KWAME

NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

COLLEGE OR ART AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
FACULTY OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

CTM 151 – INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION
CREDITS HOURS – 3


COURSE MATERIALS





By
PROF. BK BAIDEN PhD FGIOC AMASCE MPMI MAACE

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Table of Contents
COURSE OUTLINE ....................................................................................................................................... 3
MODULE 1 – History of Construction .................................................................................................. 3
A. Definitions of architecture and construction ......................................................................................... 3
B. Origin of architecture ...................................................................................................................................... 3
C. Record of continuous evolution ................................................................................................................... 4
D. History and invention of cement ................................................................................................................. 5
E. Mechanisation of Construction .................................................................................................................... 6
F. The Building Fabric .......................................................................................................................................... 7

MODULE 2 – PEOPLE CONCERNED WITH BUILDING CONSTRUCTION ..................................... 9

A. The Project Team ............................................................................................................................................. 9

MODULE 3 - PRELIMINARIES TO BUILDING. .................................................................................. 12

A. Land acquisition ............................................................................................................................................ 12
B. Site Selection ................................................................................................................................................... 12
C. Soil investigations .......................................................................................................................................... 12
D. Site and ground investigations ................................................................................................................. 13
E. Site exploration .............................................................................................................................................. 13
F. Site preparation ............................................................................................................................................. 14
G. Building drawings ......................................................................................................................................... 14
H. Specifications .................................................................................................................................................. 15
I. Setting-out ......................................................................................................................................................... 16

MODULE 4 – NATURAL RESOURCE MATERIALS ........................................................................... 17

A. Rocks .................................................................................................................................................................. 17
B. Soils .................................................................................................................................................................... 18
C. Timber ............................................................................................................................................................... 19

MODULE 5 – PROCESSED MATERIALS .............................................................................................. 22

A. Bricks and blocks .......................................................................................................................................... 22
B. Lime and Cement ........................................................................................................................................... 23
C. Concrete ............................................................................................................................................................ 26
D. Metals ................................................................................................................................................................ 28
E. Plastics ............................................................................................................................................................... 29
F. Paints ................................................................................................................................................................. 31

READING LIST .......................................................................................................................................... 34

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COURSE OUTLINE
1. History of Construction.
2. People Concerned with Building Construction.
3. Preliminaries to Building.
4. Common Natural Resourced Building Materials
5. Common Processed Building Materials

MODULE 1 – History of Construction

A. Definitions of architecture and construction.
B. Origin of architecture.
C. Continuous evolution of architectural forms.
D. History & invention of Cement
E. Mechanisation of Construction
F. The Building fabric

A. Definitions of architecture and construction
Definition of architecture

“The art & science of designing and constructing buildings and other physical structures for human
shelter and use.”
The definition includes the design of the total built environment. Buildings were previously
constructed by the master builder. The practice then became a craft as cultures developed.
Architectural knowledge was subsequently formalised through oral traditions and practices.

Definition of construction

“a multitasking process that comprises the building or assembling of infrastructure.”

The definition is in the civil engineering and architecture context. Construction is a process that is
managed and supervised by a team of professionals. Types of construction include building, civil and
industrial.

B. Origin of architecture
Architecture evolved from the dynamics between needs (shelter, security) and means (available
materials and skill). These included:
1. Provision of protection & security from:
i. Inclement weather
ii. Wild beast
iii. Human enemies.
2. Recorded continuous evolution
i. Simple to more developed forms.

Provision of shelter
Natural shelters were found close to where man lived and/or worked;
i. Hunters – rock caves
ii. Farmers - tree openings and then huts

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 iii. Shepherds – sheep skin tents
Caves, huts and tents are the 3 main primitive types of human dwelling.
These dwelling types became the basis for further architectural and construction forms.
C. Record of continuous evolution
This refers to the progression of architectural and construction forms over different civilisations:
i. Simple Egyptian architecture
ii. Developed Greek temple building
iii. Complex Imperial Roman styles influenced by increased public needs.
iv. Cathedrals and Castles of Christian and Medieval times.
v. Classical types of the Renaissance period.

1. Egyptian Architecture
This is the earliest form of recorded civilization and dates back to 4,000 BC. The architecture at the
time was characterised by:
i. Single storey structures.
ii. Immensely thick and sloping walls.
iii. Closely spaced stone columns and lintels.
iv. Flat roofs and small openings.
v. Influenced by religious beliefs.
vi. Pyramids, temples and tombs.

Basic materials used include stone and bricks.
Wood was rarely used.

Basic construction method was post and lintel.
Buildings were constructed without mortar.
Construction was based on precision cutting of stones.
Higher heights were reached using ramps.

2. Greek Architecture
Greek architecture followed after Egyptian architecture and dates back to 600 BC. The architectural
styles at the time were in 2 main styles: Doric and Ionic
1. Doric architecture was characterised by disciplined and rigorous styles.
2. Ionic architecture was characterised by relaxed and decorative styles.
The architecture at the time placed strong emphasis on temples for gods, public buildings & theatres.
The form of architecture were mainly cubic or rectangular shapes with colonnades or sequence of
columns.

Common materials included Limestone and Stones.
Marble was used primarily for decorative works.
Roofs had timber support and marble tiles.
Masonry was cut to fit and where not possible coated with marble dust and lime.
Used single column and lintel methods of construction.

3. Roman Architecture
Existed between 100 BC to AD 300 and was based on the Greek style but adapted with local materials
and techniques.

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Characterised by arches, vaults and domes.
Architectural development and new discoveries in the period were driven by:
1. wealth and increased population.
2. invention of concrete.

4. Christendom Architecture
Started in the 4th Century by Christians
Deviated from old forms as architecture (temples) because;
i. They were associated with pagans.
ii. Their open forms did not meet their needs.

Characterised by big buildings used as worship places; eg churches and monasteries.
Architecture was influenced by religious beliefs and local traditions.

5. Gothic Architecture
Existed between 12th to 16th centuries during the later renaissance period.
Evolved from Roman architecture and combined existing technologies to establish the emergence of a
new building style.

Characterised by pointed arches and ribbed vaults.
Wide range of materials were used based on availability – limestone, marble, stones, timber.

6. Renaissance Architecture
Started between 15th and 17th Centuries.
First in Florence and then throughout Europe.

Characterised by:
i. Consistency of columns and beams based on the Greek architectural style.
ii. Combination of column and semi-circular arch that followed the Roman style.
iii. Pointed arch like the Gothic style.
Additionally, there was emphasis on symmetry, proportion, geometry and the regularity of parts.

Influencing factors of architectural/construction forms
1. Geographical
2. Geological
3. Climatic
4. Religious
5. Social
6. Historical

D. History and invention of cement
History
The first use of a binder was clay by Assyrians and Babylonians.
Egyptians then discovered lime and gypsum mortar as a binder for construction – pyramids.
The material was improved by the Greeks.
The Romans then developed cement that produced structures of significant strength.

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Invention
The use of cement was first by the Romans in 75 BC.
It was made of a mixture of slaked lime with pozzolana - volcanic ash found in Pozzouoli in Naples.
Natural cement was then produced by burning naturally occurring lime and clay.
Use of cement in modern era was in 1121 in Reading Abbey, Great Britain.


Portland cement
Cement in its modern form was first patented in 1824 by Joseph Aspin, a British stone mason.
It was made from heated finely ground limestone and clay into a powder mixture.
The mixture hardened on addition of water and resembled quarried stones from Isle of Portland off
the British Coast, hence the name “Portland Cement”.

Impact
Aspin’s invention laid down the foundation for industrialised production of what is today called
Portland cement.
Ordinary – every day use.
Specialised – rapid hardening, sulphate resisting, low-heat.
Pigmented – white or other colour.

Production of Portland cement led to increased production of concrete and concrete products.
Concrete is made up of cement, aggregate and water.
Examples of Concrete products are:
1. Concrete/Sandcrete blocks,
2. Mortar for block laying and plastering.
3. Mass and reinforced concrete structures.

The construction of more complex and durable buildings became possible as a result of the availability
of concrete and concrete products discussed.

Production in Ghana
Ghana previously imported cement for use in construction.
Cement production started in 1967 (joint collaboration between Ghana & Norway) by Ghacem.
Clinker and gypsum (hydrated calcium sulphate) are imported.
Ground into fine powder at two factories - Tema and Takoradi.
Types - Ordinary and Rapid hardening.

E. Mechanisation of Construction
Mechanisation of construction activities started in the US followed by UK and then Europe.
It was initially introduced in the US as a labour cost reduction innovation.
Further usage was as a result of improvement in machine design in the US.
Earthmoving equipment such as the grader, scraper & bulldozer were then developed between 1880
and 1912 (first world war).

The end of the first world war in UK and Europe saw:
1. High demand for housing; and
2. Low level of skilled workers and manpower.
Only means to achieve higher production was through the use of machines and mechanisation.

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Machines were used to undertake dangerous and more physically demanding activities.

The demands of the industrialised world called for the design and construction of more complex
buildings.
Buildings had to be completed within relatively short time using less labour.
This led to the introduction of prefabrication and standardisation – mechanisation of construction.
Future design considered the use of plant and equipment.

F. The Building Fabric
Building fabric is a means of modifying the natural or external environment.
The fabric provides satisfactory internal environment and can therefore be referred to as an
“environmental envelope”. The design of such a fabric or “envelope” must satisfy a number of
requirements such as functional in addition to design.

Functional requirements
1. Shelter
protection from elements of weather.

2. Function
creation of an enclosed space with satisfactory internal environment relative to the purpose of
the particular building.

3. Design consideration
size, shape and environmental factors.

Design requirement
Building design must be satisfactory in providing the following:
1. Adequate weather resistance.
2. Thermal and sound insulation.
3. Light and air.
4. Strength and stability.
5. Fire protection – occupant, contents and fabric.

Nature of Building
Building is basically the provision of physical forms of envelopes to spaces.
Building is therefore a production process that involves the assembling of products from other
industries.
Building can be described as;
1. Organisational process
2. Technology

Organisational process
“Rational and economic use of resources - buildings delivered on time at the best cost”

Comprises two broad related activities – design and production.
1. Design
Deals with size, shape and space allocation.

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2. Production
Covers the nature and sequence operation.

Technology
Significance of materials – properties and characteristics of materials
Building construction – design and manner of putting the building fabric together
Choice of materials – types of materials and their use
Buildability – practicality of construction

Structural concepts
The building fabric is seen as an environmental envelope.
It must safely withstands all subjected forces.
The building fabric is often developed as a structure based on three basic concepts:
1. Skeletal;
2. Solid; and
3. Surface structures.

1. Skeletal concept
Skeleton or framework
The framework supports loads and resist all forces acting on building.
Loads are transferred through the building to the soil.
Comprises pairs of uprights (columns) that support spanning (beams) members.

2. Solid concept
Walls act as enclosures and supporting elements.
Walls are load-bearing
Loads are transferred through walls to the soil.
Walls are substantially thick.
They are used where buildings have limited spans

3. Surface concept
Two groups:
i. Stiffened thin plates of solid materials – curve or bend; and
ii. Suspended or stretched thin flexible sheet membrane over supporting members
Wall and roof act as enclosure and support.
Roof structure are economic over wide spans.

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MODULE 2 – PEOPLE CONCERNED WITH BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
A. The Project team.
B. The Design team.
C. The Construction team.
D. Statutory/Approving authorities.

A. The Project Team
Project Team Structure

Client/Owner
• The person or organisation that undertakes or commissions or initiates the project.
• Selects/Employs the other members of the project team (Design and Construction).
• Responsible for paying for the building design and construction works executed.
• Gets involved from the beginning of the project.

Design Team Composition
1. Project Manager/Engineer.
2. Architect/Designer.
3. Engineers - Civil, Structural, Service (Mechanical and Electrical).
4. Specialist Engineer (Fire, Acoustic, IT, etc)
5. Quantity Surveyor/ Commercial Managers.

Design Team Structure

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Roles of members:
1. Project Manager/Client’s Representative
• Plans and executes the building project.
• Coordinates design and construction.
• Advices Client on design and cost changes.
• Recruits, builds and manages the Design team.
• Oversees the appointment of the construction team.

2. Architect/Designer
Translates/transforms the Client’s brief (building requirements) into physical built solutions i.e.
drawings.
As the “Chief Builder”, he often recommends other members of the design team.
Employed directly by the Client but reports to the Project Manager.
Inspect the works during construction for conformity.

3. Engineer
Responsible for the design of the engineering aspects/section of work.
They include:

Civil – roads, pavements, drains and other infrastructure developments.
Structural – strength and stability of building and other related civil engineering structures.
Services – mechanical and electrical engineering installations.
Specialist –works such as acoustics, fire, etc

4. Quantity Surveyor/Commercial Manager
• Manages all cost relating to the building project from initial design to completion.
• Prepares budgets and cost plans.
• Prepares bill of quantities, tendering documents, and payments for work done.
• Evaluates tenders and makes recommendations to the Client through the Project Manager.

Construction Team Members
1. Main contractor.
2. Sub-contractors (package contractors) – Domestic or Nominated.
3. Suppliers – Domestic or Nominated.
4. Specialist contractors.

Roles
1. Main Contractor
• Responsible for safe, efficient and economic construction of the building.
• Executes the main/major components OR elements of the works.
• Employed by the Client on the advice of the Project Manager.
• Responsible for other members of the construction team.

2. Sub-contractors & Suppliers
• Execute sections of the works as part of the main building
• Supply major building materials for the works.
• Domestic – when employed directly by the main contractors (subject to the Client’s approval).

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• Nominated – when recommended and employed by the client - main Contractor is paid profit and
attendance and oversees work.

Statutory Authorities
• Organisations and/or institutions required by law to provide services to buildings.
• They provide permits required for the construction of buildings.
• Responsible for connection to service mains (Water, telephone, electricity).
• Fees for services are paid directly by the Client.
• ECG, GWCL, MMDA, EPA, etc.

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MODULE 3 - PRELIMINARIES TO BUILDING.
A. Land Acquisition
B. Site Selection.
C. Soil Investigations.
D. Site and ground investigations.
E. Site exploration
F. Site preparations
G. Preparation of Drawings
H. Specifications
I. Setting-Out/building layout.

A. Land acquisition
Land ownership varies throughout the country:
i. Individual ownership.
ii. Chiefs (stool lands).
iii. Government land.
Land is acquired by building owner either by:
i. Outright purchase (freehold): or
ii. Lease (leasehold).

B. Site Selection
Selection and suitability is influenced by:
i. Preliminary site survey – nature and topography.
ii. Site exploration – nature of site.
iii. Site orientation – positioning to enjoy favourable natural conditions.
iv. Soil investigation – type of soil and bearing capacity for structural design.

C. Soil investigations
Introduction
Foundation of a building:
i. part of the structure in direct contact with the ground.
ii. loads (dead & imposed) transmission to soil.
Structural design objectives:
i. to prevent uneven settlement; and
ii. limit the failure of supporting soil.

Design of foundation be related to:
i. The superstructure
ii. The characteristics of the soil carrying the load
Soil mechanics is determined through site investigation.
Provide essential information required for the design and construction of the foundation.

Objectives
1. Assess the general suitability of site for the proposed works.
2. Enable adequate and economic design of the building foundation.

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3. Assess ahead and make provisions for possible construction difficulties due to ground and local
conditions.
4. Undertake safety reporting of existing works in cases of failures.
Reports generated
i. Type of soil and its bearing capacity.
ii. Uniformity of soil.
iii. Probable behaviour of the ground under seasonal changes.
iv. Ground water levels and flooding conditions.
v. Self-drainage of the site.
vi. Depths to good/acceptable bearing strata.

D. Site and ground investigations
Sources of information – off site
i. Maps and charts
ii. Geological information – survey maps
iii. Survey data – survey dept./local authority.
iv. Weather pattern/data – meteo. office.
v. Detailed topographical maps – aerial photography.
vi. Enquiries from previous users of site.

Sources of information – on site
i. Site visit – reconnaissance to check availability of services (water, electricity, etc)
ii. Inspection of surrounding buildings.
iii. Water levels of nearby ponds and streams – required to investigate tidal flow, flooding
potential, etc.
iv. Site exploration – trial pits for in-situ exams boring (soil samples) for lab exams.

Site investigations – types
i. Sites for new works – for location, ground works methodology, water table & protection of
excavation.
ii. Defects and failures of existing works – remedial works.
iii. Safety of existing works to adjoining works.
iv. Suitability and availability of materials for various construction purposes.

E. Site exploration
Types
1. Trial pits
hand excavation (up to 2.00m) to a suitable cross section of soil affected by foundation.
a. In-situ soil examinations
b. Soil readily available for lab testing
c. Exposes pipes, cables, water table
d. Used on small to medium size sites
e. Ideal for dry ground

2. Boring
hand or machine bore holes for deep excavation (over 2.00m). Samples collected are lab tested.
a. Requires adequate samples.

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 b. Soil properties test possible (particle size, shear & compressive strength and moisture content.
c. Positions of bore holes related to site plan.

Choice
1. Nature of ground
i. Soil - clay or sand
ii. Rock – soft or hard
2. Topography – geographical features such as terrain
3. Cost

F. Site preparation
Activities prior to start of construction works on site:
1. Site clearance – removal of vegetation, trees, stumps, etc.
2. Oversite excavation – removal of topsoil (usually up to 150mm) and other materials.
3. Soil preservation – removal of termite nests, chemical infestation of site.
4. Accommodation – provision of stores, offices and other facilities.
5. Protection – provision of hoarding/fencing against trespassers.
6. Utilities/Services – provision of power and water, telecom for use on site.
7. Layout – the arrangement of building, facilities and other activities on site.

G. Building drawings
Give information concerning a project.
Graphical presentation of client’s brief.
Means of communication within the project team (in general) design team (specifically).
Produced by design team and implemented by the construction team.
Classified according to the type of information to be communicated.

Drawing classification
1. Design stage
i. Sketch drawings
a. Reflect/represent the concept the project based on the brief
b. Preliminary drawings or sketches or diagrams
c. They show the general intentions of the designer (Architect/Engineer)

2. Production/Working stage

i. Location drawings
a. Block plan –
1. identify site and
2. locate outline of the building in relation to other buildings or plan of
town or locality
b. Site plan
1. Locate position of building in relation to setting out point
2. Means of access to site
3. General site layout
4. Information on services, drainage network, ect

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 c.General location drawings
1. Show the positions occupied by various spaces in the building
2. General construction elements
3. Location of principal elements
4. Assembly details

ii. Components drawings
a. Ranges – set of standard components of a given type
1. Basic sizes
2. System of reference
3. Performance data

b. Details
1. Information for the manufacture of components
2. Information for the application/installation of components



iii. Assembly drawings
1. Show construction details
2. Junctions in and between elements
3. Junctions between elements and components

Drawing scale
i. Block plan – 1:1000/ 1: 1200/ 1:1250
ii. Site plan – 1: 100/1:150/1:200
iii. Location drawings – 1: 50/ 1:75/1:100
iv. Component range – 1:25/1:50
v. Component details – 1:1/1:5/1:10
vi. Assembly drawings – 1:1/1:5/1:10

Drawing sheet sizes
References in accordance with BS 3429
Reference Size (mm)
1. A0 841 x 1189
2. A1 594 x 841
3. A2 420 x 594
4. A3 297 x 420
5. A4 210 x 297

H. Specifications
Definition
“Set of requirements to be satisfied by a product, material or service” – ASTM
Prepared by:
1. Government agencies – statutory organisations eg. EPA, GSB, GFDB, etc
2. Standards organisations – eg. BS, ISO, ASTM, etc

Referred to as Technical Specifications in Construction contracts

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Together with drawings describes the totality of construction process.
Contains requirements for:
1. Materials
2. Workmanship

Details
1. Descriptive title and scope
2. Effective and revision dates
3. Terminology and definitions to clarify the meanings of the specification
4. Test methods for measuring all specified characteristics
5. Person, office, or agency responsible for questions
6. Material requirements: Targets and tolerances.
7. Performance requirements. Targets and tolerances.
8. Workmanship.
9. Certifications required.
10. Safety considerations and requirements.
11. Environmental considerations and requirements.
12. Quality requirements, Statistical sampling, inspections, acceptance criteria.
13. Person, office, or agency responsible enforcement of the specification. .
14. Provisions for rejection, re-inspection, rehearing, corrective measures.

I. Setting-out
Accurate demarcation of the outlines of a proposed building.
In relation to:
i. An existing feature on site:
ii. Adjoining property
Setting out requires
i. Site plan
ii. Block plan

Materials required
1. Measuring tapes & lines.
2. Builders square.
3. Ranging rods.
4. Timber pegs, planks and boards.
5. Nails (38mm to 75mm).
6. Hand saw and hammer.
7. Theodolite or surveying instrument.

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MODULE 4 – NATURAL RESOURCE MATERIALS
A. Rocks
B. Soils
C. Timber

A. Rocks
Definition:
Naturally occurring hard, rigid and strongly cemented mineral deposits.

Classifications
1. Igneous Rock
2. Sedimentary Rock
3. Metamorphic Rock

1. Igneous rock
Oldest form of rock formed from the solidification of cooled magma or molten rock.
Formation process can be with or without crystallisation
Rock formation occurs at the surface (volcanic) or below surface (plutonic).
Example: Granite

2. Sedimentary rock
Formed from older rock materials or sediments.
Formation process starts through weathering or erosion of portions of existing rock
Rock is formed by compaction of sediments in a consolidation process.
Rock exist in layers called strata or beds.
Example: Limestone

3. Metamorphic rock
Formed from the transformation of older rock types.
Formation process is through heating and extreme pressure of rock.
Results in significant physical change and/or chemical change.
Found in layers called strata or beds.
Example: Marble

Rock composition
1. Quartz (Silicon Dioxide)
2. Feldspar
3. Ferromagnesia
4. Calcite

1. Quarz
The second most common mineral in the earth’s crust.
The most important and common ingredient of rock.
Hard and tough and made up of pure silica (sand).
Can only be broken down through mechanical means.

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2. Feldspar
Group of rock-forming minerals.
Feldspar make up about 60% of the earth’s crust – most common mineral.
Occur as crystallised magma or compact minerals.
Subject to chemical breakdown.

3. Ferromagnesia
Refers to a family or rock ingredients made up of crystallised substances.
Comprises silicates of potash or magnesia.
They are often called mica.
Generally soft.
Decomposes when subjected to chemical breakdown.

4. Calcite
Cementitous compound of both carbonate of lime and magnesia.
Possesses good binding qualities and acts as the main binding agent in rocks or stones.
Subject to chemical breakdown.
Dissolves easily and often leaves behind impurities such as clay and iron oxide.

B. Soils
Soils are made up of three main components – SOLID, LIQUID and GAS
Nature and inter-relationship (weight/volume) affect the condition and engineering properties of soil
type.
SOLID MATTER – minerals of graded sizes
LIQUID MATTER – water
GASEOUS MATTER - air

Classification
Enables the identification of a particular soil in order to ascertain its behaviour.
There are 4 broad classifications of Soil.
1. Gravels
2. Sand
3. Silt
4. Clay

Groups
Soils are further classified in 2 broad groups

Non-Cohesive Soils - Gravel and Sand
Coarse grained soils composed of rock fragments and other minerals (small amounts)

Cohesive soils - Silt and Clay
Fine-grained soil. Plastic when moist (absorption by large number of small particles.)
1. Non-Cohesive soil properties
i. Low proportion of voids between soil particles.
ii. Soil is slightly compressible.
iii. Permeable.
iv. Compression occurs quickly.

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 v. Negligible cohesion between particles.
vi. Little variation in volume with change in moisture content.


2. Cohesive soil properties
i. High proportion of voids between particles.
ii. Highly compressible.
iii. High impermeability.
iv. Compression occurs slowly.
v. Considerable cohesion between particles.
vi. Considerable change in volume with change in moisture content.

3. Other soil properties

Soil Structure
Varying shape of soil particles and water sizes and the filling of spaces in between by air.

Shrinkage & Swelling
Removal or addition of water to soil particles and the resultant movement.

Consolidation
Application of external pressure and the displacement of water between particles.

C. Timber
Wood that has been processed for use. i.e. from felling of tree to its end product use.
Obtainable from natural sources.
Available in numerous species locally.
Produced from conversion of the log of trees.
Has a wide range of uses in building construction.

Selection
Selection depends on the following factors.
1. Decorative works – Appearance.
2. Structural Use - Strength, moisture movement and dimensional stability.
3. External Uses (weather exposure) - Natural durability and ease of preservation.

Timber for building purposes
Two groups:
Group 1: Construction purposes – structural timber.
Group 2: Decorative work and finishes – interior decorations.

Structural timber
1. Odum (Iroko)
Very hard and durable wood
High resistance to insect and termite attack
Uses: Heavy construction such as roof members

2. Kusia (Opepe)

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 Hard wood and medium heavy
Uses: Heavy construction such as roof members

Decorative Timber
1. Kokrodua (Afromosia)
Hard wood medium heavy and durable.
Uses: Panelled work, flooring and furniture

2. Cedar (Sapele)
Medium hard and moderately durable
Uses: Panelling, furniture, construction joinery, decorative veneer and plywood
Durability of timber
Most important factor in long term and external use.
Enhanced by: proper seasoning and an appropriate moisture content.

Seasoning
Process of reducing the moisture content of new timber/log to convenient level.
1. Air Seasoning
2. Kiln seasoning

Air Seasoning
Natural drying process of reducing the moisture content of timber.

Process
i. Reduce logs to practical sizes and sections;
ii. Stake them under a shed; and
iii. Allow sufficient air circulation.

Kiln Seasoning
Artificial and mechanical drying process

Process
i. Reduce logs to practical sizes and sections.
ii. Pass timber through specially designed chambers.
iii. Allow generated steam vapour or hot air to circulate.

Preservation of timber
Preservation often against:
i. Insect and termite attack.
ii. Weather.
Chemical used:
i. Tar oil (creosotes).
ii. Solignum.
iii. Painting.
iv. Organic solvents.

Methods of preservation
i. Brush and spraying – flooding of surface for timber to absorb chemical
ii. Dipping – complete immersion

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 iii. Deluging – production line process
iv. Steeping – dipping of permeable timber for penetration of chemical

Other timber based product
Plywood
Assembled product of plies and adhesive.
Cross plies arrangement as major characteristics.
Distributes longitudinal wood strength.
Makes plywood dimensionally stable in both directions.

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MODULE 5 – PROCESSED MATERIALS
A. Bricks & Blocks,
B. Lime & Cement,
C. Concrete
D. Metals
E. Plastics
F. Paints

A. Bricks and blocks
Commonly referred to as “masonry”
Oldest building materials used by man.
Construction principle is based on building stable bonded (interlocking) stacks of handleable pieces.
Can be used to carry imposed loads on a building or partition spaces within a building.

Work sizes
Size of the unit specified for its manufacture to which the actual size should conform within specified
permissible limits

1. Brick
215mm long by 65mm high by 102.5mm deep

2. Block
440mm long by 215mm high by 75 to 225mm deep

Types of masonry unit
1. Solid
No designed voids other than those in material.

2. Frogged
With a depression in one or both faces with total frog volume less than 20% of gross.

3. Cellular
One or more deep holes in one bed face with total volume exceeding 20% but not penetrating through
to the other side.

4. Perforated
Having one or more holes passing from one face to the opposite face, usually vertical.

5. Hollow
Having one or more formed holes or cavities passing through the unit.

6. Special
A range of special units for curves, plinths, capping, etc.

Sandcrete block
“Walling units made from coarse natural sand or crushed stone dust mixed with cement and water and
pressed to shape” (Baiden & Tuuli 2004)

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Mix proportion is 1:6 parts of cement to sand
Minimum strengths
Load bearing 2.75N/mm²
Non-load bearing 1.40N/mm²

Common types produced in Ghana
Solid and Hollow

Common methods of manufacture
Hand ramming
Manual tamping
Motorised vibration

Desirable propoerties
i. High compressive strength
ii. Low shrinkage
iii. Low moisture movement
iv. Low thermal movement
v. Dense
vi. Durable

Factors affecting quality
i. Quality of constituent materials
ii. Batching of aggregates
iii. Mixing of constituent materials
iv. Method of moulding/production
v. Curing
vi. Transportation and storage
vii. Mix ratio
viii. Water content

B. Lime and Cement
Lime
Used as sole cementitous ingredient in mortars, rendering or plasters.
Slow and small strength development.
Not recommended for use in concrete.
Used as white wash to wall surfaces prior to emulsion painting.

Types of lime
Two basic types –Hydraulic and Non-Hydraulic.

1. Hydraulic lime
Produced by burning chalk or limestone.
Materials contains impurities - clay.
Results in a product similar to Portland cement.
Hydraulic limes set and harden under water.

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2. Non-hydraulic lime
Commonly called fat or pure lime.
Produced from pure limestone Calcium carbonate.
Comprises high calcium and magnesium limes.
Require air to harden and will not set under water.

Cement
Fine grey powder commonly known as a hydraulic material.
Depends on only water rather than air to set, harden and develop strength.
The type used in Ghana - Portland cement (Ordinary and Rapid Hardening)
Main ingredients – Calcium oxide and silicon dioxide (silica).

Setting of cement
Setting - chemical reaction in a cement paste.
Refers to the stiffening of the paste or onset of rigidity when cement is mixed with water.
Setting takes place in 2 main stages
Initial set – between 30 and 90 minutes of mixing
Final set – not later than 10 hours after mixing

Hardening of cement
Refers to the useful/significant strength development.
It occurs during the hydration process of the cement.
Portland cement takes 28 days to achieve maximum design strength.
Initial strength development is high and then becomes gradual after 7 days.

Types of portland cement
i. Ordinary/Normal
ii. High Early Strength
iii. Rapid Hardening
iv. Sulphate Resisting
v. Low Heat
vi. Waterproof
vii. Water repellent.

Cement manufacture
Produced by heating a slurry of clay (silica, alumina and iron oxide) with limestone (calcium
carbonate) in a rotating furnace.
Clinker is produced from the process.
A small amount of gypsum is added to the clinker.
They are then ground into a fine powder in a ball mill.

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Oxide composition
OXIDE& CHEMICAL&SYMBOL& RANGE&(%)&
Lime% CaO% 59%–%65%
Silica% SICa2% 19%–%25%
Alumina% Al2O3% 5%–%9%
Iron% Fe2O3% 1%:%5%
Magnesia% MgO% 1%:%5%
Sulphur% % %
Trioxide% SO3% 1%:%5%


Principal compounds
There are FOUR principal compounds in cement.
1. Tricalcium Silicate C3S
2. Dicalcium Silicate C2S
3. Tricalcium Aluminate C3A
4. Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite C4AF
All four compounds have different effects

1. Tricalcium Silicate
• Hardens rapidly.
• Initial set early strength development.
• Early strength is higher with higher C3S.

2. Dicalcium Silicate
• Hardens rapidly.
• Contributes to strength increase at ages beyond 7 days – gradual strength development.

3. Tricalcium Aluminate
• Contributes to early strength development.
• Liberates large amounts of heat in early days.
• Low amounts high resistance to sulphate soils.

4. Tetracalcium Alluminoferrite
• Reduces clinkering temperature.
• Makes cement production economical.
• No Strength contribution.

High Alumina Cement
Manufacture
• Manufactured from a composition of Bauxite and limestone.
• Bauxite and limestone are fused continuously in reverberatory furnaces and cast into pigs.
• They are then cooled and the extremely hard product is ground into fine powder (cement).
• Alumina content is about 40%.

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Properties
• Exhibits remarkable rapid hardening properties.
• Presence of Calcium Aluminate instead of Calcium Silicate in Portland cements.
• Strength at 24hrs comparable with full age strength of Portland cement.
• High resistance to chemical and acid agents.
• Suitable for heat resistance work and fire-proofing.

Setting and use
• Initial set between 2 to 6 hours after mixing with water.
• Final set not more than 2 hours after initial set.
• Setting is accompanied by intense heat liberation during hydration.
• Not recommended for use in massive structures.
• Not to be used together with Portland cement due to differential chemical reaction.

C. Concrete
A mixture of aggregate bound together by a cement paste consisting of four materials
1. Cement
2. Coarse aggregates (stones)
3. Fine aggregates (sand)
4. Water

Constituents
1. Cement
Ordinary Portland cement
Manufactured to BS 12/ 1971 or A2 GSB Specifications

2. Water
Fit for human consumption
Free from impurities such as suspended solids, organic matter and salts.

3. Aggregates
Crushed rock or natural gravel.
Strong and free from reactive constituents.
Well graded
Low or no moisture content
Round and angular shapes
Avoid flaky and elongated shapes.

Properties
Properties depend on:
i. Constituent mix
ii. Thoroughness of mix
iii. Conditions of humidity and temperature from placing to hardening.

Desirable properties in two states:
1. Plastic or Fresh
2. Hardened

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1. Plastic or fresh concrete
1. Workability
2. Consistency
3. Uniformity of mix
4. Cohesiveness
5. Plasticity

2. Hardened concrete
Two most essential properties of hardened concrete are:
1. Strength
2. Durability
Others are:
1. High Fire resistance,
2. Low permeability,
3. High chemical and abrasion resistance and
4. Low thermal movement.

Factors affecting variability in concrete strength
1. Quality of constituent materials
2. Proportions of materials
3. Grading of aggregates
4. Water content
5. Transporting, placing and compaction
6. Curing

Limitations of concrete
1. Strength variation with mix proportion, low stiffness compared with steel and low strength to
weight ratio – reinforcement.
2. Drying shrinkage and moisture movement – contraction and construction joints.
3. Thermal movements – expansion joints.
4. Permeability – proper control of mix and provision of water bars.

Concrete production
Commonly called batching by:
1. Volume or
2. Weight.

Densities
i. Cement – 1440kg/m3
ii. Coarse Aggregate – 1600kg/m3
iii. Fine Aggregate – 1360kg/m3

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Batching of 1:2:4 concrete

Dry$ Propor Weight$by$ Propor2

Density$ 2on$by$ Vol$of$ on$by$
kg/m3$ volume$ Cement$ weight$
Kg/m3$
Cement$ 1440$ 1$ 1440$ 1$

Stone$ 1600$ 2$ 3200$ 2.2$

Sand$ 1360$ 4$ 5440$ 3.8$

Water
This is calculated from water/cement ratio
For example if the w/c is 0.5
Then:
Weight of water = 1440 x 0.5
= 720kg
= 720 litres

Concrete production
Production of concrete is by:
1. Hand mixing - manual means.
2. Concrete mixers - single drum compartment.
3. Truck mixers – truck mounted drum mixing.
4. Batching plant – high capacity production.

D. Metals
Metals are described as:
1. Ferrous
1. Based on iron.
2. Examples: cast iron and steel.
2. Non-ferrous
1. Based on other metals.
2. Aluminium, copper and zinc

Iron
Obtained from naturally occurring ore. These include:
1. Cast iron
i. Ordinary
ii. Heavy duty
2. Wrought Iron
3. Steel
i. Low carbon,
ii. Mild steel,

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 iii. Medium carbon,
iv. High carbon
v. Alloys.

1. Cast iron
Contains a high carbon content.
Very hard and brittle.
Good strength and resistant to impact.
Mostly used in construction for:
i. Pipes and fittings in services.
ii. Hard facing of tunnels.
iii. Earth-moving equipment.

2. Steel
Contains a lower carbon content.
Strong in both compression and tension.
Economical materials – high weight to strength ratio.
Mostly used in construction for:
i. Reinforcement – mild and high carbon.
ii. Steel frames and structures.

Non-Ferrous metals
Used in buildings as non-structural materials

They include:
i. Zinc – roofing and oxide used as paint pigment.
ii. Copper – piping.
iii. Aluminium – cladding, roofing and glazing.

Common alloys
Contains more than one metal.
Used for non-structural and decorative purposes within a building.
1. Brass
Copper and Zinc

2. Bronze
Copper and tin

E. Plastics
Nature
Carbon-based organic materials produced by the chemical industry
Raw material required to produce plastic come from the petroleum and gas industry.
Produced from the linking together monomers (carbon atoms in simple molecules) to form polymers.

Classification
1. Chemical structure or molecular units
2. Chemical process used in the synthesis of the material.
3. Physical properties

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 4. Resistance to chemical products
5. Relevant manufacturing qualities or product design.

Properties of plastics
i. Good tensile strength: good weight ratio but low modulus of elasticity - not suitable for load-
bearing work.
ii. Combustible and high rate of fire spread
iii. Excellent insulators – for electrical cables
iv. High thermal movement
v. Low moisture absorption
vi. Durable against rot and resistant to building chemicals

Types
Type of plastics to be considered are those that exhibit certain qualities due to their manufacturing
process.
These are:
1. Thermoplastics
2. Thermoset or thermosetting plastics
3. Fibre reinforced plastics.

1. Thermoplastics
Become soft when heated and hard when cooled provided it is not overheated.
Elastic and flexible within temperature limits so they can be reshaped a number of times.
Exhibit wide range of properties when modified by adhesives.
Examples: Polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene.

Uses
a. Polyethylene (PE)
i. Cold water cisterns and floats
ii. Water pipes
iii. Bath, basins and water sinks
iv. Damp proof courses and membrane
v. Temporary glazing and protection
vi. Concrete curing

b. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)/Unplasticised (rigid) PVC (uPVC)
i. Ventilation ducts.
ii. Soil and waste systems.
iii. Transparent and translucent sheets.
iv. Electrical conduits and accessories.
v. Electrical cable insulation.
vi. Window frames.

c. Polyvinyl Acetate (PVAC)
i. Adhesive for joinery
ii. Paints
iii. In-situ floor covering

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 d. Polystyrene (PS)
i. Tiles for walls and ceilings
ii. Concrete formwork

2. Thermosetting plastics
Undergo irreversible chemical change to a mouldable form that can be rigid and hard.
They cannot be re-softened by heat.
They are usually liquid or malleable prior to hardening process.
Resist scratching to varying degrees.
Examples: Polyester and phenol resin

Uses
a. Phenol formaldehyde (PF)
a. Mouldings – electrical accessories, wc seats, adhesives, cellular formed products.

b. Epoxide resins (EP)
a. In-situ flooring
b. Concrete repair compositions
c. Glass fibre reinforced plastics
d. Adhesives

3. Fibre reinforced plastics
Formed from fibres arranged in uni-directional, multi-directional or random patterns.
Impregnated with synthetic resins.
Fibres are usually glass in a fabric form.

Used for:
Translucent sheeting, Architectural features, Cladding, Hot water cylinders, cold water cistern, shower
cubicles, etc.

F. Paints
A liquid composition applied to a base in thin layers that convert to an opaque solid film when dry.
Base of application can be any object.
Paints comprise 3 primary components:
1. Pigments
2. Binder
3. Solvent

1. Pigment
• Imparts colour and opacity to paint.
• Influences properties such as gloss, film flow and protective abilities
• There are two main types of pigments:
1. Prime pigment – inorganic and dull, or organic and bright but expensive
2. Extender pigment – natural or synthetic

2. Binder
• Actual film forming component of paint.
• Imparts adhesion.

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• Binds the pigments together.
• Strongly influences properties such as gloss potential, external durability, toughness and
flexibility.
• Can be natural or synthetic resins.

3. Solvent
• Responsible for adjusting the viscosity of the paint.
• Controls flow and application properties.
• Carries the volatile components.
• It is volatile and does not become part of the paint film.
• Vary according to the paint type.

Additives and fillers
Additional components outside the 3 main ones
i. Additives:
They are added to improve any required special function or performance of the paint.

ii. Fillers:
They serve to thicken the film.
Support the paint structures.
Increase the volume of the paint.

Types of paint
1. Gloss Paint
• Oil-based solvent and include a resin.
• Hard wearing quality.
• Resistant to dirt.
• Cannot dissolve in water (washable)
• Requires an undercoat.
• Has a high gloss (shinny) finish.

2. Non-Drip (Thixotropic)
• An alternative to gloss paint.
• Has jelly-like consistency.
• Easy to apply if brush is not overloaded.
• Do not normally require an undercoat.
• Except for exterior wood work and weather resisting finish.

3. Emulsion Paint
• Water based with acrylic or vinyl resins.
• Resins makes them hard-wearing.
• Smell less, dries quickly and easy to apply.
• Can be matt, eggshell, silk, satin or full gloss.
• Popular for use on interior walls and ceilings.

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Other types of paint
i. Fire Retarding Paint
• Contain additives that reduce the spread of fire.
• Do not completely resist fire.

ii. Anti-Condensation Paint
• Used for humid conditions such as kitchens and bathrooms.

iii. Bituminous Paint
• Generally not considered as paint.
• Thick and usually black.
• Used where waterproofing is required.
• Cracks when frozen and sticky in hot weather.
• Difficult to paint over conventional paints.
• Requires aluminium paint to seal surface to prevent bitumen bleeding.

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READING LIST
1. Greeno, R., Chudley, R., Topliss, S. & Hurst M. (2011) Construction Technology, 5th ed, Prentice
Hall.
2. Emmit, S. & Gorse, C. (2010), Barry's Introduction to Construction of Buildings, 2nd ed, Wiley -
Blackwell
3. Greeno, R. & Osbourn, D. (2012), Mitchell’s Introduction to Building (Mitchells Building Series),
4th ed., Prentice Hall.
4. Foster, J.S. Harrington, R. & Greeno, R. (2013), Structure and Fabric: Pt. 1 (Mitchells Building
Series),7th ed, Routledge.

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