Journal of Food Engineering 73 (2006) 253–259

www.elsevier.com/locate/jfoodeng

Cooking quality and instrumental textural attributes of cooked rice

for different milling fractions
1
Debabandya Mohapatra *, Satish Bal
Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur 721 302, India

Received 10 June 2004; accepted 22 January 2005

Available online 17 March 2005

Abstract

Three varieties of rice, long slender with high amylose content, medium grain with intermediate amylose content and short-bold
grain with low amylose content were milled to various degrees of milling. The milled rice samples were analysed for their cooking
and instrumental textural attributes. Cooking qualities as well as textural attributes were found to be affected by degree of milling,
amylose content and grain thickness. Grain thickness was found to be negatively correlated with optimum cooking time, adhesive-
ness and positively with water uptake ratio, volume expansion ratio, length expansion ratio, hardness, and cohesiveness, where as
amylose content had negative impact on optimum cooking time, adhesiveness and positive impact on water uptake ratio, volume
expansion ratio, length expansion ratio, cohesiveness, and hardness. Degree of milling exhibited positive effect on water uptake
ratio, volume expansion ratio, length expansion ratio, cohesiveness and adhesiveness and negative impact on optimum cooking time
and hardness. The cooking and textural parameters showed significant correlations with each other.

2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Degree of milling; Cooking quality; Texture; Thickness; Amylose content

1. Introduction sonal choices vary from region to region, it is difficult to

Rice is one of the major staple foods in the world
since centuries. Consumer preferences vary from region
to region, Japanese like sticky rice (Deshpande & Bhat-
tacharya, 1982), while Italians consume Baldo and Arbo-
rio rices that have high amylopectin and are short grain
variety, which releases starch during cooking making a
creamy and smooth risotto. Americans prefer a semi
milled long grain rice or even brown rice, whereas Asian
culinary dominates spicy and scented Basmati/Jasmine
rice and the people of Indian sub-continent prefer a
well-milled white rice (Lyon et al., 1999). Since the per-
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 3222 281323; fax: +91 3222
282288.
E-mail addresses: dmohapatra8@yahoo.co.in (D. Mohapatra),
sbal@agfe.iitkgp.ernet.in (S. Bal).
1
Tel.: +91 3222 283100; fax: +91 3222 282288.
find out a standard procedure for rice cooking and to
the extent to which it should be milled.
Rice variety, drying and storage conditions, rough
rice moisture content, amylose content, starch type, de-
gree of milling, water to rice ratio, cooking methods,
pre-cooking and post-cooking processing are the decid-
ing factors for the cooking and textural characteristics
of rice (Champagne et al., 1999; Champagne et al.,
1998; Del Mundo, Kosco, Juliano, Siscar, & Perez,
1989; Deshpande & Bhattacharya, 1982; Juliano &
Perez, 1983; Meullenet, Marks, Griffin, & Daniels,
1999; Meullenet, Marks, Hankins, Griffin, & Daniels,
2000; Okabe, 1979; Perez, Bourne, & Juliano, 1996;
Perez, Juliano, Bourne, & Anzadua-Morales, 1993;
Roberts, 1979). Optimum water uptake ratio on cooking
is an important parameter for a variety, as yield of
cooked rice is directly proportional to water uptake
ratio, which is an important consideration for the

0260-8774/$ - see front matter
2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2005.01.028
254 D. Mohapatra, S. Bal / Journal of Food Engineering 73 (2006) 253–259
Nomenclature
AMY apparent amylose content, db%
b thickness of grain, mm
DOM degree of milling, %
l/w slender ness ratio
l length of grain, mm
LER length expansion ratio
catering industry. Rice with high water binding capacity
normally yields soft textured cooked product. As degree
of milling influences cooking qualities like water uptake
ratio, length expansion ratio, moreover, related to the
profit of the farmers and rice milling industry, it is
imperative to choose a suitable milling degree for the
cultivars in order to minimize losses and improve cook-
ing/eating qualities. As brown rice and under milled rice
is not preferred over milled rice for its poor eating qual-
ity (Piggot, Morrison, & Clyne, 1991; Rao, Narayana, &
Desikachar, 1967; Roberts, 1979), the rice has to be
properly milled.
Higher water binding capacity, swelling ratio, peak
viscosity and reduced optimum cooking time have been
observed with higher degree of milling (Champagne,
Marshall, & Goyens, 1990). Recently Park, Kim, and
Kim (2001) reported the effects of degree of milling (8–
15%, brown rice basis) on sensory and physicochemical
properties of milled and cooked rice. Due to growing
health consciousness, some section of the consumers
have started consuming rice milled to lower degrees or
even brown rice. Though much work has been done to
study the effect of degree of milling on physicochemical
properties of rice, investigation pertaining to the effect of
rice milled to lower degree and the effect of cultivars on
the cooking and instrumental textural measurement are
yet to be explored. Therefore, emphasis was given in this
investigation to study the effect of variety, degree of
milling and amylose content on the cooking and textural
properties of cooked rice and to find the correlation be-
tween the parameters.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Sample preparation
Freshly harvested, Pusa Basmati, aromatic, long and
slender variety (procured from Haryana, India), Swarna,
medium grain variety (procured from local market), and
ADT37, short and round grain variety (procured from
Tamilnadu, India) were selected for this study. The vari-
eties were dehusked using a Satake rice machine (Type
THU, Satake Engineering Co., Tokyo) and stored in
double sealed polythene bags at 5 C in a refrigerator
TPA textural profile analysis
VER volume expansion ratio
W width of grain, mm
WUR water uptake ratio
wb wet basis
wt weight
(Quick freezer, 200 l capacity, Remi equipments, India)
till the experimentation. Samples were removed from
refrigerator 24 h before the experiments to equilibrate
the temperature to room conditions. Moisture content
was determined using standard AACC method 44-15A
(American Association of Cereal Chemists, 2000). Three
principal diameters viz. length, width and grain thick-
ness of brown rice of each variety were measured man-
ually by Satake Grain Shape Tester (Model-MK 100,
Japan) having 0.001 mm precision, by taking 50 well dis-
tributed, randomly drawn grains of each variety. Brown
rice samples of long–slender-grain Pusa Basmati [slen-
derness ratio (l/w) = 4.43, grain thickness (b) = 1.64
mm], medium-grain Swarna (l/w = 2.55, b = 1.71 mm)
and short-bold ADT37 (l/w = 1.89, b = 1.96 mm), after
cleaning and grading were polished in abrasive polisher
(Model: Satake Pearler-TM05, Japan; emery grit size 36;
rpm 1360) for 15–180 s, at an interval of 15 s. The degree
of milling was determined using the relation: Degree of
milling (DOM) = [1
(wt. of milled rice/wt. of brown
rice)] · 100. The milling degree of the resultant milled
rice samples varied between 2% and 18%, for the three
varieties under consideration.
Experiments were done in triplicate and average data
was used for analysis. Brokens are removed using labo-
ratory grader (RPEC, India) and only head brown rice
was used for the further experimentation. The milled
rice samples were stored at 5 C in double sealed poly-
thene bags for maximum of 6 months. Over milled rice
(DOM P 10%) was ground to of 30 mesh size powder
using Willey mill (USA). The flour was used to deter-
mine the apparent amylose content of the samples using
AACC method 61-03.
2.2. Cooking quality analysis
Optimum cooking time was found out for milled rice
by Ranghino test (Juliano & Bechtel, 1985). In a 250 ml
beaker, about 100 ml-distilled water was boiled
(98 ± 1 C) and 5 g of head rice samples dropped into
it. Measurement of cooking duration was started imme-
diately. After 10 min and every minute thereafter, 10
grains of rice were removed and pressed between two
clean glass plates. Cooking time was recorded when at
least 90% of the grains no longer had opaque core or un-
 D. Mohapatra, S. Bal / Journal of Food Engineering 73 (2006) 253–259 255

cooked centers. The rice was then allowed to simmer for Table 1
about another 2 min to ensure that the core of all grains The coded form of independent variables used for multiple regression
analysis
had been gelatinized. Optimum cooking time included
the additional 2 min of simmer. Independent variables Code Coded variables
Volume expansion ratio, length expansion ratio, and
1 0 1
water uptake ratio, were determined by cooking 1 g of Thickness, mm b 1.5 1.75 2
the head rice in 15 ml boiling water, till optimum cook- Apparent amylose content, % db AMY 16 22 28
ing time (Juliano & Bechtel, 1985). Length expansion Degree of milling, % DOM 1 10 19
ratio as ratio of the length of cooked grain to that of
the raw grain was calculated. Similarly volume expan-
would not be affected by their individual values. The
sion ratio as calculated as the ratio of the volume of
coded forms of the independent variables were presented
the cooked rice to the initial volume of the raw rice,
in Table 1. A polynomial second-degree relation was
using toluene displacement method. Water uptake ratio
developed to represent physicochemical properties with
as ratio of water absorbed during cooking to uncooked
respect to grain thickness (b), apparent amylose content
rice weight was calculated by weighing the initial raw
(AMY) and degree of milling (DOM) as:
rice and final cooked rice in an electronic balance
(Make: Anamed M-300DR, USA, precision = 0.001 g). Physiochemical properties
¼ A0 þ A1  b þ A2  AMY þ A3  DOM þ A4
2.3. Textural profile analysis
 b2 þ A5  b  AMY þ A6  AMY2 þ A7
Textural profile analysis (TPA) of the cooked rice  AMY  DOM þ A8  D2OM þ A9  DOM  b ð1Þ
was performed using a texture analyzer (TA-XT2, Tex-
ture Technologies Corp., UK) with a 5 kg load cell using
a two-cycle compression (Park et al., 2001). The ana-
lyzer was linked to a computer that recorded the data 3. Results and discussion
via a software program called XT.RA Dimension (ver-
sion 3.7 H, Texture Technologies Corp., Scardale, 3.1. Cooking quality
NY). The rice samples were prepared by cooking 10 g
rice samples in a 400 ml beaker, with 200 ml distilled As indicated by Fig. 1, optimum cooking time de-
water at 100 ± 1 C till white core disappeared. The creased from 22 to 16 min for increase in degree of mill-
cooked rice was drained of water completely using a ing (DOM) from 3% to 16%, for the Swarna variety. The
strainer and surface moisture of the samples was blotted optimum cooking time varied between 24 and 20 min
out. Cooked rice samples from each lot were kept on the over a DOM range of 2.5–18%, for the ADT37 variety.
base of this instrument for testing, while the samples The optimum cooking of Pusa Basmati variety de-
were still hot (Juliano et al., 1984). A two-cycle compres- creased from 16 to 14 min for a corresponding change
sion force versus time program was used to compress the in DOM from 2–13%. With each 3.3% and 2.2% increase
samples till 90% of the original cooked grain thickness, in DOM, 1-min reduction in cooking time was observed
return to the original position and again compress for ADT37 and Swarna, respectively. With the fibrous
(Meullenet, Carpenter, Lyon, & Lyon, 1997). A 6-mm
diameter ebonite probe was used to compress 2–3
grains, with pre-test and post-test speeds of 1 mm/min
and test speed of 0.5 mm/min. Parameters recorded Swarna
24 Pusa Basmati
Optimum cooking time, min

from the test curves were hardness, adhesiveness and

ADT37
cohesiveness. All textural analyses were replicated five
times per sample.
20
2.4. Statistical evaluation

Physicochemical data were analysed using SPSS 10.0 16

package. The relationship between different properties
was determined using Pearson correlation. All the inde-
pendent variables viz. thickness (b), apparent amylose 12
content (AMY) and degree of milling (DOM) were 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
coded, and analysed statistically using multiple regres- Degree of milling,%
sion equation. The objective of coding the parameters Fig. 1. Variation in optimum cooking time of rice with degree of
was to use their weighted value, so that the analysis milling and cultivars.
256 D. Mohapatra, S. Bal / Journal of Food Engineering 73 (2006) 253–259

bran layer removed from the caryopsis, it was easy for
the starchy endosperm to cook faster due to higher dif-
fusion of water into the kernel (Juliano & Bechtel, 1985).
At higher level of bran removal the optimum cooking
time did not vary much, since at that stage most of the
cellulosic materials were removed by milling. Thickness
of the grain appears to have significant effect on the time
of cooking perhaps due to quicker diffusion of moisture
in grains of smaller thickness. Pusa Basmati has lower
optimum cooking time as compared to Swarna and
ADT37. Since it was a slender grain (b = 1.64 mm), the
water diffusivity could have been faster than Swarna
(b = 1.71 mm) and ADT37 (b = 1.96 mm) variety for
the same degree of milling. This confirms to earlier re-
sults reported by Suzuki, Kubota, Omichi, and Hosaka
(1976). The coarser grain variety ADT37, took the high-
est optimum cooking time (for complete disappearance
of white core) as compared to Pusa Basmati and Swar-
na. The round grains have lesser specific surface area
compared to their longer and slender counterparts. This
also suggests that surface area and thickness of the grain
are important factors in deciding the diffusion of water
during cooking. This confirms to the findings reported
by Juliano and Bechtel (1985) that the optimum cooking
time for the rice cooked in excess water, depended upon
the thickness and surface area of the grain. From the
analysis it was observed that thickness significantly cor-
related (at 0.01% level) with the apparent amylose con-
tent and degree of milling of the varieties under study.
Optimum cooking time significantly influenced length
expansion ratio and cohesiveness of the product. Cook-
ing time has significant positive correlation with the
hardness as higher hardness was attributed to the pres-
ence of bran and thickness of grain (Table 3).
Apparent amylose content was highest for Pusa Bas-
mati (AMY = 26.4%), followed by Swarna (AMY =
22.6%) and ADT37 (AMY = 16.7%). Apparent amylose
content also found to have played a significant role in
deciding the cooking quality of rice. It also has negative
correlation with the degree of milling for various culti-
vars at different levels of milling (Table 3). Analysis
given in Tables 2 and 3 showed that the apparent amy-
lose content, grain thickness, and degree of milling were
negatively correlated with the cooking time. The order
of significance is grain thickness > amylose content >
degree of milling (Table 2).
Water uptake ratio of the three varieties under
increased progressively with DOM (Fig. 2). The ratio
was found to increase with the cooking time (Bhattach-
arya & Sowbhagya, 1971) which in turn increased with

Table 2
Regression coefficients depicting the relationship between grain thickness, amylose content and degree of milling with the physicochemical properties
Coefficients Cooking Water Volume Length Hardness Adhesiveness Cohesiveness
time uptake ratio expansion ratio expansion ratio
A0 10.1 1.993 3.219 1.569 10.100
0.070 0.170
A1 (b)
96.47 1.020 0.102 1.020 10.200 0.010
0.176
A2 (AMY)
75.09 1.030 0.019 1.030 22.617
0.013 0.095
A3 (DOM)
3.413 0.324 0.967 0.135
3.631
0.080 0.044
A4 (b2) 10.50 1.050 1.050 1.050 73.301
0.056 0.105
A5 (b · AMY) 10.60
0.520 1.867 0.367 10.600 0.011 0.106
A6 (AMY2) 35.205
1.309 1.070
0.519
35.085
0.011 0.107
A7 (AMY · DOM) 8.93
0.242 1.070 0.075 3.379 0.050 0.040
A8 (DOM2) 0.558 0.043
0.601
0.046 0.410
0.002 0.006
A9 (DOM · b) 10.023
0.321 0.408 0.066 2.377 0.087 0.067
r2 0.992 0.925 0.960 0.936 0.943 0.946 0.938

Table 3
PearsonÕs correlation coefficients for the relationship between grain thickness, amylose content, degree of milling, cooking and textural properties of
different rice cultivars
Thickness Amylose DOM Cooking time WUR VER LER Hardness Adhesiveness
Amylose
0.979**
DOM 0.246
0.274
Cooking time 0.842**
0.890**
0.117
WUR 0.495**
0.508** 0.912** 0.122
VER 0.300
0.287 0.922**
0.109 0.837**
LER
0.078 0.195 0.600**
0.543** 0.465** 0.735**
Hardness 0.427**
0.348*
0.696** 0.572**
0.498**
0.545**
0.376*
Adhesiveness 0.333*
0.290 0.883**
0.120 0.900** 0.870** 0.720**
0.479**
Cohesiveness
0.221 0.271 0.738**
0.622** 0.555** 0.738** 0.832**
0.694** 0.677**
*
Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level.
**
Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level.
 D. Mohapatra, S. Bal / Journal of Food Engineering 73 (2006) 253–259 257

2.4 1.8

1.7

Length expansion ratio

Water uptake ratio

2.2

1.6
2.0
1.5
1.8 Swarna
Pusa Basmati 1.4
ADT37 Swarna Pusa Basmati ADT37
1.6 1.3
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Degree of milling, % Degree of milling,%
Fig. 2. Variation in water uptake ratio of cooked rice with degree of Fig. 4. Variation in length expansion ratio of cooked rice with degree
milling and cultivars. of milling and cultivars.

4.0 volume expansion ratio, suggesting that at higher level

3.8 of degree of milling volume expansion ratio tend to in-
3.6 crease. Apparent amylose content also observed to have
Volume expansion ratio

3.4 positive effect on the volume expansion ratio, as amylose

3.2
3.0
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Degree of milling, %
Fig. 3. Variation in volume expansion ratio of cooked rice with degree
of milling and cultivars.
grain thickness and decreased with degree of milling. As
depicted in Fig. 3, the water uptake ratio increased with
increase in DOM for all the varieties up to 12% DOM, the
water uptake ratio remained constant at 2.4 indicating
complete removal of bran from grain for all three vari-
eties. No significant difference in water uptake ratio of
Swarna and Pusa Basmati could be observed at all levels
of DOM. It was observed that water uptake ratio for
ADT37 was high followed by Swarna for all DOM levels.
The relationship between volume expansion ratio and
degree of milling for the there varieties are presented in
Fig. 3. The volume expansion ratio was found to vary
from 2.12 to 3.66, 2.14 to 3.5 and 2.25 to 3.97 for Pusa
Basmati, Swarna and ADT37 respectively. Milled rice
with higher water uptake ratio attributed to higher vol-
ume expansion ratio, due to absorption of more water
compared to the other samples.
The statistical analysis (Tables 2 and 3) revealed that
grain thickness has a major effect on the volume expan-
sion ratio of the cooked rice followed by degree of mill-
ing and then by apparent amylose content of the grain.
Degree of milling has shown a positive relation with the
content improves the capacity of starch granule to ab-
sorb water and expand in volume without collapsing.
This is because of the greater capacity of amylose to
hydrogen bond or retrograde (Juliano & Bechtel, 1985).
Swarna
A plot between length expansion ratio and degree of
Pusa Basmati
milling is presented in Fig. 4. Length expansion ratio in-
ADT37
creased linearly with DOM for the three varieties in the
order of Pusa Basmati (AMY = 26.4%) > ADT37
(AMY = 16.7%) > Swarna (AMY = 22.6%). The varia-
tion in length expansion ratio with increase in degree
of milling was found to vary from 1.53 to 1.72, 1.36 to
1.58, and 1.49 to 1.67 for Pusa Basmati, Swarna and
ADT37, respectively. Significant change in length expan-
sion ratio was noticed after 6% DOM and reached its
peak at about 10–12% DOM for all the varieties. This
can be explained by the fact that even after 6% milling,
some bran streaks are still left on the kernel surface,
which prevented the kernel to expand freely. At higher
level of milling most of the bran layer would have been
removed from the endospermic core, allowing the starch
granules to expand naturally on cooking. The analysis
(Tables 2 and 3) depicted that apparent amylose content
had positive effect on length expansion ratio, as it has
high capacity to absorb more water. At higher degree
of milling the grain thickness was observed to have little
effect on length expansion ratio. Very high length expan-
sion ratio observed for Pusa Basmati is special charac-
teristic of the Basmati rices, which exhibit very high
linear expansion during cooking perhaps due to very
special orientation of starch cells in the kernel.
3.2. Textural properties
Cooked rice hardness values were plotted against de-
gree of milling for the three varieties of rice (Fig. 5). At
258 D. Mohapatra, S. Bal / Journal of Food Engineering 73 (2006) 253–259

21.0 0.00
Swarna -0.02
19.0 Pusa Basmati
ADT37 -0.04

Adhesiveness, N.s
17.0
-0.06
Hardness, N

15.0 -0.08
13.0 -0.10
-0.12
11.0 Swarna
-0.14 Pusa Basmati
9.0 -0.16 ADT37
7.0 -0.18
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Degree of milling,%
Degree of milling, %
Fig. 5. Variation in hardness of cooked rice with degree of milling and
cultivars. Fig. 7. Variation in adhesiveness of cooked rice with degree of milling
and cultivars.

the initial stage of milling the cooked rice hardness was
the highest and decreased linearly with progressive mill-
ing. The hardness values of cooked rice varied from
19.5 N to 11.8 N; 14.6 N to 8.7 N and 15.3 N to
11.11 N for ADT37, Swarna and Pusa Basmati, respec-
tively, for change in DOM from 2% and 18%. The cooked
rice hardness was found to decrease with increase in
DOM for all varieties under study. Presence of bran layer
added firmness to the cooked grain. Hardness of ADT37
was more despite its low amylose content perhaps due to
round shape and thickness of the grain. Amongst the
other two, Pusa Basmati showed higher hardness value
than Swarna perhaps due to its high amylose content
(Juliano et al., 1984).
Cohesiveness (the degree to which the rice deforms
rather crumbles or breaks on compression), increased
linearly with DOM as observed from Fig. 6. Pusa Bas-
mati was found to have high cohesiveness values for
all the milling level, compared to the other two varieties
under study, for its high amylose content. Cohesiveness
values were positively correlated with the degree of mill-
ing, apparent amylose content and negatively with grain
thickness; degree of milling influencing this characteris-
0.26
Swarna
0.24 Pusa Basmati
ADT37
0.22
Cohesiveness
tic, the most. Grain thickness has least effect on cohe-
siveness values, as the textural properties were affected
mostly by the chemical constituents of the grain.
Adhesiveness (the force required to remove the plun-
ger from the food material after compression) was ob-
served to be increasing linearly with degree of milling
(Fig. 7). More the degree of milling more was the area
under negative compression on a TPA graph. The pro-
tein content, fat content, mineral and ash content de-
crease and starchy endosperm is exposed with the
progressive milling, as aleurone layer, pericarp and seed
coat are removed in milling, thus affecting the adhesive-
ness of the cooked rice (Hamaker, Griffin, & Molden-
hauer, 1991; Park et al., 2001). Adhesiveness was
found to be more in case of Swarna (
0.225 N s), at
16% DOM. Adhesiveness values were negatively influ-
enced by grain thickness and positively by degree of
milling. Apparent amylose content was found to have
positive correlation with adhesiveness (Tables 2 and 3).
Raw rice having higher apparent amylose content (Pusa
Basmati) was found to have less adhesiveness values
compared to low amylose and medium amylose variety
like ADT37 and Swarna, respectively. This can be attrib-
uted to the fact that high amylose rice when cooked has
a dry and fluffy texture, when cooked in excess water
system, compared to low amylose counterpart.
4. Conclusions

0.20
The cooking and textural properties were largely
0.18 dependent on the chemical composition of the cultivars
rather than their physical characteristics. High apparent
0.16 amylose content rice was found to have lesser cooking
0.14 time than the low amylose variety. Thicker grains tend
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 to have higher degree of milling, lower amylase content
Degree of milling,% and higher cooking time than their slender counterparts
Fig. 6. Variation in cohesiveness of cooked rice with degree of milling as water diffusion was influenced by the thickness of
and cultivars. grain and bran layer. Low milled rice was characterized
 D. Mohapatra, S. Bal / Journal of Food Engineering 73 (2006) 253–259
by high optimum cooking time, hardness and low adhe-
siveness, cohesiveness, length expansion ratio, volume
expansion ratio and water uptake ratio. Whereas, highly
milled rice was characterized by high cohesiveness,
adhesiveness, length expansion ratio, volume expansion
ratio, water uptake ratio and low hardness and optimum
cooking time.
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