participate in the FLES* program.
Data Analysis
The TCAP scores and TCAP sub-test scores were entered
into the SPSS program to perform statistical analyses. The
null hypotheses were tested with a two-way ANCOVA in order
to predict if a statistically significant difference
existed in student achievement, as measured by various TCAP
subtests (math, reading/Language Arts, science, and social
studies respectfully), between students who participated in
FLES* and those who did not participate in FLES*. When
conducting statistical analyses, a .05 level of
significance was established for the acceptance or
rejection of the null hypotheses.

69
Table 2
Hypotheses Testing
Hypothesis Independent Dependent Test

Variable Variable
1 Grade Level & Math TCAP Two-Way ANCOVA
School Year
Combination
2 Grade Level & Reading/Language Two-Way ANCOVA
School Year Arts TCAP
Combination
3 Grade Level & Science TCAP Two-Way ANCOVA
School Year
Combination
4 Grade Level & Social Studies Two-Way ANCOVA
School Year TCAP
Combination
CHAPTER IV
ANAYLSIS OF DATA
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects
of second language instruction in elementary school on
student performance on the TCAP. The present study
attempted to determine if the effects of second language
learning on students’ TCAP performance were similar to
those found for second language learning on other states’
standardized tests. Three years of student data from two
schools were compared resulting in a total sample of 2,690.
Cohen (1988) suggested some guidelines for
interpreting the strength of correlations. He suggested
that a weak correlation typically has an absolute value of
r = .10 (about one percent of the variance explained), a
moderate correlation typically has an absolute value of
r = .30 (about nine percent of the variance explained) and
a strong correlation typically has an absolute value of
r = .50 (about 25 percent of the variance explained). For
the sake of clarity, the following results will primarily
highlight those correlations and effect sizes that were at

71
least of moderate strength. In addition, given the large
sample (N = 2,690) and the fact that a small correlation of
r = .05 is statistically significant at the p = .05 level,
the moderate strength interpretation criteria was used to
minimize the potential of numerous Type I errors stemming
from interpreting and drawing conclusions based on
potentially spurious correlations.
Chi Square Tests for Descriptive Statistics
Prior to testing the null hypotheses, descriptive
statistics were calculated to determine how similar the two
schools were in selected variables. These included school
size as is was broken down by school year and grade, ethnic
and gender make-up, and the number of students receiving
ELL or special education services. In other words, besides
the Spanish program, what other difference were present at
the schools that might affect the dependant variable being
tested in each null hypothesis. Chi square tests were
performed to determine these differences. As suggested by
page 25 in the APA Manual, if differences are present, the
effect size for each variable was determined in order to
measure the strength of the association between the
variables. This data, combined with the Chi-square test,
showed not only if the measured variables affected the

72
dependant variables, but if so, how large of an effect it
had on the dependant variable (Publication Manual, 2001).
Table 3 displays the results of the comparison of the
two schools for the selected variables: school year,
gender, the number of gifted students, special education
students, English Language Learners and the race of each
student. These comparisons utilized chi-square tests.
Cramer’s V statistics were used to measure the strength of
association of these variables to minimize the possibility
of over interpretation of the data.
Regarding the number of students for each school for
each year, the Spanish school had fewer students in the
2006 school year (28.9% versus 35.6%) (V = .07, p = .001).
For the three-year aggregated data, no differences were
noted between the two schools for gender (V = .02, p = .45)
or grade level (V = .01, p = .83). However, the Spanish
school had more gifted students (V = .05, p = .02), fewer
students receiving special education services (V = .04,
p = .05), more students receiving ELL services (V = .15,
p = .001), and fewer Caucasian students (44.3% versus
50.8%) (V = .13, p = .001) than the comparison school.
Although differences were found for certain variables, with
such small effect sizes the differences were noted but were
73
not considered to have a significant impact on the
hypothesis testing.
Table 3
Frequency Counts for Selected Variables. Chi-Square Tests

of Significance (N=2,690)
Variable Category Comparison Language
n % n %
a
School Year
2005 533 33.4 419 38.2
2006 567 35.6 317 28.9
2007 494 31.0 360 32.8
b
Gender
Female 776 48.7 550 50.2
Male 818 51.3 546 49.8
c
Grade Level
3rd Grade 553 34.7 368 33.6
4th Grade 516 32.4 359 32.8
th
5 Grade 525 32.9 369 33.7
Gifted Studentsd
No 1484 93.1 993 90.6
Yes 110 6.9 103 9.4
Received Special
Education e
No 1444 90.6 1016 92.7
Yes 150 9.4 80 7.3
a
Χ2 (2, N = 2,690) = 13.65, p = .001, Cramer’s V = .07
b
Χ2 (1, N = 2,690) = 0.59, p = .45, Cramer’s V = .02
c
Χ2 (2, N = 2,690) = 0.37, p = .83, Cramer’s V = .01
d
Χ2 (1, N = 2,690) = 5.55, p = .02, Cramer’s V = .05
e
Χ2 (1, N = 2,690) = 3.70, p = .05, Cramer’s V = .04
74
Table 3 continued
Variable Category Comparison Language

n % n %
f
ELL Services
No 1586 99.5 1037 94.6
Yes 8 0.5 59 5.4
g
Race/Ethnicity
Caucasians 809 50.8 485 44.3
African- 630 39.5 406 37.0
Americans
Others 155 9.7 205 18.7

f
Χ2 (1, N = 2,690) = 63.72, p = .001, Cramer’s V = .15
g
Χ2 (2, N = 2,690) = 45.88, p = .001, Cramer’s V = .13
Table 4 displays the results of the chi-square tests
comparing the two schools on their proficiency levels on
four standardized tests. For the three year aggregated
data, no differences were noted between the two schools for
reading level (V = .02, p = .51). The Spanish language
school had more students in the “below proficient range”
for math (5.7% versus 3.5%, V = .06, p = .01), science
(6.9% versus 5.0%, V = .05, p = .05), and social studies
(6.8% versus 4.5%, V = .05, p = .03).

75
Table 4
Frequency Counts for Sub-Test Proficiency Levels. Chi-

Square Tests of Significance (N = 2,690)
Sub-Test Proficiency Comparison Language

Level
n % n %
a
Reading
Below 47 2.9 41 3.7
Proficient 591 37.1 398 36.3
Advanced 956 60.0 657 59.9
b
Math
Below 55 3.5 62 5.7
Proficient 596 37.4 379 34.6
Advanced 943 59.2 655 59.8
c
Science
Below 80 5.0 76 6.9
Proficient 715 44.9 454 41.4
Advanced 799 50.1 566 51.6
d
Social Studies
Below 72 4.5 75 6.8
Proficient 699 43.9 463 42.2
Advanced 823 51.6 558 50.9
a
Χ2 (2, N = 2,690) = 1.34, p = .51, Cramer’s V = .02
b
Χ2 (2, N = 2,690) = 8.72, p = .01, Cramer’s V = .06
c
Χ2 (2, N = 2,690) = 6.16, p = .05, Cramer’s V = .05
d
Χ2 (2, N = 2,690) = 6.88, p = .03, Cramer’s V = .05
76
Differences in Proficiency Levels as
Measured by One-Way ANOVAs
The data for the three years for the two schools were
grouped into six categories. The categories within this
school/year combination variable were compared for the four
standardized test results using one-way ANOVAs and Scheffe
post hoc tests (see Table 5). In addition, eta
coefficients were calculated as an index of the strength of
association between the two variables. Significant
differences were noted between the six school/year
categories for reading test scores (F = 2.19, p = .05,
eta = .06). However, results of the Scheffe post hoc tests
indicated no significant differences between the groups at
the p < .10 level.
No significant differences were noted for math scores
(F = 0.84, p = .52, eta = .04). Science scores were
significantly different between the six school-year
categories (F = 4.33, p = .001, eta = .09). Post hoc tests
indicated that Group Two (Spanish School – 2005) had lower
science scores than Group Five (Comparison School – 2007)
(p = .07) and Group Six (Spanish School – 2007) (p = .02).
The students’ social studies scores were significantly
different among the six school-year categories (F = 4.83,

77
p = .001, eta = .09). Post hoc tests indicated that Group
Five (Comparison School – 2007) had significantly higher
scores than Group One (p = .02), Group Two (p = .001),
Group Three (p = .08), and Group Four (p = .07) (see Table
5).
Table 5
Test Scores Based on School/Year Combination. One Way ANOVA

& Scheffe Post Hoc Tests (N= 2,690)
Test School n M SD Eta F p

Year a
b
Reading .06 2.19 .05
1. C-2005 533 517.97 32.26
2. S-2005 419 515.81 37.41
3. C-2006 567 512.54 33.37
4. S-2006 317 514.55 32.17
5. C-2007 494 517.60 30.72
6. S-2007 360 517.83 32.92
c
Math .04 .84 .52
1. C-2005 533 511.39 38.88
2. S-2005 419 508.97 40.43
3. C-2006 567 508.49 38.10
4. S-2006 317 511.33 38.02
5. C-2007 494 512.57 37.15
6. S-2007 360 511.43 39.59
a
Codes: C = Comparison School S = Spanish School.
b
Scheffe Tests: No significant differences at p < .10.
c
Scheffe Tests: No significant differences at p < .10.
78
Table 5 continued
Test School N M SD Eta F p

Year a
d
Science .09 4.33 .001
1. C-2005 533 215.52 17.93
2. S-2005 419 213.76 17.88
3. C-2006 567 214.95 18.49
4. S-2006 317 214.32 19.58
5. C-2007 494 217.73 19.01
6. S-2007 360 218.57 19.04
Social .09 4.83 .001
e
Studies
1. C-2005 533 214.38 15.45
2. S-2005 419 213.32 15.71
3. C-2006 567 215.02 17.29
4. S-2006 317 214.42 16.89
5. C-2007 494 218.25 16.43
6. S-2007 360 215.79 19.04
a
Codes: C = Comparison School S = Spanish School.
d
Scheffe Tests: Group 2 < Group 5 (p = .07); Group 2 <
Group 6 (p = .02); no other differences significant at the
p < .10 level.

e
Scheffe Post Hoc Tests: Group 5 was higher than: Group 1
(p = .02); Group 2 (p = .001); Group 3 (p = .08); and Group
4 (p = .07); no other differences were significant at
the p < .10 level.

79
Findings
Null Hypothesis 1
There will be no statistically significant difference
between academic achievement in math of the students who
participated in the FLES* program and students who did not
participate in the FLES* program.
To test this hypothesis, a two-way ANCOVA was
performed for the math scores. The independent variables
used in this test were grade level and school/year
Combination.
The covariates used to test Null Hypothesis 1 were
race and whether the child received either or both special
education and English Language Learner (ELL) services (see
Table 6). Partial eta squared coefficients were also
calculated to measure the unique amount of variance in the
dependent variable that was accounted for after controlling
for all other potential sources of variance.

80
Table 6
Analysis of Math Scores Based on School/Year Combination

and Grade Level Controlling for Certain Variables, Two Way
ANCOVA (N = 2,690)
Source SS Df MS F P η2
Full Model 1,386,601 20 69,330 70.38 .001 .35

a
Race 52,141 1 52,141 52.93 .001 .02
Special 242,762 1 242,762 246.44 .001 .08

b
Education
b
ELL 2126 1 2126 2.16 .140 .00
Grade Levelc 1,005,033 2 502,516 510.13 .001 .28
School/Year 10,522 5 2104 2.14 .060 .00

Combination
Grade Level 21,476 10 2148 2.18 .020 .01

& School/
Year
Combination
Error 2,629,141 2669 985
Total 4,015,741 2689

a
Race: 0 = Others, 1 = Caucasians
b
Coding: 0 = No, 1 = Yes
c
Scores by grade: Third (M = 488.54), Fourth (M = 507.64)
and Fifth (M = 536.56)
81
As displayed in Table 6, the overall model was
significant (p = .001) and accounted for 35% of the
variance in math scores. The covariates of race (p = .001)
and special education participation (p = .001) were
significant, but ELL participation was not (p = .14). The
main effect for grade level was significant (p = .001, 28%
of the variance explained) with substantial mean
differences among the three grade levels: third grade (M =
488.54), fourth grade (M = 507.64), and fifth grade (M =
536.56). The main effect for school/year combination just
failed to reach statistical significance (p = .06), but a
significant grade level X school/year combination
interaction effect was found (p = .02). Because this
interaction was significant, Null Hypothesis 1 was
rejected.
It should be noted that though this interaction was
statistically significant and Null Hypothesis 1 was
rejected, the partial eta squared coefficient indicated
that this source only accounted for 1% of the variance in
math scores. The predicted math scores for this
interaction are displayed in Table 7 and a related line
graph is displayed in Figure 1.

82
Table 7
Predicted Math Scores for School/Year Combination and Grade
Grade School/Year M SE
Third
1. C-2005 488.24 2.33
2. S-2005 490.10 2.67
3. C-2006 480.88 2.28
4. S-2006 491.60 3.21
5. C-2007 490.25 2.33
6. S-2007 490.19 2.76
Fourth
1. C-2005 505.28 2.38
2. S-2005 503.07 2.67
3. C-2006 509.16 2.24
4. S-2006 508.30 3.03
5. C-2007 511.42 2.60
6. S-2007 508.59 3.06
Fifth
1. C-2005 541.65 2.37
2. S-2005 531.64 2.65
3. C-2006 535.75 2.33
4. S-2006 531.83 2.96
5. C-2007 538.38 2.43
6. S-2007 540.09 2.94
Note: C = Comparison School S = Spanish School
83
540
Grade
3
4
5
520
500
480
Comp- Span- Comp- Span- Comp- Span-

2005 2005 2006 2006 2007 2007
School and Year
Note: Comp = Comparison School Span = Spanish School
Figure 1. Predicted math scores based on School/Year

Combination and grade (N = 2,690).
84
Null Hypothesis 2
between academic achievement in reading/Language Arts of
the students who participated in the FLES* program and
students who did not participate in the FLES* program.
To test this hypothesis, a two-way ANCOVA test was
performed for the reading/Language Arts scores. As with
Null Hypothesis 1, the independent variables used in Null
Hypothesis 2 were grade level and the school/year
combination. As before, the covariates were race and
whether the child received either or both special education
and English Language Learner (ELL) services (see Table 8).
As is the case with each hypothesis tested in this study,
the covariates were controlled for to determine the effect
the independent variables had on the dependent variable, if
the covariates were a non-factor.

85
Table 8
Analysis of Reading Scores Based on School/Year Combination

and Grade Level, Controlling for Selected Variables, Two
Way ANCOVA (N = 2,690)
Source SS df MS F p η2
Full Model 790,087 20 39,504 48.54 .001 .27

a
Race 55,771 1 55,771 68.52 .001 .03
Special 191,942 1 191,942 235.83 .001 .08

b
Education
b
ELL 93 1 93 0.11 .740 .00
Grade Levelc 483,324 2 241,662 296.91 .001 .18
School/Year 17,193 5 3439 4.22 .001 .00

Combination
Grade Level 16,145 10 1615 1.98 .030 .01

& School/
Year
Combination
Error 2,172,334 2669 814
Total 2,962,421 2689
a
Race: 0 = Others, 1 = Caucasians
b
Coding: 0 = No, 1 = Yes
c
Scores by grade: Third (M = 502.33), Fourth (M = 511.40),
and Fifth (M = 534.85)
86
The overall model was significant (p = .001) and
accounted for 27% of the variance in reading scores. The
covariates of race (p = .001) and special education
participation (p = .001) were significant but ELL
participation (p = .74) was not. The main effect for grade
level was significant (p = .001, 18% of the variance
explained) with substantial mean differences between the
three grade levels: Third (M = 502.33), Fourth (M = 511.40)
and Fifth (M = 534.85). The main effect for the school/year
combination was significant (p = .001, 1% of the variance).
In addition, a significant grade level X school/year
combination interaction effect was found (p = .03, 1% of
the variance). Therefore, Null Hypothesis 2 was rejected.
The predicted reading scores for this interaction are
displayed in Table 9 and a related line graph is displayed
in Figure 2.
87
Table 9
Predicted Reading Scores for School/Year Combination and
Grade
Third
1. C-2005 505.83 2.12
2. S-2005 504.23 2.42
3. C-2006 492.75 2.07
4. S-2006 501.05 2.92
5. C-2007 501.95 2.12
6. S-2007 508.14 2.51
Fourth
1. C-2005 512.96 2.17
2. S-2005 507.56 2.42
3. C-2006 511.23 2.04
4. S-2006 507.83 2.75
5. C-2007 513.52 2.36
6. S-2007 515.31 2.78
Fifth
1. C-2005 534.91 2.15
2. S-2005 533.08 2.41
3. C-2006 533.23 2.12
4. S-2006 533.62 2.69
5. C-2007 538.39 2.21
6. S-2007 535.87 2.68
88
540
530 Grade
3
4
520 5
510
500
490

2005 2005 2006 2006 2007 2007
School and Year
Note. Comp = Comparison School Span = Spanish School
Figure 2. Predicted reading scores based on School/Year

89
Null Hypothesis 3
between academic achievement in science of the students who
participated in the FLES* program and students who did not
participate in the FLES* program.
To test this hypothesis, a two-way ANCOVA test was
performed using grade level and school/year combination as
the independent variables. The covariates were race and
whether the child received either or both special education
and English Language Learner (ELL) services.
The overall model of Null Hypothesis 3 was significant
(p = .001). The overall model accounted for 14% of the
variance in science scores. The covariates of race (p =
.001), special education participation (p = .001) and ELL
participation (p = .002) were all significant. The main
effect for grade level was significant (p = .001, 3% of the
variance explained) as was the main effect for School/Year
Combination (p = .001, 1% of the variance). In addition, a
significant grade level X school/year combination
interaction effect was found (p = .001, 2% of the variance)
and the Null Hypothesis was rejected. The predicted
science scores for this interaction are displayed in Table
10 and a related line graph is displayed in Figure 3.

90
Table 10
Analysis of Science Scores Based on School/Year Combination

and Grade Level Controlling for Selected Variables, Two Way
ANCOVA (N = 2,690)
Full Model 133,429 20 6671 22.21 .001 .14

a
Race 35,564 1 35,564 118.40 .001 .04
Special 45,498 1 45,498 151.47 .001 .05

b
Education
b
ELL 2970 1 2970 9.89 .002 .00
Grade Level 21,151 2 10,576 35.21 .001 .03
School/Year 8750 5 1750 5.83 .001 .01

Combination
Grade Level 16,610 10 1661 5.53 .001 .02

& School/
Year
Combination
Error 801,705 2669 300
Total 935,133 2689

a
Race: 0 = Others 1 = Caucasians
b
Coding: 0 = No 1 = Yes
91
Table 11
Predicted Science Scores for School/Year Combination and
Grade
Third
1. C-2005 214.42 1.29
2. S-2005 214.37 1.47
3. C-2006 210.67 1.26
4. S-2006 217.75 1.77
5. C-2007 211.69 1.29
6. S-2007 214.52 1.52
Fourth
1. C-2005 210.81 1.32
2. S-2005 212.11 1.47
3. C-2006 213.93 1.24
4. S-2006 210.81 1.67
5. C-2007 216.37 1.44
6. S-2007 219.31 1.69
Fifth
1. C-2005 220.72 1.31
2. S-2005 213.76 1.46
3. C-2006 220.14 1.29
4. S-2006 216.30 1.63
5. C-2007 225.84 1.34
6. S-2007 23.23 1.63
92
230
Grade
225
3
4
5
220
215
210

2005 2005 2006 2006 2007 2007
School and Year
Figure 3. Predicted science scores based on School/Year

93
Null Hypothesis 4
between academic achievement in social studies of the
students who participated in the FLES* program and students
who did not participate in the FLES* program.
To test Null Hypothesis 4, a two-way ANCOVA was
performed for the social studies scores. The overall model
for Null Hypothesis 4 was significant (p = .001) and
accounted for 14% of the variance in social studies scores.
(see Table 12). The covariates of race (p = .001) and
special education participation (p = .001) were
significant, but ELL participation (p = .15) was not. The
main effect for grade level was significant (p = .001, 2%
of the variance explained), as was the main effect for
school/year combination (p = .001, 1% of the variance). In
addition, a significant grade level X school/year
combination interaction effect was found (p = .001, 2% of
the variance), thus rejecting the Null Hypothesis. The
predicted social studies scores for this interaction are
displayed in Table 13 and a related line graph is displayed
in Figure 4.
94
Table 12
Analysis of Social Studies Scores Based on School/Year

Combination and Grade Level Controlling for Selected
Variables, Two Way ANCOVA (N = 2,690)
Full Model 106,515 20 5326 21.77 .001 .14

a
Race 13,611 1 13,611 55.63 .001 .02
Special 57,515 1 57,515 235.08 .001 .08

b
Education
b
ELL 505 1 505 2.06 .15 .00
Grade Level 13,516 2 6758 27.62 .001 .02
School/Year 7520 5 1504 6.15 .001 .01

Combination
Grade Level 11,901 10 1190 4.86 .001 .02

& School/
Year
Combination
Error 653,015 2669 245
Total 759,531 2689

a
Race: 0 = Others 1 = Caucasians
b
Coding: 0 = No 1 = Yes
95
Table 13
Predicted Social Studies Scores for School/Year Combination

and Grade (N = 2,690)
Third
1. C-2005 214.27 1.16
2. S-2005 215.16 1.33
3. C-2006 211.30 1.14
4. S-2006 217.81 1.60
5. C-2007 214.86 1.16
6. S-2007 214.59 1.38
Fourth
1. C-2005 209.97 1.19
2. S-2005 211.50 1.33
3. C-2006 213.79 1.12
4. S-2006 211.56 1.51
5. C-2007 216.06 1.30
6. S-2007 213.73 1.52
Fifth
1. C-2005 218.98 1.18
2. S-2005 212.40 1.32
3. C-2006 219.75 1.16
4. S-2006 214.76 1.47
5. C-2007 224.14 1.21
6. S-2007 219.92 1.47
96
225
Grade
220
3
4
5
215
210
205

2005 2005 2006 2006 2007 2007
School and Year
Figure 4. Predicted social studies scores based on

School/Year Combination and grade (N = 2,690).
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
Several research studies indicate that student
participation in FLES* programs improves student
performance in core subject areas (Armstrong & Rogers,
1997; Donoghue, 1965; Johnston et al., 1961, 1963; Lopato,
1963; Marcos, 1998; Potts, 1967; Saunders, 1998; Taylor-
Ward, 2003). In the last twenty years, the move towards
foreign language teaching in elementary schools has
increased dramatically (National Directory, n.d.). From
1987 to 1997, there was a 48% increase in the number of
elementary schools offering foreign language programs; the
figures were 21% of schools in 1987 and 31% in 1997
(Foreign Language Enrollments, 2006; Rhodes & Branaman,
1999). There are approximately four million students in
elementary schools in the United States involved in some
type of foreign language program (Rhodes & Branaman, 1999).

98
Tennessee, the TCAP. This study included the use of one-way
ANOVA to outline the details of the collected data. Two-way
ANCOVAs were also used to control certain covariates and
predict the effect of student participation in FLES*
programs on student achievement.
Findings
Research Question 1 was linked to Null Hypothesis 1.
Null Hypothesis was tested using a two-way ANCOVA. The
results of the test showed a statistically significant
difference in student performance on the math TCAP sub-test
between students who did and students who did not
participate in FLES* programs. Even though there was a
statistically significant difference (p = .02), an
examination of the partial eta squared revealed that this
difference was not educationally relevant. The partial eta
squared was measured at .01 which means it only accounts
for 1% of the variance. This means that 1% of the
differences in math scores between the two groups is
attributed to student participation in the FLES* programs
and 99% is attributed to other variables.

99
Null Hypothesis 2 was tested using a two-way ANCOVA. The
difference in student performance on the reading/Language
Arts TCAP sub-test between students who did and students
who did not participate in FLES* programs (p =.03). Again,
even though there was a statistically significant
difference with a partial eta squared of .01, this
difference was simply not educationally relevant as only 1%
of the variance was explained.
Null Hypothesis 3 was tested using a two-way ANCOVA. The
difference in student performance on the science TCAP sub-
test between students who did and students who did not
examination of the partial eta squared (.02) revealed that
this difference was not educationally relevant as only 2%
of the variance was accounted for.
Research question 4 was linked to Null Hypothesis 4.
Null Hypothesis 4 was tested using a two-way ANCOVA.
Results showed a statistically significant difference in

100
student performance on the social studies TCAP sub-test
between students who did and students who did not
examination of the partial eta squared (.02) revealed that
this difference was not educationally relevant.
Conclusions
The current study found that statistically significant
differences existed between students who did and students
who did not participate in the FLES* program in regards to
student achievement in math, reading/Language Arts, science
and social studies. Although these findings were
statistically significant, analyses of the partial eta
squared of each subtest revealed that they were not
statistically relevant to the educational setting.
Isolation of the covariates of race, special education
participation and ELL participation illustrated that
participation in the FLES* program did not account for more
than 2% of the variance.
These findings support those of some earlier studies,
specifically the landmark study of Rafferty in 1986. Both
studies found statistically significant differences in
academic achievement between FLES* participants and non

101
participants in Language arts and math sub-tests of the
respective standardized tests. Armstrong and Rogers (1997)
showed similar results in math improvement. In that study,
as with this one, both groups showed a statistically
significant difference in math achievement. This result was
also supported by Saunders’s study of 1998 and Taylor-
Ward’s study of 2003.
This study showed a statistically significant
difference in Language arts/Reading achievement between
students who participated in FLES* programs and those who
did not. These results mirror those of Grafinkel and Tabor
(1991), Taylor-Ward (2003), and Armstrong and Rogers
(1997).
In this study, possible explanations for the limited
relevance of student participation in FLES* programs to
student achievement could be linked to different variables.
The first could be dosage. In this study, the FLES*
participants only had 90 minutes of contact time per week
with the target language. A larger amount of time spent in
the FLES* program could very easily increase the effects of
FLES* participation on student achievement.
This study covered the period of three testing years.
Student participation through five testing years (the

102
maximum number of years a student could spend in an
elementary school level FLES* program) could reveal a more
prominent trend and a stronger educational relevance and
practical significance.
Recommendations for the Profession
Even though the nation and particularly the state of
Tennessee are extremely focused on standardized test
scores, schools should always consider the overall
development of the child. Any programs that can improve the
overall development of a child and not lower student
performance on standardized tests should be considered.
This study supports the theory that FLES* programs are
examples of those programs, and therefore, the specific
FLES* program used in this study should be retained. The
school and program administration should also consider that
the amount of time spent in the program could be increased
for each child.
Several theorists suggest that second language
learning has several cognitive benefits (Bamford &
Mizokawa, 1991; Curtain, 1990; Hamayan, 1986; Marcos, 1998;
Villano, 1996). Perhaps if all elementary schools should
consider hiring one full time foreign language instructor
so elementary students could be exposed to other cultures

103
and could begin second language learning at an early age,
thus increasing the cognitive learning of the students. In
doing so, the academic achievement of the students would
not suffer and could possibly increase.
Most FLES* programs do not meet every day. By
implementing a program where students meet for thirty
minutes, two to three times per week, a school could have a
high quality FLES* program and not lose a large amount of
class time in core subjects.
Recommendations for Future Research
This research did not address several aspects of FLES*
participation and student achievement that could be
considered for further research studies. One recommendation
for future research is to study the achievement of students
who participate daily in FLES* classes or students who
participate for longer periods of time. The FLES*
participants in this study had approximately 90 minutes of
contact time per week with the target language. This time
period included either one or two class meetings per week,
listening to daily announcements in the target language and
watching videos in the target language. A more accurate
analysis of the effects of FLES* participation on student
achievement could be determined by studying students who

104
participated in FLES* programs on a daily basis rather than
two-three times per week.
Secondly, this study neglected to consider the effects
that student participation in immersion programs had on
student achievement. Immersion programs differ from FLES
programs in that the participants in these programs are
taught core subject areas totally in the target language
for part of or all day. A future research suggestion would
be to study the effects of participation in immersion
programs on student achievement. Does student
participation in foreign language immersion programs effect
academic achievement? Specifically, how does student
participation in immersion programs effect academic
achievement on the sub-tests of standardized tests such as
math, reading/Language Arts, science, and social studies.
Another aspect of this research is the variable of
time. The longevity of this program is rather short, three
years. Therefore, it may be helpful if future studies
followed one group of students who participate in FLES
programs throughout their school career in order to analyze
the effects of participation on the students’ performance
over a period of time. In this longitudinal study, student
achievement could be measured each year for a number of

105
years to analyze if long-term participation in FLES*
programs had an effect on academic achievement. College
attendance and career choices could be analyzed as well.
Lastly, repeated measures were not analyzed during
this study. Due to data limitations, it was not possible to
analyze the effects of participation in FLES* programs on
any one particular individual over the course of time. If
the data are available, a study that includes repeated
measures could be a more descriptive analysis of the
effects of participation in FLES* programs on student
performance.
106
REFERENCES
Andersson, T. (1969). Foreign languages in elementary
school. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
Armstrong, P., & Rogers, D. (1997). Basic skills revisited:
The effects of foreign language instruction on
reading, math, and language arts. Learning Languages,
2(3), 20- 31.
Bamford, K., & Mizokawa, D. (1991). Additive-bilingual
(immersion) education: Cognitive and language
development. Language Learning, 41(3), 413- 429.
Bradshaw, J. (2006). $12.9 million in grants awarded for
critical foreign language instruction. Retrieved
December 19, 2006, from
http://www.ed.gov/news/pressreleases/2006/10/10132006a
.html
Caldas, S., & Boudreaux, N. (1999). Poverty, race, and
foreign language immersion: Predictors of math and
English language arts performance. Learning Languages,
5, 4-14.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the
behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Atlantic City, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum.
107
Cooper, T. (1987). Foreign language study and SAT-verbal
scores. Modern Language Journal, 71(4), 381-387.
Curtain, H. (1990). Foreign language learning: An early
start. Eric Digest. Retrieved December 4, 2006, from
http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9218/start.htm
Curtain, H., & Pesola, C. (1994). Languages and children
making the match: Foreign language instruction for an
early start grades K-8. White Plains, NY: Longman.
Davis-Wiley, P. (n.d.). Tennessee NNELL home page.
Retrieved February 18, 2008, from
http://web.utk.edu/~wiley/NNELL.html
Donoghue, M. (1965). What research tells us about the
effects of FLES. Hispania, 45, 555-558.
Dumas, L. S. (1999). Learning a second language: Exposing
your child to a new world of words boosts her
brainpower, vocabulary, and self-esteem. Child,
72(74), 76-77.
Eddy, P. (1981). The effect of foreign language study in
high school on verbal ability as measured by the
Scholastic Aptitude Test-Verbal. Washington, DC:
Center for Applied Linguistics.

108
Ember, S. (2004). Education report: Foreign language
learning in the United States. Retrieved November 11,
2006, from
http://www.voanews.com/specialenglish/archive/2004-
04/a-2004-04-21-3-1.cfm
Foreign Language Enrollments. (2006). Retrieved November
12, 2006, from
http://www.actfl.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=3382
Garfinkel, A., & Tabor, K. (1991). Elementary school
foreign languages and English reading achievement: A
new view of the relationship. Foreign Language Annals,
24, 375-382.
Genesee, F. (1985). Second language learning through
immersion: A review of U.S. programs. Review of
Educational Research, 55(4) 541-561.
Grittner, F. (1977). Teaching foreign languages. New York,
NY: Harper & Row.
Hakuta, K. (1985). Cognitive developments in bilingual
instruction. Issues in English Language Development,
63-67. Retrieved December 9, 2006, from
http://faculty.ucmerced.edu/khakuta/research/publicati
ons.html
109
Hamayan, E. (1986). The need for foreign language
competence in the United States. ERIC Digest. (ERIC
Document Reproduction Service No. ED276304)
House of Representatives. (2001). Report of the House
Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence. Retrieved
April 17, 2007, from
http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2001_rpt/hrep107-
219.html
Jesness, J. (2002, November 28). Not just for foreigners
anymore. Education Week, 32-34.
Johnson, C., Ellison F., & Flores, J. (1961). The effect of
foreign language instruction on basic learning in
elementary schools. The Modern Language Journal,
45(5), 200-202.
Johnson, C., Flores, J., & Ellison, F. (1963). The effect
of foreign language instruction on basic learning in
elementary schools: A second report. The Modern
Language Journal, 47(1), 8-11.
Kim, K. H., Relkin, N. R., Lee, K. M., & Hirsch. (1997).
Distinct cortical areas associated with native and
second languages. Nature, 388(6638), 171-174.
Kirk, R.E. (1978). Statistics an introduction. (4th ed.)
Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace College.

110
Lang, M. (1990). Elementary grade-level foreign language
studies and student performance on reading and
language arts tests: A study of relationship by the
Bureau of Pupil Accountability for the Bureau of
Academic Support. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisana Department
of Education.
Lantolf, J. P. (2001). A century of language teaching and
research: Looking back and looking ahead, part 2. The
Modern Language Journal, 85, 5-25.
Lipton, G. C. (1990). A look back…a look ahead. Hispania,
73, 255-258.
Lipton, G. C. (1994). What is FLES* methodology?: An
overview. Hispania, 77, 876-887.
Lipton, G. C. (1998). Practical handbook to elementary
foreign language programs (FLES*). Lincolnwood, IL:
National Textbook Company.
Lopato, E. (1963). FLES and academic achievement. French
Review, 36, 499-507.
Macon Hall Elementary School. (2007). Home page. Shelby
County School System. Retrieved October 24, 2007, from
http://www.scsk12.org/SCS/elementary/Macon_Hall/maconh
allhome.html
111
MacRae, M. (1957). Teaching Spanish in the grades. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin.
Malone, M., Rifkin, B., Christian, D., & Johnson, D. E.
(2004). Attaining high levels of proficiency:
Challenges for language education in the United
States. Journal for Distinguished Language Studies, 2,
67-88. Retrieved April 17, 2007,
http://www.cal.org/resources/digest/attain/html
Marcos, K. M. (1998). Second language learning: Everyone
can benefit. The ERIC Review, 6(1), 2-5. Retrieved
April 17, 2007, from
http://www.cal.org/earlylang/benefits/marcos.html
McGrath, E. J. (1952). Language studies and world affairs.
The Modern Language Journal, 36(5), 205-209.
Narea, A. W. (2004). Effects of foreign language learning
in elementary schools on students’ future educational
and career choices. Chicago, IL: Depaul University.
Nash, J. M. (1997). Special report: Fertile minds. Time,
149(5). Retrieved April 17, 2007, from
http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,98585
4,00.html
112
National Association of State Boards of Education. (2003a).
Policy update: Foreign language education. Retrieved
June 25, 2003, from http://www.nasbe.org
National Directory of Early Foreign Language Programs.
(n.d.a). Retrieved April 17, 2007, from
http://www.cal.org/resources/earlyfl/
National Network for Early Language Learning. (n.d.b).
Home. Retrieved February 18, 2008, from
http://nnell.org/index.php
Popham, W. (2005). F for assessment: Standardized testing
fails. Retrieved February 13, 2008, from
http://www.edutopia.org/f-for-assessment
Potts, M. (1967). The effect of second language instruction
on the reading proficiency and general school
achievement of primary grade children. American
Educational Research Journal, 4, 367-373.
Publication Manual of the American Psychological
Association (5th ed.). (2001). Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.
Pufahl, I., Rhodes, N. C., & Christian, D. (2000). Foreign
language teaching: What the United States can learn
from other countries. Washington, DC: Center for
Applied Linguisticss.
113
Rafferty, E. (1986). Second language study and basic skills
in Louisiana. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana Department of
Education.
Rhodes, N., & Branaman, L. (1999). Foreign language
instruction in the United States: A national survey of
elementary and secondary schools. McHenry, IL: Center
for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems Co., Inc.
Rhodes, N., Tucker, G., & Clark, J. (1981) Elementary
school foreign language instruction in the United
States: Innovative approaches for the 1980s (Report
No. 000-80-02125). Washington, DC: Center for Applied
Linguistics. (Eric document Reproduction Service No.
ED 209 940)
Rudner, L. M. & Schafer, W.D.(2001). Reliability. Retrieved
June 11, 2008, from www.ericdigests.org/2002-
2/reliablity.htm
Saunders, C. M. (1998). The effect of the study of a
foreign language in elementary school on scores on the
Iowa Test of Basic Skills and an analysis of student-
participant attitudes and abilities (Doctoral
Dissertation, University of Georgia, 1998). (UMI No.
9836979)
114
Schrier, L. L. (2002). A teacher educator responds. The
Modern Language Journal, 86(4), 609-610.
Schuster, B. G. (2005). Did a foreign language in the
elementary schools (FLES) program in a Kansas school
district affect students’ academic achievement in
English? Foreign Language Annals, 38(3), 344-356.
Shelby County Schools System. (n.d.). General information.
Retrieved Oct 22, 2007, from http://www.scsk12.org/
Sycamore Elementary School. (n.d.). Home page. Shelby
County School System. Retrieved January 12, 2006, from
http://www.scsk12.org/SCS/elementary/Sycamore/default.
htm
Taylor-Ward, C. J. (2003) The relationship between
elementary school foreign language study in grades
three through five and academic achievement on the
Iowa Tests of Basic Skills (ITBS) and the fourth grade
Louisiana Educational Assessment Program for the 21st
century (LEAP 21) test (Doctoral dissertation,
Louisiana State University and Agriculture and
Mechanical College, 2003). (UMI NO. 3135625)

115
Tennessee Department of Education. (n.d.a). Achievement
tests. Retrieved May 19, 2007, from
http://tennessee.gov/education/assessment/tsachhome.sh
tml
Tennessee Department of Education. (n.d.b). Comprehensive
achievement program. Retrieved December 3, 2007, from
http://tennessee.gov/education/assessment/doc/ach_tam.
pdf
Tennessee Department of Education. (n.d.c). Frequently
asked questions. Retrieved May 19, 2007, from
http://tennessee.gov/education/assessment/tsachfaq.sht
ml
Tennessee Department of Education. (n.d.d). Macon Hall
Elementary School report card 2007. Retrieved October
18, 2007, from
https://edu.warehouse.state.tn.us/pls/apex/f?p=222:1:6
5113210072352::NO
Tennessee Department of Education. (n.d.e). Sycamore
Elementary School report card 2007. Retrieved October
18, 2007, from
https://edu.warehouse.state.tn.us/pls/apex/f?p=222:1:6
5113210072352::NO
116
Tennessee Department of Education. (n.d.f). Official
website of the state of Tennessee. Retrieved June 17,
2007, from http://tennessee.gov/education
Tucker G., R., & Donato, R. (2001). Implementing a
district-wide foreign language program: A case study
of acquisition planning and curriculum innovation.
Retrieved October 9, 2006, from
http://www.cal.org/resources/digest/0103implement.html
U. S. Census Bureau. (n.d.). Population finder. Retrieved
October 1, 2007, from http://www.census.gov/
U. S. Congress, The National Defense Education Act of 1958.
Pub. L. 85-864.
U. S. Department of Education, Goals 2000: Educate America
Act of 1994. Pub. L.103-227.
U. S. Department of Education, No Child Left Behind Act of
2001. Pub. L. 107-110.
Villano, D. (1996). Heads up: Time to go bilingual?
Smartkid, 1(4), 45-49.
Weatherford, H. (1986). Personal benefits of foreign
language study. Washington, DC: Center for Applied
Linguistics. (ERIC document Reproduction Service No.
ED276305)
117
APPENDIX
SCHOOL SYSTEM’S INFORMED CONSENT

118

Grimes, The Effects of Student Participation in FLES

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Grimes, The Effects of Student Participation in FLES

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Grimes, The Effects of Student Participation in FLES

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

THE EFFECTS OF STUDENT PARTICIPATION IN FLES* PROGRAMS ON

STANDARDIZED TEST SCORES

Submitted to the Graduate School

Tennessee State University

Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of

Graduate Research Series No. ____________

All rights reserved

STANDARDIZED TEST SCORES

Submitted to the Graduate School

Tennessee State University

Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of

All rights reserved

We are submitting a dissertation by Justin C. Grimes

entitled “The Effects of Student Participation in FLES*

Programs on Standardized Test Scores.” We recommend that it

be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for

the degree, Doctor of Education in Educational

Accepted for the Graduate School:

Alex Sekwat__ ______

This is dedicated to my wife and son. Samantha, thank

look forward to every day we spend together. I love you.

you will ever know.

There are many people who helped make this study

possible. First would be Shelly Misenheimer. She showed

tremendous patience as she very politely invited me to her

classroom to observe her outstanding FLES* program and

repeatedly answered my questions regarding FLES* programs

in general. Had it not been for her assistance and the

assistance of her co-worker, Katherine Perry, this project

would have never been possible.

A special thanks to each member of my committee. I

appreciate them giving their time and effort to make this

possible. I especially would like to thank my advisor, Dr.

Denise Dunbar. She agreed to work with me on this project

when I was afraid nobody would. Her guidance and patience

have been invaluable.

Thank you to Dr. Ramón Magráns. Without him, I don’t

know where I would be today.

I would like to recognize both my current and former

students. They have politely listened to hours and hours of

boring stories regarding my dissertation and “my book.”

Fortunately for them, I am finished and can now bore them

with hours and hours of new stories.

Thank you to my good friend, Robert French, who has

offered support and encouragement when I wanted to quit

this project (several times). I appreciate you inspiring me

“tutoring” he provided to help get this done!

Most importantly, thank you to my parents and their

always given me. I am grateful to all of you for always

encouraging me, no matter what I endeavor I took on.

JUSTIN C. GRIMES. The Effects of Student Participation in

This research studied the possible effects of student

participation in foreign language programs in elementary

schools on student performance on standardized tests. This

studied compared groups of students from two different

schools. One group participated in a structured foreign

language program; the other group did not participate in

Alex Sekwat ____