EARTH’S

ATMOSPHERE

FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS
AERODYNAMICS

• It is the study of the motion of air and of the forces on solids in motion
relative to the air.
• The science relating to the effects produced by air or other gases in
motion.
• The study of properties of moving air, and especially of the interaction
between the air and solid bodies moving through it.

FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
• Variation of Temperature with Altitude increasing
attitude ; decreasing temperature
=
• Spheroidal gaseous envelope surrounding a heavenly body.
• ALL AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS are calibrated for the standard atmosphere.
0 94 % 004 %
① Helium O
.

GOKMEXEPT%4E-q.gg
-

ᵈ""
-

03 "
→ constant UP to
'

0
p 0012-1
.

o
peon
-
.
.

↑ Nitrous oxide
Krypton Hydrogen 9 gy,µm
1 ,
, ,,
""" """
""" " ""
""" "

°→•,µ
iodine sooner
dboe this height → gravitational separation

beww3• Water vapor

• most important gas in the atmosphere
18.031 '
• found up to 30 000 ft
• At higher temperature; the greater amount of
water vapor it can hold.

FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS
STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

• Troposphere
• Stratosphere
• Mesosphere
• Thermosphere
• Exosphere

TED
FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS
TROPOSPHERE
• NEAREST to the Earth’s atmosphere. i¥¥↑
• Consists of ¾ of the total atmosphere in weight
→
↑+mI

=
• Temperature increases from pole to equator.
• Between 5 to 9 miles.
• NORMAL AVIATION ACTIVITIES take place.

• “Tropos”
• CHANGE
• Weather of the atmosphere
which is constantly changing
and gasses mixing.

FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS
STRATOSPHERE →
hasitsownlay#
• No hurricanes or disturbances mixing up in the air.
• 35 km thick.

②
• Important for radio communication purposes.
• Ionized layer.
temperate
• Where ozone layer is found.

÷ :
• “Strat”
• LAYER
• Has its own layers.
• Cold at the bottom, warm at the
top.

FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS
MESOSPHERE
• THIN still air.
• 35 km wide.
• Meteors burn up on this layer.
-

• “Meso”
• MIDDLE
• Highest layer where gases are
all mixed together.

FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS
THERMOSPHERE vwr-
→

• About 513 km thick.

0
• International Space Station.
• Satellites of low Earth orbit.
• Aurora Borealis.
• Layer that absorbs sun’s radiation.

• “Thermo”
• HEAT
• 4 500 Fahrenheit in this layer.

FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS
EXOSPHERE
• About 10 000 km high.
• Almost as wide as the earth.
• No breathable air.
• Very cold.
• Traces of Hydrogen and Helium.

• “Exo”
• OUTSIDE
• Outermost region of the
atmosphere.

FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS
FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF A FLOWING GAS

• Pressure

I
• Density
• Temperature
} ☐w•#
• Velocity
• Viscosity
• Humidity

FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS
PRESSURE
Force per unit area due to the time rate
of change of a momentum.
Standard sea level : SSUC

1 atm

Pa or N / M2
101325
µ,
mmµg
76
unity lb/ in
2
or
14.7 psi
2116 . 8 lb / H2 or
pst
760 torr

meaning :
latm
= 101325Pa
: 760mmHg
101328Pa

FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS
DENSITY
Mass of a substance per unit volume.

Sslc :

PIRI
0.002377891173J
3
1- 225 kg Im

↓
a#

FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS
TEMPERATURE
Directly related to the average Kinetic
Energy value.

55lb values : (to)

Rankine

n7Aʰ0wtckm§atone__
519
288 .
16

celcius → Kelvin

K=c°t273
→ Rankine
Farenheit
R=F+4# Cekius → Faienheit
32
f- = § (c) t

cel aus
c- _

Ig ( f-
°
-

)
32 Fanenheit →

FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS
VISCOSITY
Magnitude of internal friction.
Resistance to flow.
ssuc :
-
>
7372×10 slug Itt S
-

3.
-5
7894×10 kg / m s
-

I.

FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS
 SOUCES OF AERODYNAMIC FORCES
1. Pressure distribution on the surface
2. Shear stress (friction on the surface)

manana
# 0 C

A&r and
force

FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS
?⃝
EQUATION OF STATE
p =p RT
+
universal Eas constant

i
g?→
R =
287.08

'
:÷ .

• “Perfect Gas”
• Intermolecular forces are
negligible.

FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS
 T
HYDROSTATIC EQUATION → variation of Pp ,

Isothermal

O→## [ gradient

↓ P

¥
(1)
A- mr
(1) =

=
force

⑧
(Pt dP ) (1) (1) =
force
'
p
=

(1) (l) ( dhg )

→

(1) (1) ( dhg ) (P)

A. in
. A •

49¥ =
④ →.m④
→ fixed ☆
weight g
(1) ldhg ) =p dh•g (g) weight
-

p (1)
_

P =
(Ptdp ) tpgdh

☆ p.fi:4#pgdh

FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS
 Higt test

THE STANDARD ATMOSPHERE

#
£ wind turret

performance
clouts

& deign

• Perfect dry gas since temperature and pressure varies horizontally and
vertically.
• Decreases at the rate of 1.98 degrees Celsius for every 1000 ft increase up
to 36 090 ft.
• Isothermal Region
• Constant temperature →
Pcp ; tempt
content

• Gradient Region
• Variation in point properties → changing Tipp

FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS
ALTITUDE

• ABSOLUTE ALTITUDE (ha)

• Geometric altitude + radius of the earth.
• Important for space flight.
• GEOMETRIC ALTITUDE (hg)
• Height above sea level.
• GEOPOTENTIAL ALTITUDE (h)
• “fictitious” altitude

FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS
THE STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
It → c-
0
fixed
-

→ T →
It zt
-
* Isothermal

25 -
47 → c-
*
N6.66
I

FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS
 ::¥÷-÷
¥
ISOTHERMAL LAYER

↓
↑ :*
&÷= :* .

Candle
e④÷
=

÷:÷ ↓

I ÷! ;÷÷;
"•
""

=
e ¥
,
_ in -

)
m

FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS
GRADIENT LAYER E. =

,¥
pgdh
¥ᵈ
dp
:
-

¥* : ÷
a. =

-m¥
dh
¥ ¥ =¥¥I- ÷
-

% (E)
_

*
5¥ __÷¥=
Pi

÷ =
-
Tl

:<¥ ,
He ÷=lE
÷ :

:÷=÷
item

computation

FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS
?⃝
 0 → point properties (altitude)

-
Given :

9399×104 µ /m2
p€ Henninger :
'

Wag Mag
- out ng
decimals

function

}
f p
:L or
-

→ use store
12km
&
"

p : 3-1194×10 kg / m3
T : 216 . 66k

:
-
Required
p

⑤}
p
@ 18km →
Isothermally

"°=u#
""
/

1¥ ( h -

)
hi

e
determined
→
= be
noo
① µ height
→ base

( pi ) e
¥⊕④ ④ -

P
☆
=
= 216.66
Isothermal fayer

-12001m)
P :(1.9399×104 N / mz ) e %¥%y (zµ.# ( 18000m

¥%↑µ ( 18000m )
"
-
'" m

/P=""?¥??;MIp(p=o.N084kglm3→
kgim ) )
- ' }
e
:( sina.no . .ua .

p
e
I
=

¥ ch -
h)
f =p , e

FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS
 ""

÷ :[÷]

① = ]÷"
:

- + 4)
I④
④
-

¥-m¥-
L

÷
*
Given : "
1¥ ]÷" P=¥
.my;;µ¥:_]÷ e=¥%¥¥↑I;"m%
"
Mm ,

tyqradientlayer
+
=

" " "°

+ :*
"° K

↑
1- (A) 4195852914 191m (B)
± >
1- =
223.3046741k p :O .

Required
: 1- =
to + ④ +
= ]÷u (a)
r.li?-*Y-T*Ee(

÷÷÷→ * _*
d
"" " '
?
}h
Patt
DA
④
"
fait (c)
n=lMY;i④
t = 224.0807899

: 1- = totxh
sanon

1→touñaintÉtormta__ h=t
16TH
h=⑥) -
288 .

:&
¥?srs34omim
' =

hi
→ñc
h=2W%,2j_h:M486H385
DA :# ④
FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS
?⃝
?⃝
?⃝
 -

Given :

hi 35000ft

Required :
p →
gradient
:
solution

1- =
to + ah
R
/ ft (35
000 ))
tt
T :
519 R t ( -
0 . 003566

1- = 344 .
19 12

5 "

gradient
¥ ¥]
'

=
→

5-20

↑ = Po [ ¥] ""

e- -

( we
-
•
¥) 1%4,1%-1 ]
L
p =

FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS