College of Engineering

Department of Civil Engineering

Structural Engineering Exit Exam
Module
For Bachelor of Science Degree in Civil Engineering

Prepared By: Eyasu Yacob (MSc.)

Reviewed By:
Jonathan Kuma (MSc.)
Getnet Kassahun (MSc.)
Akililu Tesfaye (MSc.)
1
Background of Civil Engineering

Civil Engineering as defined by the London based Institute of Civil Engineers (ICE) is a great art,
on which the wealth and well-being of the whole of society depends. Its essential feature, as distinct
from science and the arts, is the exercise of imagination to fashion the products, processes and
people needed to create a sustainable physical and natural built environment. It requires a broad
understanding of scientific principles, knowledge of materials and the art of analysis and synthesis.
It also requires research, team working, leadership and business skills. A Civil Engineer is
someone who practices all or part of this art.

Civil Engineering concerns the study of conception, design, construction and maintenance of large
public and private projects. Civil engineers build and maintain bridges, highways, railways,
tunnels, airports, dams, water treatment and distribution systems and large buildings, along with
many other structures. Environmental considerations, such as water supply, pollution control and
preservation of soil quality, are also a part of the course of study. With thorough knowledge of
both the principles of construction and the possible environmental consequences of a structure, the
Civil engineer's expertise is one that is essential to our present Civilization and one that will
become ever more valuable in the future.
In a developing country like Ethiopia, Civil Engineering has great role and contribution to the
economic development and improvement of the living standard of the people. As infrastructure
developments are indicators of improved livelihood and ways of investment attractions and
tourism, contribution of Civil Engineering in this regard is very crucial.

Therefore, this area of study by which many Ethiopians would be produced to serve our country
must have clear focus areas that enable speeded up and sustainable achievements in improving the
country’s infrastructure facilities.

Civil Engineering undergraduate program is aimed at creating well-qualified Civil Engineers

with adequate knowledge in the area of structural, highway, geotechnical and water resources and
who can be actively engaged in the planning, development and management of Civil Engineering
projects. Currently 33 public higher institutions host Civil Engineering as undergraduate programs
and thousands of new graduates join the construction industry every year. It has been reported that
most these graduates lack the required competency by the stakeholders who hires them. One of the
recommended strategies is the implementation of university exit examination for prospective
graduates to tackle this problem. University Exit Exam is a standardized comprehensive
curriculum-based test which is designed to assess if students have achieved the minimum
competence that was stipulated in the graduates’ profile. The implementation of exit examination
is related to improvement of the quality of higher education. The feedback from the results of exit
examination is expected to be contributory for institutional improvement. This draft document is
aimed to present the major structural engineering courses which should be included in the
preparation of Exit Exam for Civil Engineering graduates.

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Structural Engineering Thematic Areas

The thematic areas in Civil Engineering program are very critical in analysing the
students’ capabilities in that area. This helps potential employers to identify graduates’
potential and assign them to required jobs.
Structural Analysis and Design learning outcomes

➢ Get basic knowledge on properties and strength of major construction materials.

➢ Carry out basic and advance structural frame analysis with various loading conditions using
different methods of structural analysis.
➢ Comprehends structural mechanics of different civil structures and apply the knowledge in
the design of the structures
➢ Analyze and dimension different structural members using Ethiopian and other standards.
➢ Ability to apply basic design procedures to design different structural members in a manner
which ensures the safety and utility of the structure.
➢ Solve dimensioning and design problems
➢ Analyze and design of complex structural elements

Courses related to Structural Engineering thematic areas

▪ Reinforced Concrete Structures I

▪ Reinforced Concrete Structures II
▪ Steel & Timber Structures
▪ Fundamental of Bridge Design
▪ Structural Design

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Contents
BACKGROUND OF CIVIL ENGINEERING................................................................................................................... 2
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING THEMATIC AREAS ...................................................................................................... 3
CHAPTER 1 ............................................................................................................................................................. 8
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................................... 8
1.1 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS .................................................................................................................................... 8
1.2 LOADS ON STRUCTURES ................................................................................................................................... 9
1.2.1 CLASSIFICATIONS OF LOADS ............................................................................................................................... 9
1.2.2 COMBINATION OF ACTIONS ............................................................................................................................ 11
REFERENCES......................................................................................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER 2 ........................................................................................................................................................... 13
REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES ................................................................................................................. 13
2.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................................. 13
2.1.1 PROPERTIES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE ............................................................................................................. 13
2.1.2 REINFORCED CONCRETE (AS A COMPOSITE MATERIAL) .............................................................................. 18
2.1.3 BEHAVIOR OF RC BEAM UNDER LATERAL LOADING .................................................................................. 19
2.1.4 DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES (METHODS) ........................................................................................................... 21
2.1.5 BUILDING DESIGN CODES PROVISIONS ...................................................................................................... 25
2.1.6 PATTERNS OF LIVE LOAD ARRANGEMENT FOR MAXIMUM EFFECTS ........................................................... 31
2.2 DESIGN OF BEAMS FOR FLEXURE USING WORKING STRESS DESIGN (WSD) METHODS ................................... 31
2.2.1 BASIC ASSUMPTION: ..................................................................................................................................... 31
2.2.2 DESIGN EQUATIONS FOR SINGLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR SECTION .................................................... 31
2.2.3 TYPE OF SINGLY REINFORCED BEAM SECTIONS-BASED ON MODES OF STRESSES ....................................... 34
2.2.4 CONTROL OF DEFLECTION .............................................................................................................................. 36
2.2.5 DOUBLY-REINFORCED RECTANGULAR BEAM SECTION ........................................................................................... 38
2.2.6 DESIGN EQUATION FOR DOUBLY-REINFORCED RECTANGULAR SECTION ..................................................................... 38
2.2.7 FLANGED SECTION (T- OR L-SECTION) UNDER FLEXURE ............................................................................ 40
2.2.8 DESIGN OF FLANGED BEAMS FOR FLEXURE ............................................................................................... 42
2.2.9 DESIGN EQUATIONS OF T-BEAM SECTION -WORKING STRESS (ELASTIC) METHOD ...................................... 42
2.3 BASIC CONCEPTS OF DESIGN .......................................................................................................................... 44
2.3.1 LIMIT STATE DESIGN FOR FLEXURE AND SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE ........................................................................ 44
2.3.1.1 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS.................................................................................................................................. 44
2.3.1.2 DESIGN EQUATIONS FOR SINGLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR SECTION: ................................................ 44
2.3.1.3 DOUBLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR SECTION ..................................................................................... 51
2.3.1.4 FLANGED SECTION (T- OR L-SECTION) UNDER FLEXURE ......................................................................... 54
2.3.1.6 ONE-WAY RC SLABS ............................................................................................................................. 62
2.3.1.7 SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATES OF DEFLECTION AND CRACK WIDTH ......................................................... 66
2.3.2 THE ULS OF SHEAR AND BOND, ANCHORAGE AND DEVELOPMENT LENGTH ................................................................ 71
2.3.2.1 THE ULS DESIGN OF BEAMS FOR SHEAR ......................................................................................................... 71
2.3.2.2 DESIGN CRITERIA ..................................................................................................................................... 71
2.3.2.3 BOND, ANCHORAGE AND DEVELOPMENT LENGTH ............................................................................................ 73
2.3.2.4 DEVELOPMENT LENGTH .............................................................................................................................. 75
2.3.2.5 BAR CUT OFF AND BEND POINTS .................................................................................................................. 77
2.3.2.6 BAR SPLICES............................................................................................................................................ 78
2.4 TWO WAY BEAM SUPPORTED SLABS ............................................................................................................. 79
2.4.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 79

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 2.4.2 ANALYSIS BY MEANS OF COEFFICIENTS .................................................................................................... 80
2.5 DESIGN OF COLUMNS .................................................................................................................................... 83
2.5.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................ 83
2.5.2 AXIAL COMPRESSION ..................................................................................................................................... 87
2.5.3 COLUMNS WITH MOMENTS............................................................................................................................. 87
2.5.4 DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS FROM EBCS 2, 1995 .................................................................................................... 89
2.6 YIELD LINE THEORY OF SLABS ......................................................................................................................... 92
2.6.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................ 92
2.6.2 UPPER AND LOWER BOUND THEOREM: .............................................................................................................. 93
2.6.3 METHOD OF YIELD LINE ANALYSIS ..................................................................................................................... 94
2.6.3.1 Equilibrium method of Analysis ........................................................................................................ 95
2.6.3.2 Virtual work method of Analysis ....................................................................................................... 96
2.6.4 MOMENTS ALONG SKEWED YIELD LINES ............................................................................................................. 98
2.6.5 EFFECTS OF RESTRAINED CORNERS .................................................................................................................. 100
2.6.6 SLABS WITH MORE THAN ONE VARIABLE ........................................................................................................... 100
2.7 FLAT SLABS................................................................................................................................................... 101
2.7.1 PRACTICAL ANALYSIS OF FLAT SLABS ............................................................................................................... 102
REFERENCES....................................................................................................................................................... 106
CHAPTER 3 ......................................................................................................................................................... 107
DESIGN OF STEEL AND TIMBER STRUCTURES ..................................................................................................... 107
3.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................ 107
3.1.1 TYPES OF STEEL STRUCTURES ................................................................................................................ 107
3.1.2 STRUCTURAL MEMBERS.......................................................................................................................... 107
3.1.3 STRUCTURAL DESIGN ............................................................................................................................. 108
3.1.4 DESIGN METHODS .................................................................................................................................. 108
3.1.5 MATERIAL BEHAVIOR ............................................................................................................................ 109
3.1.6 STRUCTURAL STEEL SHAPES .................................................................................................................. 111
3.2 TENSION MEMBERS ............................................................................................................................... 113
3.2.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 113
3.2.2 TYPES OF TENSION MEMBERS ................................................................................................................. 113
3.2.3 STRENGTH DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS .............................................................................................. 114
3.2.4 LIMIT STATE DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS ............................................................................................ 118
3.2.5 SLENDERNESS RATIO ............................................................................................................................. 118
3.3 DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS .............................................................................................. 119
3.3.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 119
3.3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF CROSS-SECTIONS ..................................................................................................... 119
3.3.3 BEHAVIOR OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS:.................................................................................................. 120
3.3.4 COLUMN DESIGN ................................................................................................................................... 120
3.3.4.2 Resistance of Compression members .............................................................................................. 120
3.4 FLEXURAL MEMBERS .......................................................................................................................... 122
3.4.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 122
3.4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF CROSS-SECTIONS ..................................................................................................... 123
3.4.3 DESIGN CRITERIA FOR FLEXURAL MEMBERS ........................................................................................... 123
3.4.4 ETHIOPIAN BUILDING CODE STANDARD EBCS 3 1995 ............................................................................ 124
3.5 STRUCTURAL CONNECTIONS ........................................................................................................................ 134
3.5.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 134

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3.6 COMBINED BENDING AND AXIAL LOAD MEMBERS ...................................................................................... 141
3.6.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 141
3.6.2 OVERALL STABILITY ..................................................................................................................................... 142
3.6.3 LIMIT STATE DESIGN, EBCS 3 1995 ............................................................................................................... 143
3.6.4 LIMIT STATE DESIGN, AISC-LRFD SPECIFICATION .......................................................................................... 147
REFERENCES....................................................................................................................................................... 151
CHAPTER 4 ......................................................................................................................................................... 152
STRUCTURAL DESIGN ......................................................................................................................................... 152
4.1 ANALYSIS OF LATERAL LOADS ON STRUCTURES ........................................................................................... 152
4.1.1 ANALYSIS OF WIND LOAD ON STRUCTURES.................................................................................................. 152
4.1.2 ANALYSIS OF EARTHQUAKE LOAD ON STRUCTURES ............................................................................................. 157
4.2 STRIP METHOD FOR SLABS ........................................................................................................................... 160
4.2.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 160
4.2.2 BASIC PRINCIPLES ....................................................................................................................................... 161
4.3 PLASTIC ANALYSIS OF FRAME STRUCTURES ................................................................................................. 168
4.3.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 168
4.3.2 PLASTIC HINGE THEORY ............................................................................................................................... 169
4.3.3 METHOD OF ANALYSIS ................................................................................................................................ 170
4.3.4 FRAMES ................................................................................................................................................... 171
REFERENCES....................................................................................................................................................... 173
CHAPTER 5 ......................................................................................................................................................... 174
BRIDGE DESIGN.................................................................................................................................................. 174
5.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................ 174
5.1.1 TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM AND BRIDGES ......................................................................................................... 174
5.2 INVESTIGATION FOR BRIDGES ...................................................................................................................... 175
5.2.1 BRIDGE SITE SELECTION ............................................................................................................................... 175
5.2.2 SOIL INVESTIGATION .............................................................................................................................. 176
5.2.3 FIELD SKETCHING AND PHOTOS .............................................................................................................. 177
5.3 TYPES OF BRIDGES AND THEIR SELECTION ................................................................................................... 178
5.3.1 TYPES OF BRIDGES ...................................................................................................................................... 178
5.3.2 SELECTION OF BRIDGE TYPE................................................................................................................... 179
5.4 BRIDGE LOADINGS ....................................................................................................................................... 181
5.4.1 TYPES OF LOADS......................................................................................................................................... 181
5.5 SUPERSTRUCTURES ...................................................................................................................................... 187
5.5.1 REINFORCED CONCRETE BRIDGES: .......................................................................................................... 188
5.5.2 STEEL BRIDGE: ...................................................................................................................................... 192
5.5.3 ARCH BRIDGE: ....................................................................................................................................... 193
5.5.4 CABLE STAYED BRIDGE: ........................................................................................................................ 194
5.5.5 SUSPENSION BRIDGE: ............................................................................................................................. 194
5.6 SUBSTRUCTURES .......................................................................................................................................... 195
5.6.1 PIERS ..................................................................................................................................................... 195
5.6.2 BACKWALL AND WINGWALL .................................................................................................................. 196
5.6.3 ABUTMENTS .......................................................................................................................................... 196

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 5.6.4 DESIGN OF BACKWALL ABUTMENTS ....................................................................................................... 197
5.6.5 SCOUR ................................................................................................................................................... 199
5.7 BEARINGS AND RAILINGS .................................................................................................................... 200
5.7.1 BEARINGS .............................................................................................................................................. 200
5.7.2 RAILINGS ............................................................................................................................................... 202
5.8 CULVERTS AND LOW-LEVEL WATER CROSSINGS ........................................................................ 203
5.8.1 CULVERTS ............................................................................................................................................. 203
5.8.2 LOW LEVEL WATER CROSSINGS ............................................................................................................. 206
REFERENCES....................................................................................................................................................... 208

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Structural Analysis

Structural analysis is the prediction of the performance of a given structure under prescribed
loads and/or other external effects, such as support movements and temperature changes. The

performance characteristics commonly of interest in the design of structures are (1) stresses or
stress resultants, such as axial forces, shear forces, and bending moments; (2) deflections; and (3)
support reactions. Thus, the analysis of a structure usually involves determination of these
quantities as caused by a given loading condition.
Classification of structures

Structures in general can be classified as

1. Skeletal structures – Idealized to a series of straight or curved lines – Eg. Roof trusses,
lattice girders, building frames etc
2. Surface structures – Idealized to a plane or curved surface – Eg., slabs, shells etc
3. Solid structures – massive structures having all the three dimensions considerably large –
Eg. Dam, solid retaining walls etc
Skeletal structures can further be classified as

1. Pin jointed structures – Considered to be of frictionless joints connected by pins, members

are subjected only to axial tension and/or axial compression due to the externally applied
loads being applied only at the joints
2. Rigid jointed structures – Angles between the joined members remain unchanged even
after loads being applied, members may be subjected to bending moments, twisting
moments, shear forces and axial forces
Skeletal frames may also be classified as

1. Plane frame – All members and the applied loads are assumed to be in one plane
2. Space frame (three dimensional frame) – All members do not lie in one plane and there by
forces/loads also do not fall in one plane
Equations of static equilibrium
According to cartesian coordinate system, equations of static equilibrium are written as

ΣFx = ΣFy = ΣFz = 0 – Algebraic sums of components of all external forces along x, y and z axes
=0

ΣMx = ΣMy = ΣMz = 0 – Algebraic sums of components of all moments along x, y and z axes = 0

External forces can be divided in to two groups: 1. Applied loads, 2. Reactive forces

8
For the static equilibrium of plane structures three equations of equilibrium are enough to be
satisfied. They are, ΣFx = 0, ΣFy= 0 and ΣMz = 0.

For the static equilibrium of space structures all the above mentioned six equations of equilibrium
are to be satisfied.

Degree of static indeterminacy

Statically indeterminate structures are those structures which cannot be analyzed with the help of
equations of static equilibrium alone. A structure is statically indeterminate when it possesses more
members or is supported by more reactive restraints than are strictly necessary for stability and
equilibrium. In analysis of statically indeterminate structures, the number of unknowns is greater
than the number of independent equations derived from the conditions of static equilibrium.
Additional equations based on the compatibility of deformation must be written in order to obtain
sufficient number of equations for the determination of all the unknowns. The number of such
additional equations required for the determination of all the unknowns is known as the degree of
static indeterminacy or degree of redundancy of the structure.

1.2 Loads on Structures

All structures are subjected to loads from their function and due to other unavoidable
circumstances. Establishment of the loads that act on a structure is one of the most difficult and
important steps in the design process.

The loads that act on a structure can be classified into three categories: dead loads, live loads and
environmental loads. Because the method of analysis is the same for each category of loading, all
loads can be combined before analysis is performed. However, separate analyses are usually
carried out to facilitate the consideration of various load combinations.

Different types of loads that may come on structures during their life period and their combination
for design will be discussed in this chapter.

1.2.1 Classifications of loads

1. Dead Loads

Dead loads are those that act on structures as a result of the weight of the structure itself and of
components that are permanent fixtures. As a result dead loads have fixed magnitudes and
positions. Examples of dead loads are the weights of the structural members, the weight of
permanent partitions, roof materials, ceilings and of fixed service equipment’s.

The dead loads on a structure can be determined from the sizes of various components and unit
weights of materials of construction. A complete list of minimum design loads for various building
components, such as typical flooring, ceiling and roofing materials is given in codes and standards.
Table 2.1 gives unit weight of construction materials from Ethiopian Building Code and
Standards1 (EBCS 1, 1995)

2. Live load or imposed load

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Live loads are those acting on structures during construction and due to use or occurrence of the
structures. These are of temporary nature. They are fixed neither in magnitude nor in direction
(position).
These loads can further be classified as moving loads, movable loads and time dependent loads.

Moving loads are those whose position changes rapidly. Examples are vehicular loads on bridges
and crane loads in industrial buildings
Movable loads are those whose position change in position takes place over an extended period of
time such as people, merchandize, non-fixed furniture and equipment, stored material in a ware
house and movable partitions in an office building.

Time dependent loads are those whose magnitude as a function of time.

3. Occupancy loads for buildings

As explained in EBCS 1, imposed loads on buildings are those arising from occupancy. They
may be caused by:
(a) normal use by persons;

(b) furniture and moveable objects (e. g. lightweight moveable partitions, storage, the contents of
containers;)

(c) machines and vehicles

(d) exceptional use, such as exceptional concentrations of persons or of furniture, or the moving
or stacking of commodities which may occur during reorganization or redecoration.

Occupancy live loads for buildings are usually specified in terms of the minimum values that must
be used for design purposes. For characteristic live load specifications refer EBCS 1-1995.
4. Traffic loads for bridges

Bridges must be designed to support vehicular loads associated with their functional use and
minimum loads are suggested in highway codes and standards for design purposes. In Ethiopia
there is ERA design manual for bridge design.
5. Impact loads

Loads that are applied over a very short period of time have greater effect on the structure than
would occur if the same loads were applied statically. The static response must be multiplied by
impact factor to obtain the dynamic response. Refer for Categories of Building Areas Table 2.9,
2.11 & 2.13 and Imposed loads on floors areas Table 2.10, 2.12 and 2.14 of EBCS 1.

6. Environmental loads
There are numerous loading conditions that a structure experiences as a result of the environment
in which it exists. Examples are snow load, rain load, wind loads and earthquake loads. In this
topic we will consider wind and earthquake loads because they are applicable in Ethiopia.
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 a. Wind load
The wind loads that act on a structure result from change of velocity of air, due to obstruction by
the structure, friction between air and the structure and possible aerodynamic force. Wind actions
are fluctuating with time. They act directly on the external surfaces of enclosed structures and
through porosity of external surface, also act indirectly on the internal surfaces. They may also
directly affect the internal surface of open structures. Pressures act on areas of the surface
producing forces normal to the surface for the structure or for individual cladding components.
Additionally, when large areas of structures are swept by the wind, frictional forces acting
tangentially to the surface may be significant.

Wind action is represented either as a wind pressure or a wind force. The action on the structure
caused by the wind pressure is assumed to act normal to the surface except where otherwise
specified; e.g. for tangential friction forces. Refer EBCS 1 section 3.

b. Earthquake loads
Earthquake or seismic load on a building depends upon its geographical location, lateral stiffness
and mass, and is reversible. Its effect should be considered along both axes of a building taken
one at a time. A force is defined as the product of mass and acceleration. During an earthquake,
the mass is imparted by the building whereas the acceleration is imparted by the ground
disturbance. In order to have a minimum force, the mass of the building should be as low as
possible. There can be no control on the ground acceleration being an act of the Nature! The point
of application of this internal force is the center of gravity of the mass on each floor of the building.
Once there is a force, there has to be an equal and opposite reaction to balance this force. The
internal force is resisted by the building and the resisting force acts at the center of rigidity at each
floor of the building or shear center of the building at each story.
The return period of earthquake in a given region depends up on its seismicity. Depending upon
the probability of occurrence of an earthquake in a given region, it is desirable to design the
building for a specified force (as specified in the design codes). As per EBCS 8, there are two
methods of analysis to determine earthquake forces acting over buildings:
(a) Static analysis (or Seismic coefficient method): This type of analysis can be applied to
buildings whose response is not significantly affected by contributions from higher modes
of vibration. These requirements are deemed to be satisfied by buildings which meet the
criteria for regularity in plan and/or elevation as given in EBCS 8, and have fundamental
period of vibration T1 in the two main directions less than 2 sec.
(b) Dynamic analysis (or Response spectrum method): This method of analysis can be
conducted for all types of buildings.
(The static method is generally applicable to buildings up to 40 m in height). Refer EBCS 8.
1.2.2 Combination of Actions
For each critical load case, the design values of the effects of actions should be determined by
combining the values of actions which occur simultaneously, as follows:
Combination for the dead, live and earthquake load

COMB1: 1.3 G.K + 1.6 QK

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COMB2: 0.75(1.3 G.K + 1.6 Q.K)+ AEDx
COMB3: 0.75(1.3 G.K + 1.6 Q.K)- AEDx
COMB4: 0.75(1.3 G.K + 1.6 Q.K)+ AEDy

COMB5: 0.75(1.3 G.K + 1.6 Q.K)- AEDy

Where GK is characteristic dead load

QK is characteristic live load

AED is earthquake load

Combination for the dead, live and wind load

I. Distributed live load + dead load
1.3DL+1.6LL

II. Concentrated live load +dead load

1.3DL+1.6LL
III. Wind load + dead load
0.9DL +1.6 WL

IV. Wind load +concentrated live load +dead load

1.3DL +1.35(LL+WL)
V. Wind load +distributed live load +dead load
1.3DL +1.35(LL+WL)
In the above combinations wind load will be checked for both max suction & positive pressure.

REFERENCES
1. Hibbler, R. C. Structural Analysis, 6th Edition, PrenticeHall, 2005.
2. Leet, M., et al. Fundamentals of Structural Analysis, 2nd Edition, McGraw Hill, 2004.
3. M.S. Williams, Structures: Theory and Analysis, Palgrave Macmillan., 1999
4. Theory of Structures by Aslam Kassimali
5. Full bibliographic citation; sources not older than 5 years (older only in very exceptional
cases)
6. Nigussie Tebedge, Methods of Structural Analysis, 1983, AAU
7. Leet, M., et al. Fundamentals of Structural Analysis, 2nd Edition, McGraw Hill,
2004.
8. M.S. Williams, Structures: Theory and Analysis, Palgrave Macmillan., 1999
9. Building Codes, EBCS 1& 8, 1995

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 CHAPTER 2

REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.1.1 Properties of reinforced concrete
Concrete
Concrete is stone like material obtained artificially by hardening of the mixture of cement, inert-
aggregate materials (fine & course) and water in predetermined proportions. When these
ingredients are mixed, they form a plastic mass which can be poured in suitable moulds (forms)
and set-on standing into hard solid mass, as a result of exothermic chemical reaction between
cement and water. To produce a workable mix, more water is used over and above that needed for
this chemical reaction (water-cement ratio required for complete chemical reaction is about 0.25).
The reaction between cement and water is relatively slow and requires time and favourable
temperature for its completion.
Compressive Strength of concrete
A wide range of strength properties can be obtained for concrete by appropriate adjustment of the
proportions of the constituent materials, using different degree of the compaction and the
conditions of temperature and moisture under which it is placed and cured. Water-cement ratio is
the main factor affecting the strength of concrete, as shown in figure below.

Compressive

Strength of

Concrete

Water-cement ratio

Standard test specimens of 150mm cube are taken at the age of 28days to determine the
compressive strength of concrete according to Ethiopian standard institution (ESI). At age of
7days, concrete may attain approximately about 2/3 of the full compressive strength of concrete.
In some national standard (example ACI code), cylinder specimens of 150mm diameter by 300mm
high are taken. Although the load is applied uni-axially, the friction between the loading plate and
the contact faces of the test specimen has more effect on cube strength than the cylinder strength.
Because of this, the cube strength gives more strength than the true compressive strength of
concrete, whereas, cylinder strength gives reasonably the true compressive strength. On average,
cube strength is taken as 1.25 times cylinder strength. If large size aggregates are used, a cube
mold with side 200mm may be used to determine compressive strength of concrete. And strength
of concrete is converted to 150mm cube compressive strength by factor of 1.05.
13
The performance of materials of structure under load best be represented by stress-strain diagram.
A typical set of such curve are obtained at normal, moderate testing speed on concrete of 28days
old are as shown in figure below, for various compressive strength of concrete.

All the curves have somewhat similar character. Initially the curves are relatively straight line then
begin to curve to the horizontal, reaching the maximum compressive strength (cube or cylinder
strength) at strain approximately between 0.002 and 0.0025 and finally show a descending branch.
Also it is seen that concrete of lower strength are less brittle, that is fracture at a large maximum strain.
Modulus of elasticity is seen to be larger, the higher the strength of concrete. Modulus of elasticity of
concrete may be defined as the initial (dynamic) modulus, the tangent modulus and secant (static)
modulus at stress level of 25% to 50% of the compressive strength of concrete. But secant modulus is
the simplest and the most commonly adopted definition of elastic modulus of concrete. The definitions
of elastic modulus of concrete are diagrammatically shown in the figure below.

14
Tensile strength of concrete
Even though concrete is weak in tension, its tensile strength is important in a variety of items. Shear
and torsion resistance of RC members primarily depend on tensile strength of concrete. Further, the
conditions under which cracks form and propagate on tension zone of RC flexural members depend
strongly on the tensile strength of concrete. Two methods are used to determine tensile strength of
concrete. These are beam-test and split-cylinder test method.

In beam test method, tensile strength of concrete is obtained by loading plain concrete test-beam
laterally by two point loads at the third points of test-beam until the tension zone of the beam fracture.
M.c
Tensile strength of concrete is then computed using flexural stress formula in terms of modulus
I
of rupture concrete. Where M is the moment caused by the load applied on test beam that fracture on
tension side and I c is section-modulus of a section of test beam. Standard size of test-beam according
to BS 1881 is 150 x 150 x 750mm. Because of the assumption that concrete is an elastic material and
the bending stress is localized in outer most fibers, it is apt to be larger than uniform axial tensile
strength of concrete.

In split-cylinder test method, tensile strength of concrete is obtained by loading standard plain concrete
cylinder along the side until the cylinder splits in to two pieces. The tensile strength of concrete is the
2P
computed by based on the theory of elasticity for homogeneous material in a bi-axial state of
 . d .l
stress. Whatever the method, it is known that, the tensile strength of concrete is relatively low, and it
is about 10 to 15% of compressive strength of concrete.
Shrinkage and Thermal Movement
Concrete may undergo deformations and volume changes without application of loading. This
phenomenon may be caused by shrinkage and thermal-movement in fresh and hardened concrete.
Shrinkage of concrete is liable to cause cracking, but it has the beneficial effect of strengthening the
bond between the reinforcing steel and the surrounding concrete. Shrinkage of concrete increases with
time at decreasing rate as the drying of concrete continues with time at a decreasing rate, and ceases
with maximum strain approximately about 0.003. Shrinkage increases with increase in cement and
water content. Shrinkage of concrete caused initially by the absorption of water by cement and
aggregate, and further by evaporation of water which rises to surface as a result of capillary action.
During setting process the hydration of cement causes a great deal of heat to be generated, and as the
concrete cools, further shrinkage takes place due to thermal contraction. Thermal shrinkage may be
reduced by:
1. Using a mix-design with low cement content. EBCS-2 specifies cement content not to
exceed 550kg/m3 of concrete.
2. Avoiding rapid hardening & finely ground cement.
3. Keeping aggregate & mixing water cool, or may be need to keep them under shade.
4. Maintaining the temperature & evaporating water by proper curing.
The use of low water-cement ratio also helps to reduce drying shrinkage by minimizing lose of volume
of moisture in concrete by evaporation.
15
If concrete shrinks freely without restraint, stresses will not develop in the concrete. Restraint of
concrete shrinkage, on the other hand, will cause tensile stresses. This restraint may be caused
externally by fixity with adjoining members, and internally by the action of steel reinforcement. This
restraint may be reduced by casting concrete using a system of constructing successive bays. This
method of casting concrete allows the free-end of every bay to contract before the next bay is cast.
Thermal-movement will also cause tensile stresses in the structure. Thermal stresses may be controlled
by correct positioning of expansion-joint in the structure. When tensile stresses caused by restraint of
concrete shrinkage & thermal-movement exceed the tensile strength of concrete, cracks will occur. To
control width of these cracks, steel reinforcement must be provided close to the concrete surface.
Codes of practice specify minimum quantities of reinforcement in a member for this purpose.
Creep of Concrete
Creep is the continuous deformation of a member under sustained compressive stress over a
considerable length of time (under long-term loading). It is a phenomenon associated with brittle
materials (concrete is a brittle material). Creep deformation depends on the stress in concrete, duration
of loading and water-cement ratio. The effect of creep has to be considered in design of reinforced
concrete member subjected to compressive stress mainly caused by long term loading (dead load). A
typical variation of deformations with time can be obtained for concrete member subjected to axial
deformation under constant load over considerable length of time, as shown below.

The followings are some of the characteristics of creep:

1. Creep increases with elapse of time at a decreasing rate and ceases at a final value
depending on concrete strength and other factors. The final creep can attain 1.5 to 3 times
the instantaneous strain.
2. Creep is found to be roughly proportional to the intensity of loading and to the inverse of
concrete strength.
3. Modulus of elasticity of concrete is found to be decreasing over period of time. It is
modified considering creep as (if required to determine long term deflection)
E
Ee = c
1 +

where  -- ratio of creep to instantaneous deformation depending on age of concrete at first

loading as given in table below

16
 Table: Creep Coefficient (IS:456)
Age of concrete at loading Creep coefficient

7 days 2.2

28 days 1.6

365 days 1.1

4. If the load is removed, only the instantaneous strain and some of creep will recover.
5. There is a continuous redistribution of stresses between the concrete and any steel present
in the un-cracked compression zone of reinforced concrete section.
The effect of creep is particularly important in beams, where the increased deformations may cause the
opening of cracks and damage of finishes. To reduce creep deformation, it is necessary to provide
nominal reinforcement in the compression zone of the beam. The nominal area of compression steel
required by doubly reinforced beam is about 0.4% of the area in compression (which may be taken as
0.2% of the whole area including tension zone).

Reinforcing Steel
Steel reinforcements are available in the form of round bars and welded wire fabric. The most
commonly used bars have projected ribs on the surface of bar. Such bars are called deformed bars.
The ribs of deformed bar improve the bond between steel and the surrounding concrete in RC members
by providing mechanical keys.

A wide range of reinforcing bars is available with nominal diameter ranging 6mm to 35mm. Most bars
except 6mm diameter are deformed one. Some of the common bar size with their application in
concrete works are given in table below.
for stirrups for slabs for beams & columns

Diam. 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 25 28
(mm)

Area 0.28 0.50 0.785 1.13 1.54 2.01 2.52 3.14 3.8 4.9 6.2

(cm2)

Weight .222 .395 .617 .888 1.21 1.57 2.0 2.47 3.0 3.9 4.8

(kg/m)

Per. 1.88 2.51 3.14 3.77 4.4 5.02 5.65 6.28 6.9 7.85 8.79

(cm)

17
Strength of reinforcing steel

Reinforcing steel is capable of resisting both tension and compression. Compared with concrete, it is
a high strength material. For instance, the strength of ordinary reinforcing steel is about 10 & 100
times, the compressive & tensile strength of common structural concrete.
Typical stress-strain curves for mild-steel and high-yield (cold-worked) steel are shown in figures
below.

The strength of mild steel is taken as yield point or yield stress of steel whereas for high-yield steel is
based on specified proof stress of steel. 0.2% proof stress is specified in most codes to determine
strength of high-yield steel. A 0.2% offset is drawn parallel to the linear part of the stress-strain curve
to determine 0.2% proof stress.
The shape of the stress-strain curve is similar for all steel, and differs only in the value of strength of
steel, the modulus of elasticity, ES being for all practical purposes constant. ES is taken as 200GPa.
For a design of RC members, reinforcing steel up to grade of 550MPa can be used. If steel with grade
beyond 550MPa is used for RC member, the sections are under utilizing the reinforcement. This is
because the width of concrete crack is wide if the steel is fully stressed.

2.1.2 Reinforced Concrete (as a composite material)

It is known that plain concrete is quite strong in compression, weak in tension. On the other hand, steel
is a high-cost material which able to resist both tension & compression. The two materials (plain
concrete & reinforcing steel) are best be utilized in logical combination if steel bars are embedded in
the plain concrete in tension zone close to the surface. In this case, plain concrete is made to resist the
compressive stresses and reinforcing steel resists the tensile stresses. Both plain concrete & reinforcing
steel bar together assumed to act as one composite unit and it is termed as reinforced concrete (RC).
The tensile stresses developed in the section are transferred to reinforcing steel by the bond between
the interfaces of the two materials.

18
In all RC members, strength design is made on the assumption that concrete does not resist any tensile
stresses. All the tensile stresses are assumed to be resisted by the reinforcing steel imbedded in tension
zone. Sometimes if necessary, reinforcing steel is provided in compression zone to
assist the concrete resisting compression in addition to reducing creep deformation.
Reinforcing steel & concrete may work readily in combinations due to the following
reasons.
1. Bond between the bars & the surrounding concrete prevents slip of the bars relative to the
concrete. Adequate concrete cover for steel bar and embedment length of bar are required
to transfer stress between steel and concrete without slipping.
2. Proper concrete mixes provide adequate impermeability of concrete against bar corrosion.
3. Sufficiently similar rates of thermal expansion (0.00001/0C to 0.000013/0C for concrete and
0.000012/0C for steel) introduce negligible stresses between steel and concrete under
temperature changes.
Advantages of Reinforced Concrete:
1. It is monolithic. This gives it more rigidity.
2. It is durable. It does not deteriorate with time.
3. While it is plastic, it can be moldable into any desired shape.
4. It is fire, weather and corrosion resistant.
5. By proper proportioning of mix, concrete can be made water-tight.
6. It maintenance cost is practically nil.
Disadvantages of Reinforced Concrete:
1. It is difficult to demolish in case of repair of modification.
2. It is too difficult to inspect after the concrete has been poured.
2.1.3 Behavior of RC Beam under Lateral Loading
When beam is subjected to gradually increasing lateral load, there is change in stresses &
deformations. If these stresses and deformations exceed the capacity of the materials of the beam, the
beam will fail. Tests have shown that RC beams may fail either along a vertical (normal) plane or a
diagonal plane. The aim of design of a member is to ensure resistance of section of beam along all
planes. Three stages of behavior can be observed at a section of maximum moment, when singly
reinforced beam is subjected to gradually increasing load till failure.

Stage-I (un-cracked section):- In initial stages of loading (under low loading), tension-cracks will
not develop in the section of RC beam. The stresses in compression & tension zone of concrete are
within elastic range; and the maximum tension stress, fct in the concrete is smaller than the tensile
strength (modulus of rapture) of concrete. The reinforcing steel deforms the same amount of the
adjacent concrete and subjected to tension stress. The distribution of strains and stresses in concrete &
steel at section of maximum bending moment of a beam in stage-I are shown in figure below. These
strains & stresses distributions are used in design of water-tight structures.

19
Stage-II (cracked section under working load):- When the loading is further increased, the tensile
strength of concrete is soon reached, at this stage tension cracks start to develop in tension zone of the
beam. These cracks propagate quickly upward to or close to the level of the neutral plane, which in
turn shifts further upward with progressive cracking. In well designed beams, the width of these cracks
is so small (hair-line cracks) that they are not objectionable from the view point of either corrosion
protection or appearance of crack. It is known that the presence of these cracks profoundly affects the
behavior of RC beam under the load. These cracks make the concrete not to resist any tension stresses,
the entire tension stresses are to be resisted by the reinforcing steel placed in tension zone. At moderate
loading, if the concrete stresses do not exceed approximately fcu/3, stresses & strains continue to be
closely proportional. The distribution of strains & stresses developed in section of maximum bending
moment of a beam at or near to vertical tension-crack are shown in figure below. These strains &
stresses distributions are used in working stress (elastic) design method and in serviceability limit state
for crack.

Stage –III (cracked section under ultimate load):- When the load is still further increased, the cracks
in the tension zone open and the tension in the bars reaches yield stress. The compressive stress in the
concrete is no longer proportional to the strain and, concrete continue to deform plastically. As the
load is increasing, plastic deformation in concrete is complete and failure commences. The strains &
stresses developed at section of maximum bending moment of a beam in this stage are shown in the
figure below.
20
The character of the transition from stage-II to stage-III depends upon the amount of reinforcement
used by the section. If the section is properly reinforced that is, under reinforced, failure will initiated
by yielding of tension steel. As steel bars yielding, the beam continues to deform until compression
concrete cracks. Such yield failure is gradual, and it is followed by visible signs. On other hand, if the
section is over-reinforced, the compression zone concrete will fail (crushes) before the steel bars reach
the yield stress. Compression failure through crushing of concrete is sudden, of an almost explosive
nature, and occurs without warning. Beside this, the section is uneconomical because large amount of
steel is used by section compared to concrete.

2.1.4 Design Philosophies (Methods)

The object of reinforced concrete design is to achieve a structure or part structure that will result in a
safe and economical solution. For a given structural system, the design problem consists of the
following steps:
1. Idealization of structure for analysis (dimension of members, support condition of structure
and etc.)
2. Estimation of loadings.
3. Analysis of idealized structural model to determine stress-resultants (axial forces, shear forces,
torsions & bending moments) and their effects (deformations).
4. Design of structural elements (if assumed dimensions are adequate).
5. Detailed structural drawings and schedule of reinforcing bars.
To achieve safe and economic structures, three philosophies of design had been adopted by codes of
practices. These are:

▪ Working Stress Design (WSD) or Elastic Design Method

▪ Ultimate Strength Design (USD) Method, and
▪ Limit State Design (LSD) Method.
Working Stress Design (WSD) method
WSD is the oldest and simplest method of design used for reinforced concrete structures. It is based
on the assumption that concrete is elastic, steel & concrete together act elastically. Also, the stresses
developed in concrete & steel are not exceeded the respective allowable stresses any where in the
structure when structure is subjected to the worst combination of service design loads. The allowable
stresses of materials are determined dividing material strengths by a factor of safety. Safety factors
specified by British standard are 3 for concrete and 1.8 for reinforcing steel. These safety factors are
obtained from many years of practical experience and engineering judgment. The safety factors

21
specified by codes are assumed to cover all uncertainties existing in estimations of service design loads
and material strengths.
The sections of members of structure are designed in accordance with elastic theory of bending
assuming that both materials obeying Hooke’s law. The elastic theory assumes a linear variation of
strain & stress from zero at neutral axis to a maximum at the extreme fibers of section of member; and
the maximum stress developed any where in properly designed element of structure not to exceed the
allowable stress of the materials.

Thus, design format used in WSD method may be expressed as:

f (stress due to service design loads)  f allow (material strength)

The main drawbacks of WSD method are as follows:

1. Concrete is not elastic material. The inelastic behavior of concrete starts right from very low
stresses. The actual stress distribution of concrete in section can not be described by a triangular
stress diagram.
2. Since factor of safety is applied on the strength of materials, there is no way to account for
different degrees of uncertainty associated with different types of loadings.
3. It is difficult to account for creep and shrinkage by computations of elastic stresses.
Beside these drawbacks, the method does not ensure consistence safety of structure and also provide
uneconomical section.

Ultimate Strength Design (USD) method

Design of structure or part of structure in USD method is based on ultimate load theory; and it is made
to resist the desired ultimate (collapse) loads using idealized strength model (either parabola or
parabola-rectangle stress block) just before failure of section plastically. In ultimate load theory, it is
assumed that the section of member of structure failed plastically when the maximum compressive
strain of concrete reaches the ultimate compressive strain of concrete specified by codes (may be about
0.3 to 0.35%). The desired ultimate loads are obtained by increasing sufficiently the service loadings
using specified factors. These factors are called over-load factors. Separate over-load factors are
applied for different loadings considering uncertainties existing in estimation of different loadings.
Design format used in USD method may be expressed as:
strength provided  action due to ultimate loads
( stress block) (analysis of structure)

A major advantage of USD method over WSD method is that total safety factor of structure thus found
to be nearer to its actual value. Further, structures designed by USD method require less reinforcement
than those designed by the WSD method.
The main draw backs of USD method are as follows:

1. Since load factor is used on the service loads, there is no way to account for different degrees
of uncertainty associated with variation in material strengths.
2. There is complete disregard for control against excessive deflections.
Limit State Design (LSD) method

22
Limit state design method has developed from ultimate strength design method in order to apply in
service load and ultimate load conditions. Design of structure in limit state is made to achieve an
acceptable probability that structure or part of it will not become unfit for use for which it is intended
during expected life. That is, it will not reach any of the specified limit state. The limit state of structure
is the condition of its being not fit for use. A structure with appropriate degrees of reliability should
be able to withstand safely all possible combinations of design loads that are liable to act on it
throughout its life and it should also satisfy the serviceability requirements, such as, limitations on
deflection and cracking. Further, it should be able to maintain the required structural integrity during
and after accidents such as fires, explosions and local failure. In other words, all relevant limit states
must to be considered in design to ensure an adequate degree of safety and serviceability. These limit
states which must be examined in design are broadly classified in to two major limit states. These are:
- Ultimate strength limit state (Limit state of collapse), and
- Serviceability limit state

Ultimate strength limit state: -which deals with the strength and stability of the structure under the
maximum over load it is expected to carry. This implies that whole of the structure or part of it should
not fail under any combination of expected over load. Ultimate load theory is generally applicable for
ultimate strength limit state. Ultimate strength limit state may include ultimate limit state for flexure,
shear, compression, torsion, tension and stability of structure for over-turning & sliding
Serviceability limit state
which deals with conditions such as deflection, cracking of structure under service loads, durability,
excessive vibration, fire resistance, fatigue, etc. Elastic (working stress) theory is generally applicable
for serviceability limit state.
When dealing with the most economical structure associated with safety and serviceability
requirements, the variability exists between construction materials and the construction process
itself. We should be able to state a design philosophy to cope with the various criteria required to
define the serviceability or usefulness of any structure in a rational manner.

The various criteria required to define the serviceability or usefulness of any structure can be
described under the following headlines. The effects listed may lead to the structure being
considered 'unfit for use'.
(i). Collapse: failure of one or more critical sections; overturning or buckling.
(ii). Deflection: the deflection of the structure or any part of the structure adversely affects
the appearance or efficiency of the structure.
(iii). Cracking: cracking of the concrete which may adversely affect the appearance or efficiency
of the structure.
(iv). Vibration: vibration from forces due to wind or machinery may cause discomfort or alarm,
damage the structure or interfere with its proper function.
(v). Durability: porosity of concrete.
(vi). Fatigue: where loading is predominantly cyclic in character the effects have to be
considered.
(vii). Fire resistance: insufficient resistance to fire leading to 1, 2 and 3 above.
23
When any structure is rendered unfit for use for its designed function by one or more of the above
causes, it is said to have entered a limit state. The Code defines the limit states as:

(i). Ultimate limit state: the ultimate limit state is preferred to collapse.
(ii). Serviceability limit states: deflection, cracking, vibration, durability, fatigue, fire resistance
and lightning.
The purpose of design then is to ensure that the structure being designed will not become unfit for
the use for which it is required, i.e. that it will not reach a limit state. The essential basis for the
design method, therefore, is to consider each limit state and to provide a suitable margin of safety.
To obtain values for this margin of safety it was proposed that probability considerations should
be used and the design process should aim at providing acceptable probabilities so that the structure
would not become unfit for use throughout its specified life.
Accepting the fact that the strengths of construction materials vary, as do also the loads on the
structure, two partial safety factors will now be used. One will be for materials and is designated
m; the other, for loading, is termed f. These factors will vary for the various limit states and
different materials. As new knowledge on either materials or loading becomes available the factors
can be amended quit easily without the complicated procedures to amend one overall factor used
in previous Codes.
The normal procedure is to design for a critical limit state and then to check for the other limit
states are satisfied. The critical state for reinforced concrete structures is usually the ultimate limit
state. However, water-retaining structures and prestressed concrete is usually designed at the
serviceability limit state with checks on the ultimate limit state.
The limit states failure criteria can be summarized as follows:

(Design load effects Qd)  (Deisgn resistance Rd)

fk
 f Qn 
m

Where Qd = design load effects = f Qn

Qn = nominal load

f = partial safety factor for loads

Rd = design resistance = fk/m

fk = characteristic material strength

m = partial safety factor for materials

Each of these terms are discussed in the following sections.
Safety Factors

Partial Safety Factors for Materials at ULS

24
 Concrete, c Reinforcing Steel, s
Design Situations
Class I Class II Class I Class II

Persistent and Transient 1.50 1.65 1.15 1.20

Accidental 1.30 1.45 1.00 1.10

Partial Safety Factors for Actions in Building Structures at ULS

Design Situation Action Factor,  Favorable Unfavorable

Persistent and Permanent G 1.00 1.30

Transient Variable Q 0.00 1.60

Accidental Permanent G 1.00 1.00

2.1.5 Building Design Codes Provisions

Table Classification of loads

Examples
Class Action
Direct Indirect

Soil pressure, self-weight of
Permanent
structure and fixed equipment
Settlement, shrinkage,
creep (results from direct
permanent actions)

Time variation People, wind, furniture, snow,

Variable Temperature effects
traffic, construction loads

Temperature rise during

Accidental Explosion, vehicular impact
fire

Self-weight (generally), trains

Fixed (fixed in direction normal to -
Spatial variation rails)

Free Persons, office furniture vehicles -

Static All gravity loads -

Static/dynamic Engines, turbines, wind on
Dynamic -
slender structures

Closely bounded Water pressure, self weight -

Others
Not closely bounded Snow, people -

Design values for actions for use in combination with other actions at ULS.

25
 Permanent Accidental Variable actions
Design Situation
actions actions Principal action All other actions

Favorable 1.0Gk - 0 0
Fundamental
Unfavorable 1.3Gk - 1.6Qk 1.60Qk

Accidental 1.0Gk Ad 1.01Qk 1.02Qk

Combination values: Qr = 0Qk

Frequent values: Qr = 1Qk

Qausi-permanent values: Qr = 2Qk

Where, Qr = representative value

Qk = characteristic value

Representative load factors, 0, 1, 2

Action 0 1 2

Imposed loads

Category A, B 0.7 0.5 0.3

Category C, D 0.7 0.7 0.6

Category E 1.0 0.9 0.8

Wind 0.6* 0.5* 0*

Snow 0.6* 0.2* 0*

* Values may have to be modified for specific locations.

Category A – Domestic, Residential.

Category B – Offices

Category C – Congregation areas

Category D – Shopping areas.

Category E – Storage areas

Characteristic Load: -It is defined as that load which has a 95% probability of not being exceeded during
the life of structure. The characteristic loads, Lk if given by

Lk = Lm + 1.64 L if the loading is normally distributed.

Where Lm - mean load

L - Standard deviation of load

26
Even if characteristic load can be defined ideally in statistical terms, it is not yet possible to determine
statistically in absent of sufficient load data. The nominal values given by codes may be taken as
characteristic values.

Design loads: - Factors are used to allow for the possible differences in the loads that may actually come
on a structure as compared to their characteristic value. The design load, Ld is given by

Ld = f . Lk

Where Lk - characteristic load

f - partial safety factor appropriate to the nature of loading and limit state being
considered

In the design of structures, the design loads shall be considered to act in combinations which produce the
most unfavorable effect.

-Design load combinations for Limit state according to ESCP-1/83 are given as follow:

i) Ultimate Strength Limit State:

DL & LL → (1.3DL+1.6LL) or (1.0DL) --the same in EBCS-1

DL, LL &WL → 0.8*(1.3DL+1.6LL+1.6WL)

→ 1.2*(DL+LL+WL) --the corresponding in EBCS-1

DL & WL → 0.9DL+1.3WL --for over-all stability of structure

→ DL+1.6WL --the corresponding in EBCS-1

DL, LL & EQ → (DL+LL+EQ) or 0.75*(1.3DL+1.6LL)+EQ

DL & EQ → 0.9DL+EQ --for over-all stability of structure

ii) Serviceability Limit State:

DL & LL → DL+LL or DL, only

DL, LL & WL → DL+0.8*(LL+WL)

-Design load combinations for WSD method according to ESCP-1/83 are given as follow:

DL & LL → DL+LL

DL, LL & WL → 0.8*(DL+LL+WL)

DL & WL → 0.8*(0.9DL+WL) --for over-all stability of structure

DL, LL & EQ → 0.7*(DL+LL+EQ)

DL & EQ → 0.7*(0.9DL+EQ) --for over-all stability of structure

Characteristic Strength of Material: -is defined as that strength below which not more than 5% of the
test-results are expected to fall. The same definition is used for both concrete and reinforcing steel. The
characteristic strength of material, fk if given by
27
 f k = f m − 1.64 f (if the strength is normally distributed)

where fm - mean strength of material

f - standard deviation of strength of material

Characteristic compressive strength of concrete is represented by the 28 days cube strength, f cu , of

concrete; and characteristic strength of steel is represented by the yield or 0.2% proof stress, f y , of
reinforcing steel.

Characteristic Tensile Strength of Concrete: the characteristic tensile strength of concrete can be
determined statistically by the same equation given above using test results obtained from split-cylinder
test or from beam-test. It can also be determined using empirical relation obtained from a number of tests
in terms of characteristic compressive strength of concrete given by codes. According to ESCP-2,
characteristic tensile strength of concrete is obtained using

f ctk = 0.35 f cu (fcu & fctk are in MPa)

According to EBCS-2, characteristic tensile strength of concrete is obtained using

f ctk = 0.21 (0.8 f cu ) 2 3 (fcu & fctk are in MPa)

Grade of Concrete: -concrete is graded in terms of characteristic compressive cube strength. The grade of
concrete to be used in design depends on the classification of concrete works and its intended use. EBCS-
2 specifies grades of concrete for two classes of concrete works as shown below.

Table: Grades of concrete

Classes of concrete works are given depending on the quality of workmanship and the competence of the
supervisions directing the works. Class II work are permissible only for single story agricultural, social or
residential buildings and structures.

Grades C-5 shall be used only for lean concrete bases and simple foundations for masonry walls. Grades
lower than C-15 can not be used in reinforced concrete, lower than C-30 can not be used pre-stressed
concrete.

Acceptance (Compliance) Criteria for Concrete: In order to ensure proper control on the quality of
concrete, codes provide acceptance criteria. Random samples of concrete mix are taken and tested after 28
days. According to IS:456-78 code, the strength requirement is satisfied if:

A. Every sample has a test compressive strength not less than the specified grade of concrete. or
B. The strength of one or more samples, though less than the specified grade of concrete, is in
each case not less than 0.8 times the specified grade of concrete.

28
According to ACI-318 code, adequate control of strength of concrete occurs when the following
requirements are met:

1) Average of all set of the three consecutive compressive strength tests is equal or exceeded the
specified grade of concrete.
2) No individual compressive strength test (average of two cylinders) fall below the specified grade
of concrete by more than 3.4MPa.
According to EBCS-2/95 code, adequate control of strength of concrete occurs when the following
conditions are satisfied simultaneously:
f C (mean)  ( f cu + m arg in stength, k1 )
f C (avg of the min imum strength for several lots)  ( f cu − m arg in strength, k2 )

where margin strength, k1 and k2 specified by code is 5MPa & 1MPa for samples in the first two lots,
4MPa & 2MPa for samples in third & fourth lots, and 3MPa & 3MPa for samples in fifth lots &
above, respectively.

• Design Strength of Material in Limit State: The design strength for a given material and limit state is
given by:
fk
fd =
m

where fk -- characteristic strength of materials

m –partial safety factor for materials

However, in the case of concrete under compression, a further correction factor (about 0.67 times f d, the
corresponding in the latest code is 0.68 times fd) is introduced to account for the difference in strength
indicated by a cube test and the strength of concrete in structure. Thus, the design strength of concrete and
steel are given by:

Design Strength for Concrete

0.67 f cu 0.68 f cu
(a) In compression: f cd = (ESCP-2/83) or f cd = (EBCS-2/95)
c c
0.85 f ck
or f cd =
c

f ctk
(b) In tension: f ctd =
c

Design Strength for Steel

f yk
In tension and compression: f yd =
s

Design Strength of Materials in Working Stress Design Method: The design strength of materials in
working stress design method is the allowable (permissible) stress which is generally given by

29
 fk
f allow =
FS

where fk --characteristic strength of material

FS –Factor of safety specified by code

-According to British standards (CP-114), factor of safety of 3 is applied to the strength of concrete; and
1.8 is applied to the strength of steel. And, whatever the strength of steel, the allowable tensile stress in
steel is limited to a maximum value of 230MPa.

-According to ESCP-1, allowable strength of materials are given depending on classes of concrete works
as follows:

For Class I-concrete work For Class II-concrete work

f c , allow = 0.335 f cu & f s , allow = 0.522 f y f c, allow = 0.3045 f cu & f s, allow = 0.50 f y

-According to ACI code, allowable strength of materials are as given below.

f c , allow = 0.45 * (0.8 f cu )


 137.8 MPa for f y = 275.8 MPa & f y = 344.8 MPa
f s , allow =  Idealized Stress-

 165.5 MPa for f y = 413.7 MPa
Strain Diagrams: For s design purpose, most codes adopt idealized stress-strain diagrams in predicting the
ultimate strength of sections in plastic-theory. In EBCS-2, a parabola-rectangle stress-strain diagram is
given for concrete in compression as shown in figure below.

This code also idealized the stress-strain diagram for steel with ultimate strain of 0.01 as shown in figure
below. It is a portion of stress-strain diagram of steel. The maximum strain of steel,  s , max = 0.01 permitted
by code assumed to limit width of concrete crack in tension zone to acceptable limit.

30
Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete: According to ESCP-2/83 and EBCS-2/95, mean value of the secant
modulus, EC is given as shown in table below.

2.1.6 Patterns of Live Load Arrangement for Maximum Effects

A structure should be analyzed for all possible arrangement of live loading (including dead load on the
structure which may cover the whole length) which produce the maximum stresses-resultant (bending
moment & shear force) at particular point of structure. Live load arrangement on continuous beam to cause:

a) Maximum positive span moment is to load that particular span and alternate span.
b) Maximum negative support moment is to load the adjacent span of that support and then alternate
span.
Analysis of continuous beam are made for all possible alternative arrangements of live load (including dead
load) to obtain design shear force envelope diagram and bending moment envelope diagram by over-
lapping internal forces diagrams obtained for different loading arrangements.

2.2 Design of Beams for Flexure Using Working Stress Design (WSD)
Methods
2.2.1 Basic Assumption:
1. A section which is plane before bending remains plane after bending. This implies strains across
section are linearly varying. This is true for most section of flexural member except deep beam
where shear deformation is significant.
2. Beam section behaves elastically when subjected to service load moment. This implies stress in the
concrete varies linearly from zero at neutral axis to a maximum at the extreme fiber.
3. Tensile strength of concrete is ignored. The reinforcement assumed to takes all the tension due to
flexure.
4. Perfect bond exist between steel bars and concrete such that no slip occurs. This is possible if
adequate development length of bars and concrete cover are provided.
5. The modular ratio, n = Es Ec , may be taken as the nearest whole number (but not less than 6 or
more than 15). In doubly reinforced sections, to consider creep of concrete in compression zone an
effective modular ratio of 2 Es Ec shall be used to transform compression reinforcement for stress
computation.
2.2.2 Design Equations for Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section
Consider a singly reinforced rectangular section subjected to a service load moment, M as shown below.

31
a) From the strain diagram, similarity of triangles gives
c x
= (1)
s d−x

In elastic range, applying Hooke’s law, the maximum strain in concrete & strain in steel,

fc fs
c = & s =
Ec Es

And, the ratio of these strains

c f .E
= c s (2)
s f s . Ec

By definition, Es Ec is the modular-ratio, n

Equating Eq(1) and Eq(2), and substituting n = Es Ec

x n . fc
 = =k (3)
d f s + n . fc

 x = k . d , thus k is an indicator of the neutral axis position.

b) Considering equilibrium of a section

i) For horizontal equilibrium  F H =0 
 Cc = Ts Substituting Cc and Ts ,

fc
 . b . x = As . f s (4)
2

As
Let = --is known as geometric steel ratio
b.d

Then, As =  .b . d

Substituting it into Eq.(4 )

32
 fc
 . b . x =  . b. d . fs
2
fc
With, x = k . d ,  . b . k . d =  . b. d . fs
2
2 . f s k . fc
simplifying,  k= or = (5)
fc 2 fs

n . fc
From Eq.(3 ), k=
f s + n . fc

Ratio of stresses in steel to concrete, rearranging the above equation

f s n . (1 − k )
 = (6)
fc k

fs k
but,  = from Eq.(5), and equating with Eq.(6),
fc 2

k n . (1 − k )
 =
2 k

Rearranging the following second degree equation in terms of ‘k’ is obtained.

k 2 + (2 . n) . k − (2 . n) = 0

Solving for k,

k = − (  . n) + (  . n) 2 + ( 2  . n) (7)

ii) The internal couple resulting from internal forces Cc and Ts must equal to the external applied
service load moment. The convenient moment center is taken usually the line of action of the
internal forces.

--Taking moment of internal forces about line of action of Ts ,

x
M = Cc . ( d − )
3
fc
Substituting Cc = . b. x & x = k . d , and simplifying then equation of service load moment
2
resistance of section is obtained as,

fc k
 M = . k . b . d 2 . (1 − ) (8a)
2 3

33
 k
Letting j = (1 − ) be lever-arm ratio for internal forces of section of beam, then service load moment
3
resistance of section may be written as,

fc
 M = . k . j . b . d2 (8b)
2
fc
Letting R = . k . j be relative bending moment of section of beam, then service load moment
2
resistance of section may be written as,

 M =R . b . d2 (8c)

Rearranging Eq.(8c), the effective depth of section required by singly reinforced beam obtained as,

M
d=
R.b

--In similar manner, taking moment of internal forces about line of action of Cc ,

x
M = Ts . ( d − )
3

Substituting Ts = As . f s & x = k . d , simplifying equation of service load moment resistance of

section is obtained as,

k
 M = As . f s . d . (1− ) (9a)
3
k
Letting j = (1 − ) be lever arm ratio for internal forces of section of beam, then service load moment
3
resistance of section may be written as,

 M = As . f s . j . d (9b)

Rearranging Eq.(9b), the area of tension steel required by beam section is obtained as,

M
As =
fs . j . d

2.2.3 Type of Singly Reinforced Beam Sections-Based on Modes of Stresses

Depending on the amount of steel used by section, singly reinforced sections are divided into three:
Balanced section, Over-reinforced section and Under-reinforced section.

a) Balanced Section: The most economical section in terms of material usage. In this section, the maximum
stresses in both the reinforcement and the concrete reach simultaneously the respective permissible value.

i.e f s = f s , allow

34
 f c = f c , allow

From Eq.(3), neutral axis depth ratio of singly reinforced section,

n . fc n
k= =
n. fc + f s n + f s
fc

For balanced section, ratio of allowable stresses of steel to concrete is denoted by ‘r’ as,

f s , allow
r=
f c , allow

Substituting ‘r’ into above equation, the balanced neutral axis depth ratio is obtained as

n
kb = (10)
n+r

From Eq.(5), steel ratio of singly reinforced section,

k . fc k
= =
2 fs 2 f s fc

Substituting ‘r’, the balanced steel ratio is obtained as

kb
b = (11a)
2r

where r—is ratio of allowable stresses of steel to concrete

Substituting equation of kb from Eq.(10) in to Eq.(11a), the balanced steel ratio is rewritten as

n
b = (11b)
2r . ( n + r )

This equation would gives the balanced steel ratio of singly reinforced section in such away that the
maximum stresses developed in steel and concrete when section subjected to service load moment will
reach simultaneously the respective allowable stresses. The corresponding lever-arm ratio and relative
bending moment of balanced singly reinforced section are obtained by

kb
jb = (1− )
3

f c , allow
Rb = . kb . jb
2
b) Over-reinforced Section if  > b: Over-reinforced sections are those that contain more reinforcement
than the balanced one. Hence, as the applied moment is increased, the maximum stress in concrete reaches
its permissible value first; and by the time the stress in reinforcement reaches its permissible stress, the
concrete is over stressed. Therefore, the stresses in concrete and steel for such section are as follow:
35
 f s  f s , allow --determined from stress diagram using similarity of triangles

f c = f c , allow

The maximum moment of resistance of over-reinforced section is obtained by the following equations in
terms of allowable stress of concrete as,

f c , allow k
M = . k . b . d 2 . (1 − ) --used to determine neutral axis depth ratio
2 3

or M = As . f s . j . d --used to determine area of tension steel

n . (1 − k )
where fs = . f c , allow  f s , allow
k
Here, an increase of load produces over stress in concrete earlier than the reinforcement; as a result the
concrete crushes in compression. Such failure is sudden and occurs without warning. For this reasons, over-
reinforced section is not recommended in design.

c) Under-reinforced Section if  < b: Under reinforced sections are those that contain less reinforcement
than the balanced one. In such sections, the tensile reinforcement is insufficient to develop the full strength
of the concrete in compression, so that when the reinforcement is fully stressed, the concrete is under-
stressed. Therefore, the stresses in concrete and steel for such section are as follow:

f s = f s , allow

f c  f c , allow --determined from stress diagram using similarity of triangles

The maximum moment of resistance of under-reinforced section is obtained by the following equations in
terms of allowable stress of steel as,

fc k
M = . k . b . d 2 . (1 − ) --used to determine neutral axis depth ratio
2 3

or M = As . f s , allow . j . d --used to determine area of tension steel

k
where f c = f s , allow .  f c , allow
n . (1 − k )

Here, failure is more gradual than over-reinforced section. As when steel is over-stressed, the steel yields
but is still able to support the yield stress since steel is a ductile material. Therefore, from both safety and
economic point of view, it is recommended to design section of flexural member as under-reinforced
section.

2.2.4 Control of Deflection

The deflection of structure or part of structure shall not adversely affect the appearance or efficiency of
structure or finishes or partitions. For beams and slabs, the vertical deflection limits may generally be
assumed to be satisfied provided that the minimum depth required by deflection specified by code is
maintained.

36
ACI code provide minimum depth required by beams and one-way slabs in terms of span length as given
in table below can be used as a crude estimate of initial depth to control deflection.

Table: ACI-code minimum depth of beams and one-way slab to control deflection

Simply End Interior Cantilever

Types of Member supported spans Spans spans

-Beams or one–way S-400MPa l 16 l 18.5 l 21 l 8

ribbed slab S-300MPa
l 20 l 23 l 26 l 10
-One-way solid S-400MPa l 20 l 24 l 28 l 10
slab S-300MPa
l 25 l 30 l 35 l 12.5

Note: For other grades of steel, the value given for S − 400 MPa is modified by multiplying factor
fy
of ( 0.4 + ).
690

EBCS-2 provide minimum effective depth, ‘d’ to be used to control deflection is given as,

fy le
d = ( 0.4 + 0.6 ).
400  a

where f y --characteristic yield strength of steel in MPa

le --effective span length; and for two-way slabs, the shorter span length

a --constant as given in table below; and for slabs carrying partition walls likely to crack, shall
be taken as  a  150 l0

l0 --distance in meter between points of zero moment (for continuous beam, may be taken
approximately as 0.7 times length of span), and, for a cantilever span, twice the length to the face of
the support

37
Table: Values of  a

Simply End Interior Cantilever

Member supported spans spans Spans

-Beams 20 24 28 10

-Slabs

a) span ratio, ll ls = 2 (includes one-way slabs) 25 30 35 12

35 40 45 10
b) span ratio, ll ls = 1

Note: For slabs with intermediate span ratio interpolate linearly.

2.2.5 Doubly-Reinforced Rectangular Beam Section

If the section of RC beam is limited in dimension (usually depth), it can not develop the compressive force
required to resist the applied bending moment as singly reinforced section. That is, the applied moment is
greater than the balanced moment capacity of singly reinforced section. For small increase of moment over
the balanced one, over-reinforced section can be used, which is not recommended in design.

A more economical and safe way of designing section in such case is to provide reinforcement in
compression zone of RC section. This section termed as doubly reinforced. Doubly reinforced section can
also be used if the required depth of section of beam as singly reinforced is unacceptable. The purpose of
reinforcement in compression zone of RC section is to assist the concrete in resisting compressive force and
to keep the neutral axis at the ideal position ensuring balanced type failure.

In doubly reinforced beam section, concrete and steel act together to take compression. If both steel and
concrete behave elastically, the stress in compression steel is ‘ n = Es Ec ’ (modular ratio) times the
concrete stress at the same level. However, concrete under sustained compressive stress deforms
continuously with time due to creep effect and concrete is also subjected to shrinkage over a period of time.
Whereas these time dependent effects do not occur in steel. As RC beam deforms, even at low loading,
there is a continuous transfer of stress from concrete to compression steel. Therefore, the actual stress in
compression steel is larger than that computed on the basis of elastic behavior of materials. i.e f s1  n . f c1
where f c1 is concrete stress at the level of compression steel.

To approximate the effect of creep of concrete, ESCP-2/83 code species that an effective modular ratio of ‘
2n = 2 Es Ec ’ is to be used to transform compression reinforcement for stress computation with the stress
in compression reinforcement not to exceed the allowable stress of steel, f s , allow .

2.2.6 Design Equation for Doubly-Reinforced Rectangular Section

Consider a doubly reinforced rectangular section subjected to a service load moment, M as shown below.

38
Two couples method is used to determine the required areas of tension and compression reinforcement by
treating doubly reinforced section into two parts. The total resisting moment is equal to the sum of two
resisting couples: one of which is provided by given cross-section of beam without compression
reinforcement with a partial tension steel area, As1 that balance concrete in compression; and the other by
compression steel, As1 and the remainder of tension steel area, As 2 . Thus, the section with compression
steel is designed as balanced reinforced section in such away that compression steel and extra tension steel
are proportioned by maintaining the balanced neutral axis depth.

Let M 1 --balanced moment capacity of a section if singly reinforced

M 2 --excess moment produced by compression steel plus excess tension steel

Then, total moment capacity of doubly reinforced section is,

M = M1 + M 2

Balanced moment capacity of a section if singly reinforced and the corresponding area of tension steel
balancing the section are obtained by

M 1 = M b = Rb . b . d 2

M1
& As1 =
f s , allow . jb . d

Excess moment resisted by compression steel plus excess tension steel from couple produced by internal
forces developed in the section,

M 2 = (M − M1 ) = C2 . ( d − d 1 ) = T2 . ( d − d 1 )

Rearranging the above equation, internal forces developed in compression steel and excess tension steel are
obtained as

M2
C2 = T2 =
( d − d1 )

Then, area of excess tension steel is obtained as,

39
 T2 M2
As 2 = =
f s , allow f s , allow . ( d − d 1 )

Therefore, total area of tension steel required by doubly reinforced section is obtained as,

As = As1 + As 2

From similarity of triangles shown in fig.(b) above, the stress in the concrete at the level of compression
reinforcement, f c1 ,

( kb . d − d 1 )
f c1 = f c , allow .
kb . d

Therefore, the stress in compression reinforcement,

f s1 = ( 2n . f c1 )  f s , allow

Due to the presence of reinforcement in compression zone, there is a loss of concrete area of magnitude,
As1 . And, this will cause a corresponding loss in compression force of ( As1 . f c1 ) .

Therefore, if f s1 = ( 2n . f c1 )  f s , allow

C2 = f s1 . As1 − f c1 . As1 = 2n . f c1 . As1 − f c1 . As1

 C2 = As1 . f c1 . ( 2n − 1)
C2
 As1 =
( 2n − 1) . f c1

If f s1 = ( 2n . f c1 )  f s , allow , then f s , allow

C2 = f s , allow . As1 − f c1 . As1 = As1 . ( f s , allow − f c1 )

C2
 As1 =
( f s , allow − f c1 )

2.2.7 Flanged Section (T- or L-section) under Flexure

In construction of building structures, the slab is usually supported by a system of beams. If the connection
between the beam and the slab adequately transmit longitudinal shear force, then the beam and slab together
may act as a homogeneous section of T- or L-forms. For loaded beam-slab if subjected to a moment which
produces compression at the top surface, the slab therefore becomes parts of the compression flange of the
beam, resulting in a greater zone of compression and giving a more economical section. For a reinforced
concrete beam-slab section, adequate connection between the beam and the slab is easily provided by
casting the section as monolithic, and by extending beam-stirrups and bent bars up into the slab.

It is known that the compressive stress caused by flexure in the upper flange decreases as the distance from
the web increases. This is because the shear deformation of flange relieves some of compressive stresses as
the element becomes more remote to the web. Therefore, this makes exact analysis of flanged section of
infinite wide-flange complex. In order to simplify the design of flanged section of infinite wide-flange, it
40
is usual to assume a uniform stress over a reduced width of flange. This reduced width is known as effective
width. Effective width of flange is determined equating forces on compressive flange due to actual
compressive stress on infinite wide-flange with equivalent uniform compressive stress on reduced width of
flange.

The effective width has been found to depend primarily on the type loading, span length, spacing of beams,
width of the web, and the relative thickness of the slab with respect to the total beam depth. For practical
design of flanged section, effective width of flange recommended by codes may be used.

-ACI code prescribes a limit on the effective flange width, ‘ b f ’ as follows.

a) For interior T-section, effective flange width shall be the smallest of:

 be = l 4

 be = bw + 16t
 b = center − to − center spacing of the beams
 e
Where l --is span length of the beam.

bw --is width of the web

t --is thickness of the slab

b) For exterior T-section (L-forms), effective flange width shall be the smallest of:


 be = bw + l 12

 be = bw + 6t
 1
 be = bw + ( clear dis tan ce to the next beam )
 2
c) For isolated T-sections, effective flange width shall be

be  4bw

and, also ACI code requires that t  bw 2

-EBCS-2/95 also specifies the effective flange width, ‘ b f ’ as follows.

a) For symmetrical T-beam, effective flange width shall not exceed the lesser of:

 be = bw + l 5

 be = center − to − center spacing of the beams
b) For edge beams (L-section), effective flange width shall not exceed the lesser of:

 be = bw + l 10

 1
 be = bw + 2 ( clear dis tan ce to the next beam )
41
2.2.8 Design of Flanged beams for Flexure
Design of flanged beams are made depending on the sign of design moment develop in the section
producing either tension or compression on flange side of beam. If the design moment developed in section
produces tension on flange side, the section is to be designed as if it were rectangular beam of width equal
to the width of the web of the section. For such section, no advantage is gained in using slab as flange of
section.

On other hand, if the design moment developed in section produces compression on flange side, the section
is to be designed depending on the position the neutral axis. The position of the neutral axis depends up of
the proportions of the cross-section, the amount of tension steel, and the strength of the materials. If the
neutral axis lies in the flange, the section is to be designed as if it were a rectangular beam of width equal
to the effective flange width. When the neutral axis lies in the web, the section is to be designed as T-beam
section.

2.2.9 Design Equations of T-beam Section -Working Stress (Elastic) Method

Consider a flanged section subjected to a service load moment, M as shown below. Assume the neutral
axis lies in the web so that the section is designed as T-beam section.

From geometry of strain diagram and assuming perfect elasticity of both materials, expression for neutral
axis depth ratio, k is obtained as:

n
k= (*)
f
n+ s
fc

Since the compression area provided by the slab is so large (large be ), the actual maximum compressive
stress in concrete, f c will be some unknown fraction of its allowable stress value. Hence, neutral axis
depth ratio, k has to be given in terms of the maximum compressive stress in concrete, f c that does not
related to the allowable stress value, f c , allow .

To simplify the derivation of design equations, the compressive stress in the web above the neutral axis is
ignored. Therefore, total compressive force in the flange is equal to:

f c + f c . (k . d − t ) k . d ( 2k . d − t )
Cc  . be . t = f c . . be .t
2 2k . d

42
and, resultant tensile force in steel,

Ts = As . f s

For horizontal equilibrium, Ts = Cc

( 2k . d − t )
 As . f s =  . be . d . f s = f c . . be . t (**)
2k . d

k
From Eq.(*) fc = . fs
n . (1 − k )

Substituting this expression of f c into Eq.(**) to eliminate unit stresses and then gives expression of the
neutral axis depth ratio of T-beam section as:

1
n.  + (t d ) 2
k= 2
n .  + (t d )

The distance to the center of compression (centriod of the trapezoidal area of compressive stress) from the
upper face of the beam is:

(3k . d − 2t ) t
z= .
( 2k . d − t ) 3

Then, the lever-arm of the couple formed by the internal tensile and compressive force is:

j . d = (d − z )

Substituting z and k , and solving for j , the following expression lever-arm ratio of T-beam section is
obtained,

1
6 − 6(t d ) + 2(t d ) 2 + (t d )3 . ( )
2 . n
j =
6 − 3(t d )

The resisting moments of T-beam section are equal to the product of the lever-arm, j. d of the internal
force couple and the total tension or compression. Hence,

M = As . f s . j . d --in terms of steel stress

t
or M = f c . (1 − ) .be . t . j . d --in terms of concrete stress
2k . d

Approximate equation for resisting moments can be obtained using the limiting values for lever-arm
between internal forces, ( j . d )  (d − t 2) and average compressive stress in the flange,
Cc = fc . (1− t 2k . d )  fc 2 as,

43
 M = As . f s . (d − t 2) --used to determine trail area of tension steel

fc
M = . be . t . (d − t 2) --used to check maximum stress in concrete
2

2.3 BASIC CONCEPTS OF DESIGN

2.3.1 Limit State Design for Flexure And Serviceability Limit State
2.3.1.1 Basic Assumptions
Assumption made for determining ultimate resistance of a member for flexure and axial force according to
EBCS-2/95 are,

1. A section which is plane before bending remains plane after bending. This implies strains across
section are linearly varying. This is true for most section of flexural member except deep beam where
shear deformation is significant.
2. The reinforcement is subjected to the same variations in the strain as the adjacent concrete. This
implies there is no slip between steel bars and the adjacent concrete. This is possible if adequate
development length of bars and concrete cover are provided.
3. Tensile strength of concrete is ignored. The reinforcement assumed to takes all the tension due to
flexure.
4. The maximum compressive stain in concrete when a section complete plastic deformation is taken to
be  cu = 0.0035 in bending (simple or compound)  cu = 0.002 in axial compression
5. The maximum tensile strain in the reinforcement is taken to 0.01. This limit assumed to limit crack-
width with in tension zone of section to the acceptable limit.
6. Either idealized parabola-rectangle stress distribution or equivalent rectangle stress distribution for
concrete in compression zone given by code as shown below shall be used in derivation of design
equation.
The ultimate resistance of section may be determined using equilibrium of both internal and external forces
based on the stress block obtained from the basic assumption.

2.3.1.2 Design Equations for Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section:

Consider a singly reinforced rectangular section subjected to a factored load moment, M u as shown below.

44
-Equilibrium of both internal and external forces,

i)  FH =0   Cc = Ts

As
 0.8 f cd . b . x = As . f yd Let  = --steel ratio of section
b.d

 0.8 f cd . b . x =  . b . d . f yd

Simplifying, depth of neutral axis obtained as,

  . f yd 
x =   . d (1)
 0.8 f cd 

ii)  M = 0   M u = Cc . z = Ts . z Where z = ( d − 0.4 x ) --lever arm

-taking moment about Ts :

M u = Cc . z

 M u = (0.8 fcd . b . x) . ( d − 0.4 x )

Substituting x from Eq.(1),

  . f yd   0.4  . f yd 
 M u = 0.8 f cd . b .  .d  .  d − .d 
 0.8 f cd   0.8 f cd 
Simplifying, ultimate moment of resistance of section is obtained as,

  . f yd 
M u =  . f yd . b . d 2 .  1 −  (2)
 2 f cd 
The same equation of ultimate moment of resistance of section can be obtained if moment center is taken
at Cc .

-Defining the ultimate moment and relative steel-area using the following dimension-less parameters:

Mu
= --relative ultimate moment
f cd . b . d 2

45
 f yd
And =. --mechanical reinforcement ratio
f cd

Then, neutral-axis depth obtained in Eq.(1) can be written as,

.d
x= (1a)
0.8
Therefore, depth of equivalent stress-block is obtained as,

y = 0.8x =  . d

Writing equation of moment of resistance of section in the form as shown below by rearranging Eq.(2),

Mu  . f yd   . f yd 
2
= .  1 − 
f cd . b . d f cd  2 f cd 
Writing the above equation in terms of dimension less parameters,

   2
  =  .1−  =  − (2a)
 2  2

Rearranging Eq.(2a),   2 − 2 + 2 = 0
Solving for  ,

 = 1 − 1 − 2 (3)

Therefore, area of tension steel required to resist the ultimate moment, M u is obtained by taking moment
about Cc as,

M u = Ts . z

 M u = As . f yd . z

Where z = (d − 0.4 x ) substituting x from Eq.(1a) and  from Eq.(3)

  d
z =  1 −  . d = . 1 + 1 − 2 ( )
 2  2

Rearranging, the required area of tension steel is obtained by,

Mu
As = (4)
f yd . z

Balanced Singly Reinforced Section

46
In balanced section, yielding of tension steel and crushing of concrete takes place at same time when the
section complete plastic deformation. That is, the maximum compressive strain in concrete reaches the
ultimate strain,  c =  cu = 0.0035 and the strain in tension steel is just yielded,  s =  yd = f yd Es .

From strain distribution, using similarity of triangles,

x  cu
=
d  cu +  s

Substituting x = xb &  s =  yd = f yd Es , the balanced neutral-axis depth is obtained as,

 cu
xb =
( cu + f yd Es )
.d (5)

Where  cu = 0.0035 --ultimate compressive strain of concrete

Equating xb with equation of neutral-axis depth obtained in Eq.(1) and Eq.(1a), the balanced reinforcement
ratio and the balanced mechanical reinforcement ratio are obtained as,

0.8 cu f
b =
( cu + f yd Es ) f yd
. cd (6)

0.8 cu
b =
And
( cu + f yd Es ) (7)

If    b , the steel yields first at the load near collapse (a case of under-reinforced section and ductile-type
failure).

If    b , crushing of concrete takes place first prior to yielding of tension steel at the load near collapse
(a case of over-reinforced section and brittle-type failure).

To ensure ductility, in practice the maximum amount of tension steel is fairly below the amount
corresponding to the balanced-one.

ACI:318 code recommend: maximum reinforcement ratio ensuring ductility as max = 0.75b . For
seismic load resisting member, the same code recommends,  max = 0.5  b .

Based on ACI recommendation ( max = 0.75b ), maximum design constants of singly reinforced section
are obtained as shown in table below.

Table: Maximum design constants of singly reinforced section (ACI-code)

47
EBCS:2/95 recommend: the maximum amount of tension steel used to ensure ductility is based on limiting
the neutral-axis depth at,

xmax = 0.448d --for no redistribution of elastic moments

xmax = 0.368d --for 10% redistribution of elastic moments

xmax = 0.288d --for 20% redistribution of elastic moments

xmax = 0.208d --for 30% redistribution of elastic moments

Based on EBCS-2/95 recommendation, maximum design constants of singly reinforced section are
obtained as shown in table below.

Table: Maximum design constants of singly reinforced section (EBCS-2/95 code)

% Redistribution of

elastic moments max  max

0% 0.3584 0.294

10% 0.2944 0.251

20% 0.2304 0.204

30% 0.1664 0.152

Better approach as follows:

In accordance with LSD method, at ULS of collapse:-

• εc approaches εcu = 0.0035

f yd
• The reinforcing steel shall yield first (  y d = )
Es
 Ductility is ensured by means of under reinforcement.

• At balanced failure simultaneous failure of the two materials (Concrete & Steel) occurs.
Let x b be the depth to the NA at balanced failure. From the strain relation,

xb d − xb  cu * d
=  xb =
 cu  yd  cu +  yd

• If x < x b  Steel yields first

• If x > x b  Crushing of concrete takes place first.

 FH = 0  Ts = CC  As fyd = 0.8 xb b fcd

48
 0.8 *  cu f
Substituting for xb and simplifying,  b = * cd
 cu +  yd f yd

(a steel ratio for balanced case)

However, for ductility purpose the steel ratio ρ may range b/n 0.75 ρb to 0.9 ρb, and in

some cases as low as 0.5 ρ b in ACI code, but in EBCS-2 ductility is ensured by keeping

kx max = 0.448 for 0% redistribution or even less for redistribution > 0% .

Rewriting the force equilibrium

byfcd = As fyd  b * 0.8x fcd = ρbd fyd

x  * f yd f yd
kx = = = m, Where m =
d 0.8 * f cd 0.8 * f cd

 Mc = 0  Md = As fyd (d - 0.4x)

Substituting the value of x and simplifying

Md = 0.8 bd2 fcd kx (1-0.4 kx)

 4M d 
k x = 0.5c1 − c1 −   k x max
2
When the above equation is solved for kx,
 bd 2 c2 

Where c1 = 2.5/m, c2 = 0.32m2fcd, m=fyd/(0.8fcd) kx max = 0.448 for 0% redistribution.

The section capacity for single reinforcement case may be computed from  Mt = 0, when kx < kx max

 Mu = 0.8bx fcd (d-0.4x) x = kx max d

= 0.8bd2 fcd kx max (1 -0.4 kx max)

Inelastic Redistribution of Moments in Continuous-beams and Frames

When statically indeterminate beam is loaded beyond the working loads, plastic hinges forms at the location
of maximum bending moment. On further loading the beam, the maximum moment do not increase beyond
the ultimate moment capacity of section of beam, however, rotation at plastic hinges keep on increasing
until the ultimate rotation capacity is reached. A redistribution of moment takes place with the changes in
the moment elsewhere in the beam as if a real hinges are existing. With further increase of additional plastic
hinge, redistribution moments continue until a collapse mechanism is produced.

Plastic analysis can be applied in analysis of steel structures. However, its use for analysis of reinforced
concrete structures is limited. A limited redistribution of moments obtained from elastic analysis of
indeterminate structures is permitted by most codes if members are designed under-reinforced section
provided equilibrium is maintained under each combination of ultimate loads.

For illustration of plastic analysis of structure, consider a fixed-beam, which is statically indeterminate,
subjected to increasing uniform load shown below.

49
Let the beam subjected to the load ' w p ' that cause the plastic hinges at the ends when the maximum moment
at supports equal to the ultimate resistance of beam section. But, with the formation of plastic hinges, the
beam is still able to support additional load without complete collapse. After formation of plastic hinges at
supports, the beam behaves as if simply supported.

On further loading, the moment at center of span increases proportionally with the change of loading.
Additional load w is slowly applied until it causes the beam to transform into a collapse mechanism with
the formation of one or more hinges at the middle.

At collapse, mid-span moment equal to the ultimate resistance of beam section,

wp . l 2 w . l 2 w p . l
2
Mu = + =
24 8 12

Equating negative and positive collapse moment, additional load that causes collapse mechanism in terms
of the load ' w p ' that causes the plastic hinges at the ends is,

w = w p 3 And, collapse load in terms of ' w p '

4
wu = wp + w = wp + wp 3 = wp
3

These shows, the beam may carry a load of 4 3 w p with redistribution. The ultimate moment in terms of
ultimate load is:

wp . l 2 3
Mu = Substituting wp = wu
12 4

50
→ Mu =
(3 4 wu ) . l 2 =
wu . l 2
12 16

If elastic analysis is made using the ultimate load ' wu ' , the maximum moment at support is wu . l 2 12 . The
percentage reduction in bending is:

wu .l 2 12 − wu .l 2 16
x100 = 25%
wu .l 2 12

Plastic analysis of continuous beams and frames also can be done using virtual work method. Assume any
reasonable collapse mechanism, equating internal work done by ultimate moments at plastic hinges with
external work done by collapse load on deflecting collapsed span of continuous beam and frame, the
location of plastic hinges and the minimum collapse load can be determined.

According to EBCS-2/95, elastic moments of continuous beams and frames are redistributed using the
following reduction coefficient, 

1) For continuous beams and rigid jointed braced frames with span/effective depth ratio not greater than
20,
x
 = 0.44 +1.25  Where x—is calculated at ultimate limit state
d 
Based on the above equation, the limiting maximum neutral axis depth ratio used for proportioning of
sections of continuous beams and rigid jointed braced frames are obtained as follow:

For 30% redistribution of elastic moment, x d = 0.208

For 20% redistribution of elastic moment, x d = 0.288

For 10% redistribution of elastic moment, x d = 0.368

For no reduction of elastic moment, x d = 0.448

2) For other continuous beams and rigid braced frames

  0.75
3) For sway frames with slenderness ratio l of columns less than 25
  0.90

2.3.1.3 Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Section

Consider a doubly reinforced rectangular section subjected to an ultimate moment, M u as shown below.
Design equations are derived by dividing the section into two parts: Balanced singly reinforced section and
excess tension steel plus compression steel. It is assumed that both tension and compression steels are
yielded. The excess tension steel and compression steel are proportioned in such a way that the neutral axis
is maintained at balanced position.

51
Let M1 --moment capacity of balanced singly reinforced section

M 2 --moment resistance provided by excess tension steel plus compression steel

Thus, the total ultimate moment of resistance of doubly reinforced section is the sum of the two parts:
moment capacity of balanced singly reinforced section, M1 and ultimate moment resisted by excess tension
steel plus compressive steel, M 2 .

i.e M u = (M1 + M 2 )

Moment capacity of balanced singly reinforced section,

M 1 =  max . f cd . b . d 2

And, the corresponding area of tension steel balancing M1 is,

M1
As1 =
f yd . zmin

  
Where zmin = (d − 0.4 xmax ) = d . 1 − max 
 2 

Excess moment to be resisted by excess tension steel plus compression steel is,

M 2 = (M u − M1 )

Equating excess moment with the couple made by internal forces in excess tension steel and compression
steel as shown in Fig.(e), area of excess tension steel and compression steel are obtained as (if compression
steel yielding)

M2 M2
As 2 = As =
1

. (d − d 1 ) . (d − d 1 )
And,
f yd f yd

Therefore, the total area of tension steel required by doubly reinforced section,

As = As1 + As 2

52
To check yielding of compression steel, referring to stain diagram in Fig.(b), the strain in compression steel
is determined and compared with the yield strain of a given steel as obtained below.
xmax  cu
=
d 1
(
 cu −  s1 )
  =  cu
1
.
(x max − d1)
s
xmax

Where  cu = 0.0035

xmax = ymax 0.8 = (max . d ) 0.8

If compression steel is yielding,

f yd
 s1   yd = f s = f yd
1
& (as assumed)
Es

Or, if compression steel is not yielding,

f yd
 s1   yd = f s = Es .  s  f yd
1 1
&
Es

Then, area of compression steel is re-determined using,

M2 M2
As = =
1

f . d −d
s
1 1
( 1
)
Es .  s . d − d 1 ( )
Another approach:
Assume that As & As1 are stressed to fyd.

Mu = Muc+ Musc

Where Muc is the BM carried by the concrete and partial area of tensile steal.

 Muc = 0.8bd2 fcd k1 (1-0.4 k1)

In which k1 = kx max, the maximum steel ratio corresponding to single reinforcement section in case of
design and

As − As1
k1 =  k x max for the case of analysis.
bd
Musc is the BM carried by compressive steel and the corresponding tensile steel.

Musc = As1 fyd (d-dc’)

The yielding of the compressive steel may be checked from the strain relation as

x − dc'
 sc = *  cu   yd
x
53
2.3.1.4 Flanged Section (T- or L-section) under Flexure
The general discussion with respect to flanged section, effective width of flange in working stress method
holds for strength limit state method as well. In treating flanged section using strength limit state method,
it is convenient to adopt the same equivalent rectangle stress-block that is used for rectangular cross section.

i) If depth of equivalent rectangle stress-block, ' y ' is equal to or less than the flanged thickness, ' h f ' (i.e
y  h f ), a flanged section may be treated as a rectangular section of width equal to an effective width of
flange, ' be ' provided the flange of section is on compression side when the section subjected a moment.
For trial purpose initially, it can be assumed the stress block is with-in the flange (or assume flanged
section rectangular with width equal to effective width of flange).

-calculate relative ultimate moment and relative mechanical steel ratio of assumed rectangular section
using,

Mu
=
f cd .be . d 2

And  = 1 − 1− 2

-then, compute depth of equivalent rectangle stress-block for assumed section and compare with thickness
of the flange of the section,

y =.d

-If y  h f , the section is designed as rectangular section with width equal to effective width of flange,
' be ' . Therefore, area of tension steel required by the section for such case is given by

Mu
As =
f yd . z

Where z=
d
2
(
1 + 1 − 2 )
ii) If the depth of equivalent rectangle stress-block of assumed rectangular section is greater than thickness
of the flange of the section (i.e y  h f ), a flanged section is treated as T-beam section provided the
flange of section is on compression side when the section subjected a moment. To derive design equation
of T-beam, it is convenient to divide the compression area of T-beam section into two parts as shown
below:
a) the over-hanging portion of the compressive flange
b) the web portion extending into the compressive flange

54
Let Asf --area of tension steel balancing over-hanging portion of the flange

Asw --area of tension steel balancing web portion extending into the flange

The total ultimate moment of resistance of T-beam section is obtained by taking moment of the internal
compressive forces about the center of tension steel; and it is given as the sum of moments produced by
over-hanging portion of the flange and the web portion extending into the flange. i.e
M u = M uf + M uw

-The moment produced by over-hanging portion of the flange is obtained as

M uf = ( be − bw ) . h f . f cd . z f

Where z f = ( d − hf 2 )

Then, the corresponding area of tension steel balancing the over-hanging portion of the flange is obtained
M uf
as Asf =
z f . f yd

-The moment produced by the web portion extending into the flange is obtained by subtracting moment of
over-hanging portion from the total ultimate moment of T-beam.

i.e M uw = ( M u − M uf )

To determine the corresponding area of tension steel balancing web potion extending into the flange, the
web portion is treated as rectangular section with width equal to the width of the web, bw . Therefore,
calculate the relative ultimate moment the web portion using

M uw
w =
f cd . bw . d 2

Then, the required area of tension steel balancing web potion is obtained as

M uw
Asw =
f yd . z w

Where zw =
d
2
(
. 1 + 1 − 2 w )
Therefore, the total area of tension steel is obtained as

55
 As = Asf + Asw

Check flanged section for single reinforcement using  w   max . If the flanged section requires
compression reinforcement (  w   max ), area of compressive steel and excess tension steel required by
web portion is obtained using (if compression steel is yielding)

As = As 2 =
1 ( M uw − M1 )
f yd . ( d − d 1 )

and, area of tension steel balancing web portion is re-determined using

M uw
Asw =
f yd . zmin

  
Where M 1 =  max . f cd . bw . d 2 & zmin = (d − 0.4 xmax ) = d . 1 − max 
 2 

iii) If the flange of the section is on the tension side when subjected to a moment, flanged section is
designed as if it were a rectangular section with width equal to the width of the web, bw .
Another similar approach:

Reinforced concrete floors or roofs are monolithic and hence, a part of the slab will act with the upper part
of the beam to resist longitudinal compression. The resulting beam cross-section is, then, T-shaped
(inverted L), rather than rectangular with the slab forming the beam flange where as part of the beam
projecting below the slab forms the web or stem.

The T-sections provide a large concrete cross-sectional area of the flange to resist the compressive force.
Hence, T-sections are very advantageous in simply supported spans to resist large positive bending moment,
where as the inverted T-sections have the added advantage in cantilever beam to resist negative moment.

As the longitudinal compressive stress varies across the flange width of same level, it is convenient in
design to make use of an effective flange width (may be smaller than the actual width) which is considered
to be uniformly stressed.

Effective flange width (according to EBCS 2, 1995)

For interior beams  T-sections

 le
bw +
be   5

C / C beam spacing
For edge beams  inverted L- sections
56
  le
bw +
be   10

bw + half the clear dis tan ce to adjacent beam
Where le – is the effective span length & bw is the width of the web.

There are three distribution type of flexural behavior of T-sections.

▪ When the T-section is subjected to BM, and tension is produced on the flange portion, it is treated as
a rectangular section with b = bw.
▪ When the T-section is subjected to +ve bending moment and the equivalent compressive stress block
lies within the flange as shown below (y < hf), the section can be analysed as rectangular with effective
width be.
− This case is a case of under reinforced condition or large flange thickness, which can be confirmed
first by computing  (with b = be,  = As/(bed)) using relation established for rectangular beams and
evaluate the NA depth, x = md. Compare y = 0.8x with hf.

▪ When y > hf, the section acts as T-beam and hence analysis accounting the T-geometry becomes
essential which is shown in the figure below.

Cross-section Design and Analysis

Design


 4M d 

- Assuming b = be compute k x = 0.5 c1 − c1 −  and x = kx d

 be d 2 c 2 

i) If y = 0.8x < hf, section is rectangular as assumed.

kx
 As = be d
m
ii) If y > hf  T beam analysis is required.
57
 M uf
As = ASf + Asw = + ρwbwd in which,
Z f * f yd

Muf = (be-bw) hf fcd zf

hf
Zf = d −
2

k w 0.5 
 4M uw 

w = = c1 − c1 − 
m m  bw d 2 c 2 

Muw = Mu - Muf

iii) When the flange is on the tension side, then the cross- section is designed as if it were rectangular
with b = bw

As
Analysis: = , X = ρmd
be * d
i) If y = 0.8X<= hf  the section is analyzed as rectangular with b = be.

Mu = 0.8bed2fcd ρm (1-0.4 ρm)

ii) If y = 0.8X< hf  the section is analyzed as T-beam.

M uf
Muf = (be-bw) hf fcd zf , ASf = , Asw = As - ASf
Z f * f yd

Asw
ρw = Muw = 0.8bwd2fcd ρwm(1-0.4ρwm)
bw * d

Mu = Muf +Muw

Alternative method using design tables (singly reinforced Sections)

1-USING DESIGN TABLES

Derivation

Md = 0.8bd2fcd ρm(1-0.4 ρm)

Md
= 0.8 f cd m(1 − 0.4 m)
bd 2

Md
Let k m = = 0.8 f cd m(1 − 0.4 m)
bd 2

58
 Md Md 1
∑Mc = 0  As = = *
f yd (d − 0.4 x) d x
f yd (1 − 0.4 )
d

1 ks * M d
Let k s =  As =
x d
f yd (1 − 0.4 )
d
From table 1a there are different Km values and the max. Value of Km for different moment
redistribution is given and represented by Km*.

If Km ≤ Km*, the section is singly reinforced.

If Km>Km*, it is doubly reinforced.
STEPS:

a) For Singly Reinforced Sections

Md
1. Evaluate k m =
b
d
2. Enter the general design Table No.1a using km and concrete grade.
3. Read ks from the same Table corresponding to steel grade and km.
ks * M d
4. Evaluate As =
d
b) For Doubly Reinforced Sections
1. This is so, when Km>Km*(is the value of Km shown shaded in general design table 1a ,
corresponding to the concrete grade)
2. compute Km/Km*
3. Read Ks & Ks* corresponding to Km/Km* & the steel grade from general design table 1a
4. Assume dc, (d2) & read ρ (correction factor) from the same table corresponding to Km/Km* &
dc’/d.
5. Read ρ’ corresponding to dc’/d ,then
As = KsMd ρ/d As’ = Ks’Md ρ’/d

Note: - In all cases

- Md is in KN-m
- b “ “ m
- d “ “ m
2- USING DESIGN CHARTS

Mu, s
Compute  u , s = & Kx, max = 0.8(δ-0.44), where δ=1, 0.9, 0.8 & 0.7 for 0%, 10%,
f cdbd 2
20% & 30% moment redistribution.
Compare  u, s or Kx with the corresponding values of  u ,s* Kx,max
Where:  u ,s* = 0.143, 0.205, 0.252 & 0.295 for 30%, 20%, 10%, and 0% respectively.

If  u, s ≤  u ,s* then the section is singly reinforced and As1:

59
 Msd , s Nsd
As1 = +
zf yd fyd

If  u, s >  u ,s* ,then the section is doubly reinforced and As1 ,As2:
Msd , s − Mu, s *
As2 = - area of compression reinforcement,
(d − d 2 ) s 2

Where: Mu, s* =  u ,s* fcd bd2 &  u ,s* is the value given above.

 s 2 - is actual compressive stress on compression steel & is Es*εsc

Mu, s * Msd , s − Mu, s * N sd

As1 = + + -area of tensile reinforcement
Zf yd (d − d 2 ) s 2 f yd

Using  u, s read Z/d, X/d etc & compute As1 and As2.

Cover to Reinforcements

▪ The concrete cover is the distance between the outermost surface of reinforcement (usually stirrups)
and the nearest concrete surface.
▪ The thickness of cover required depends both upon the exposure conditions and on the concrete
quality.
▪ To transmit bond forces safely, and to ensure adequate compaction, the concrete cover should never
be less than:
(a)  or n ( 40mm), or
(b) ( + 5mm) or (n + 5mm) if dg > 32mm
Where  = the diameter of the bar.

n = the equivalent diameter for a bundle.

dg = the largest nominal aggregate size.

Minimum cover

Type of exposure Mild Moderate Sever

Min. cover (mm) 15 25 50

Durability and control of crack width is related with finishing and provision of adequate cover to
reinforcement. Nominal cover for structural elements located in the interior of the building with dry
environment and mild condition is 15 mm, example slab; humid environment with moderate exposure is
25 mm, example beam; severe environment is 50 mm, example footing.

Spacing of Reinforcements

▪ The clear horizontal and vertical distance between bars shall be at least equal to the largest of the
following values.
(a) 20 mm

60
 (b) The diameter of the largest bar or effective diameter of the bundle
(c) The maximum size of the aggregate dg plus 5mm.
▪ Where bars are positioned in separate horizontal layers, the bars in each layer should be located
vertically above each other and the space between the resulting columns of the bars should permit
the passage of an internal vibrator.
Effective Span Length

▪ The effective span of a simply supported member shall be taken as the lower of the following two
values:
(a) The distance between the center lines of supports.
(b) The clear distance between the faces of supports plus the effective depth.
▪ The effective span of a continuous element shall normally be taken as the distance between the
center lines of the supports.
▪ For a cantilever, the effective span is taken to be its length, measured from.
(a) The face of the supports, for an isolated, fixed ended cantilever.
(b) The center line of the support for a cantilever which forms the end of a continuous beam.
Deflection limits are assumed to be satisfied when the minimum effective depth for a particular
member is

 0.6 * f  L

d  0.4 +
yk  e
 400  
  a

where fyk is equal to character strength of reinforcement, Le is the effective span (the shorter span in
case of two way slab), is constant, a function of restraints given below).

Table – values of a
Member Simple End span Interior span cantilever

Beams 20 24 28 10

Slabs:

Span ratio 2:1 25 30 35 12

Span ratio 1:1 35 40 45 10

* For intermediate values – interpolation.

Preliminary Sizing of Beam Sections

Ideal values of span effective depth ratios, recommended in the ISE manual for the preliminary sizing of
reinforced concrete beams are given in table below.

Support conditions Cantilever Simple Support Continuous End spans

ISE manual 6 12 15 13.5

61
2.3.1.6 One-way RC Slabs
A reinforced concrete slab is a broad, flat plate, usually horizontal, with top and bottom surfaces parallel or
nearly so. It is used to provide flat surfaces mainly for roofs and floors of buildings, parking lots, air fields,
roadways …etc. It may be supported by reinforced concrete beams (and is poured monolithically with such
beams), by masonry or reinforced concrete walls, by structural steel members, directly by columns, or
continuously by the ground.

Classification: - Beam supported slabs may be classified as:-

1. One-way slabs – main reinforcement in each element runs in one direction only. (Ly/Lx >2). There are
two types- one way solid slabs and one way ribbed slabs.

Beams
Solid slab Ribbed slab Joists
2. Two – way slabs – main reinforcement runs in both direction where ratio of long to short span is less
than two. (Ly/Lx < 2)
Others include flat slabs, flat plates, two way ribbed or grid slabs etc.

Analysis of one-way solid slabs

They are considered as rectangular beams of comparatively large ratio of width to depth and ratio of longer
span to width (short span) is greater than two.

Ll

Ls
Supporting beams / walls

1m width

When Ll / Ls > 2, about 90% or more of the total load is carried by the short span, i.e., bending takes place
in the direction of the shorter span.

The analysis is than carried out by assuming a beam of unit width with a depth equal to the thickness of the
slab and span equal to the distance between supports (in the short direction). The strip may be analyzed in
the same way as singly reinforced rectangular sections.

▪ Load per unit area on the slab would be the load per unit length on this imaginary beam of unit width.
▪ As the loads being transmitted to the supporting beams, all reinforcement shall be placed at right angles
to these beams. However some additional bars may be placed in the other direction to carry temperature
and shrinkage stresses.
Generally the design consists of selecting a slab thickness for deflection requirement and flexural design is
carried out by considering the slab as series of rectangular beams side by side.

Remark:-

62
▪ The ratio of steel in a slab can be determined by dividing the sectional area of one bar by the area of
concrete between two successive bars, the latter area being the product of the depth to the center of the
bars and the distance between them, center to center.
▪ Unless condition warrant some change, cover to reinforcement is 15 mm.
▪ The following minimum slab thicknesses shall be adopted in design:
a) 60mm for slabs not exposed to concentrated loads (eg. Inaccessible roofs).
b) 80mm for slabs exposed mainly to distributed loads.
c) 100mm for slabs exposed to light moving concentrated loads (eg. slabs accessible to light moving
vehicles).
d) 120mm for slabs exposed to heavy dynamic moving loads (eg. slabs accessible to heavy vehicles).
e) 150mm for slabs on point supports (eg. flat slabs).
▪ Flexural reinforcements should fulfill the following minimum criteria:
a) The ratio of the secondary reinforcement to the main reinforcement shall be at least equal to 0.2.
b) The geometrical ratio of main reinforcement in a slab shall not be less than:
0.5
 min = where f yk in MPa
f yk
c) The spacing between main bars for slabs shall not exceed the smaller of 2h or 350mm.
d) The spacing between secondary bars (in a direction ⊥ to the main bars) shall not exceed 400mm.
Analysis and Design of one way Ribbed Slab

In one way ribbed slab, the supporting beams called joists or ribs are closely spaced. The ribbed floor is
formed using temporary or permanent shuttering (formwork) while the hollow block floor is generally
constructed with blocks made of clay tile or with concrete containing a light weight aggregate. This type
of floor is economical for buildings where there are long spans and light or moderate live loads such as in
hospitals and apartment buildings.

General Requirements:

Minimum slab thickness

To ensure adequate stiffness against bending and torsion and to allow ribbed slabs to be treated as solid
slabs for the purpose of analysis, EBCS-2 recommends that the following restrictions on size are satisfied:

▪ Ribs shall not be less than 70mm in width; and shall have a depth, excluding any topping of not more
than 4 times the minimum width of the rib. The rib spacing shall not exceed 1.0m
▪ Thickness of topping shall not be less than 50mm, nor less than 1 10 the clear distance between ribs. In
the case of ribbed slabs incorporating permanent blocks, the lower limit of 50mm may be reduced to
40mm.

63
Minimum Reinforcement

▪ The topping shall be provided with a reinforcement mesh providing in each direction a cross-sectional
area not less than 0.001 of the section of the slab.
▪ The breadth of ribs may be governed by shear strength requirements. The method proposed in the ISE
manual for the estimation of rib breadths limits the shear stress in the rib to 0.6 N/mm2 for concretes with
characteristic cylinder strength of 25 N/mm2 or more. The required breadth is given by:

b=
V
mm
0 .6 d
Where V is the maximum shear force in Newton’s on the rib considered as simply supported and d is
the effective depth in millimeters. For characteristic cylinder strengths less than 25 MPa, the breadth
should be increased in proportion.

▪ If the rib spacing exceeds 1.0m, the topping shall be designed as a slab resting on ribs, considering load
concentrations, if any.
▪ The function of the flanges with the web shall be checked for longitudinal shear.
▪ The ultimate limit state in longitudinal shear is governed either by the effect of inclined flange
compression (acting parallel to its middle plane) or by tension in the transverse reinforcement.
▪ The longitudinal shear per unit length vsd, which may be obtained as a function of the applied transverse
shear Vsd :
(a) For flange in compression :
 b e −b w  Vsd
vsd =  
 2 b e  z
(b) For flange in tension.
 As − Asw  Vsd
vsd =  
 2 As  z
Where: Vsd – applied transverse shear.

Vsd - longitudinal shear per unit length

be – effective width of a T-section.

z - Internal lever arm.

As – area of the longitudinal steel in the effective flanges outside the projection of

Web into the slab.

Asw – area of the longitudinal steel inside the slab within the projection of the

web into the slab.

▪ Resistance to longitudinal shear.

(a) Resistance to inclined compression per unit length vRd1
vRd1 = 0.25 fcd hf

Where : hf = total thickness of the flange.

(b) Resistance to diagonal tension per unit length vRd2

64
 Asf f yd
vRd2 = 0.50 fctd hf +
sf

Where : Asf = area of transverse reinforcement per unit length , perpendicular to

the web-flange interface.

▪ If, at the section with M = Mmax , the flange is subjected to a tensile force, the concrete contribution 0.50
fctd hf ( in the above equation) should be neglected.

▪ Because joists are closely spaced, thickness of slab (topping),

40 mm

D1
 clear dis tan ce between joists
10

▪ Unless calculation requires for rib spacing larger than 1m, toppings or slabs are provided with mesh
reinforcement of 0.001 bD in both directions for temperature and shrinkage problem.
▪ Unless calculation requires, min reinforcement to be provided for joists includes two bars, where one is
bent near the support and the other straight.
▪ Rib with bw > 70mm, and overall depth Dj < 4 bw, joist + tslab
▪ Rib spacing is generally less than 1m.
▪ In case of ribbed spacing larger than 1m, the topping (slab) need to be design as if supported on ribs.
(i.e. As one way solid slab between the ribs).
▪ If the span of the ribs exceeds 6m, transverse ribs may be provided, as the thickness of the topping will
be larger.
▪ The girder supporting the joist may be rectangular or T-beam with the flange thickness equal to the floor
thickness.
Procedure of Design of a floor system of ribbed Slab

1. Thickness of toppings and ribs assumed based on min requirement.

2. Loads may be computed on the basis of center line of the spacing of joists.
3. The joists are analyzed as regular continuous T-beams supported by girders.
4. Shear reinforcement shall not be provided in the narrow web of joist thus a check for the section
capacity against shear is carried out. The shear capacity may be approximated as: 1.1 Vc of regular
rectangular sections.
5. Determine flexural reinforcement and consider min provision in the final solution.
6. Provide the topping or slab with reinforcement as per temp and shrinkage requirement.
65
7. Design the girder as a beam.
2.3.1.7 Serviceability limit states of deflection and crack width
It is important that member performance in normal service be satisfactory, when loads are those actually
expected to act i.e. when load factors are 1.0. This is not guaranteed simply by providing adequate strengths.
Service load deflections under full load may be excessively large or long-term deflections due to sustained
loads may cause damage .Tension cracks in beams may be wide enough to be visually disturbing or may
even permit serious corrosion of reinforcing bars. These and other questions such as vibration or fatigue,
require consideration.

Serviceability studies are carried out based on elastic theory, with stresses in both concrete and steel
assumed to be proportional to strain. The concrete on the tension side of the neutral axis may be assumed
uncracked, partially cracked, or fully cracked depending on the loads and material strengths.

Reinforced concrete members carrying lateral loads respond to these loads by bending. The moment
curvature relationship for a segment of the simply supported reinforced concrete member of fig.3.7.1 (a) is
illustrated in fig.3.7.1 (c). It can be seen that the segment remains uncracked and has a large stiffness EIu,
, until the moment reaches the cracking moment, Mcr, (Point A) .When this happens, the member cracks
and the stiffness at the cracked section reduces to EIc.

As the load (and hence the moment) is increased further, more cracks occur and existing cracks increase
in size .Eventually ,the reinforcement yields at the point of maximum moment corresponding to point C
on the diagram. Above this point the member displays large increases in deflection for small increases in
moment .The service load range is between the origin and point C on the diagram and it is in this range that
deflections are checked and stresses calculated.

Consider a point B within the service load range. This curvature represents the instantaneous (short
term) curvature under an applied moment, M. If the moment is sustained, however, the curvature increases
with time to point D owing to the creep of the concrete. The curvature at this point is known as the long
term or sustained curvature. As deflection results, from curvature, there are both instantaneous and
sustained deflections which must be considered in the design of members with bending.

Deflections

The deflections which result from bending must be limited such that they do not adversely affect the
function and appearance of the member or the entire structure.

66
 a) Limits on Deflections

The final deflection (including the effects of temperature, creep and shrinkage) of all horizontal
members shall not, in general, exceed the value.

Le
= Where: Le effective span
200
For roof or floor construction supporting or attached to non-structural elements (e.g. partitions and
finishes) likely to be damaged by large deflections, that part of the deflection which occurs after the
attachment of the non-structural elements shall not exceed the value .

Le
=  20mm
350
b) Calculation of Deflections

Effect of creep and shrinkage strains on the curvature, and there by on the deflection shall be considered.

Immediate deflections shall be computed by the usual elastic methods as the sum of the two parts  i and
 ii given by Eqs. 1 and 2, but not more than  max given by eqs. 3

M cr
 i = L2 ------ (1)
E cm I c

M k − M cr
 ii = L2 --------------- (2)
0.75E s As Z (d − X )

Mk
 max = L2 ---------------------- (3)
E s As Z (d − X )

M cr = 1.70 f ctk S ------------------------------------ (4)

 i = deflection due to the theoretical cracking moment (Mcr) acting on the uncracked
transformed section

 ii =deflection due to the balance of the applied moment over and above the cracking value
and acting on a section with an equivalent stiffness of 75% of the cracked value.  max =
deflection of fully cracked section

As = area of the tension reinforcement

Ecm = short term elastic modulus (secant modulus) of the concrete

1

Ecm = 9.5 ( f ck + 8) 3
fck-mpa, Ecm-Gpa

67
 Grade of C15 C20 C25 C30 C40 C50 C60

concrete

Ecm 26 27 29 32 35 37 39

Es-modulus of elasticity of steel, Iu-moment of inertia of the uncraked transformed section

Mk-Maximum applied, moment at mid span due to sustained characteristic loads; for cantilevers it is
the moment at the face of the support

S- Section modulus, d-effective depth of the section,

X-neutral axis depth at the section of max. moment,

Z-internal lever arm at the section of max moment.

 -deflection coefficient depending on the loading and support conditions.

(e.g  =5/48 for simply supported span subjected to uniformly distributed load)

Note: The value of X & Z may be determined for the service load condition using a modular ratio of
10, or for the ultimate load condition.

Long term deflection of flexural members shall be obtained by multiplying the immediate deflection caused
by the sustained load considered, by the factor,

(2-1.2As’/As) 0.6--------------- (5)

Where: As’-area of compression reinforcement, As-area of tension reinforcement.

Limits on cracking

Flexural cracks are inevitably formed in reinforced concrete members. For structures in aggressive
environments, corrosion is a problem and stringent limits are imposed on the width of cracks that are
allowed to develop. Environment in the interior of the building is usually non-sever, corrosion does not
generally pose a problem and limits on crack widths will be governed by their appearance.

a) Crack Formation

• The max. tensile stresses in the concrete are calculated under the action of design loads
appropriate to a serviceability limit state and on the basis of the geometrical properties of the
transformed uncracked concrete X-section.
• The calculated stresses shall not exceed the following values:
a) Flexure, (  ct = 1.70 f ctk ) b) direct(axial) tension (  ct = f ctk )

• Minimum flexural reinforcement in beams for the control of cracking is given by:
0.6
 min =
f yk

b) Crack widths

68
 Crack widths are calculated using the quasi permanent service load combination. Specifically crack
widths can be assumed not to exceed the limiting values if the limits on the bar spacing or bar diameter
(Table 1) are satisfied, and if min. areas of reinforcement, also specified are provided.

Table 1 Maximum size and spacing of high bond bars for control of cracking.

Steel stress* Max. bar spacing (mm) Max. bar diameter(mm)

160 300 32

200 250 25

240 200 20

280 150 16

320 100 12

360 50 10

400 - 8

450 - 6

*steel stresses are determined using quasi –permanent loads.

Table 2 Characteristic crack widths for concrete Members

Type of Dry environment: Humid environment: Sea water and/or

exposure Interior of buildings Interior aggressive chemicals
of normal habitation components(e.g. environments completely
or office laundries), exterior or partially submergeed in
components; seawater ,components in
components in non- saturated salt air
aggressive soil and /or ,aggressive industrial
water atmospheres

(sever)

(Moderate)

(mild)

Characteristic 0.4 0.2 0.1

crack
width,wk(mm)

In specific cases where a crack width Calculation is considered necessary

Wk=  s rm  sm Where: wk=characteristic crack width, s rm =average final crack width

 sm =mean strain in the tension steel allowing for tension stiffening and time dependent effects

 =coefficient relating the average crack width to the design value

69
  = 1.7 for sections in bending under applied loads.
The mean strain is simply the strain in the steel adjusted by the distribution factor, 

fs
 sm =  , Where: fs-stress in the tension reinforcement, Es-elastic modulus of steel
Es
f sr
 = 1 − 1  2 ( )
fs

 1 =coefficient which accounts for the bond properties of the reinforcement

 1 =1.0 for high bond bars (normally used or deformed) and 0.5 for plain bars

 2 = coefficient which accounts for the duration of loading or of repeated loading

 2 =1.0 for single short term loading & 0.5 for sustained loading or repeated loading
fs= stress in tension steel assuming a cracked section

fsr= stress in tension steel assuming a cracked section due to loading which causes initial
cracking

The average final crack spacing in (mm) is calculated using the equation


Srm = 50 + 0.25 K1 K 2 - 70 -
r

Where: k1 = coefficient which accounts for the bond properties of the reinforcement: k1=0.8
for high bond bars:k1=1.6 for plain bars.

K2= coefficient which takes account of the form of strain distribution for bending it is
0.5

 = bar diameter,  r = effective reinforcement ratio As/Ac,eff.

Where: Ac,eff= effective tension area of he concrete , as illustrated below

Fig. Effective tension area of concrete

70
2.3.2 The ULS of Shear and Bond, Anchorage and Development Length
2.3.2.1 The ULS Design of Beams for Shear
Beams are designed for flexure and then the influences of other actions on its capacity are assumed.

The ULS of shear is characterized by either diagonal compression failure of concrete or failure of the
web reinforcement due to diagonal tension.

When a beam is subjected to flexure and shear, the shear resistance in the absence of shear
reinforcement is contributed by concrete compression zone, mechanical interlock of aggregate at the
crack and dowel action of the longitudinal reinforcement. The contributions of the later two are difficult
to quantify.

Hence, the resistance to a diagonal tension is obtained as the sum of the resistance of the web
reinforcement and the concrete section.

In checking this resistance, the critical section for shear is assessed a distance d from the face of support.

2.3.2.2 Design Criteria

(i) Only nominal web reinforcement

When the shear force in a section does not exceed the shear strength of the concrete v c, only nominal
web reinforcement is provided.

Vc = 0.25 fctd K1 K2 bwd

Where: k1 = 1+50 ≤ 2.0

k2 = 1.6 – d ≥ 1.0, d is effective depth in m. For members where more than 50%

of the bottom reinforcement is curtailed, k2 = 1.0.

As
ρ= ≤ 0.02 (bw = the minimum width of the web)
bw * d

As = the area of the tensile reinforcement anchored beyond the intersection of

the steel and the line of possible 450 crack starting from the edge of the section.

When Vsd < Vc, the section is adequate and provide nominal web reinforcement specified by longitudinal
spacing as:

71
 (a) All beams except joists of ribbed slabs, shall be provided with at least the minimum web
reinforcement given by:
0.4 Av Av f yk
 min = =  s max =
f yk bw s max 0.4bw

Where: fyk is in MPa

Av = Pair area of stirrups

s = Spacing in mm

bw = width of web

(b) The maximum spacing smax between stirrups, in the longitudinal direction, shall be as given below.
2
smax = 0.5d ≤ 300mm if Vsd ≤ V RD
3

2
smax = 0.3d ≤ 200mm if Vsd > V RD
3
(c) The transverse spacing of legs of stirrups shall not exceed d, or 800mm, which ever is the smaller.
(ii) Limiting value of ultimate shear stress

In order to prevent diagonal compression failure in the concrete the shear resistance (VRd) of a section
shall not be less than the applied shear force at d distance from face of support (Vsd).

Where, VRd = 0.25fcdbwd

When Vsd > VRd, the section size must be increased.

(iii) Shear reinforcement

When VC <VD <VRd, shear reinforcement need be provided.

Av df yd
Vs = Vd − Vc = ; Av = pair area of reinforcement
s

When inclined bars are used,

Av df yd (Sin + cos )
Vs =
s
Where:  = the angle of inclination from the horizontal.
72
2.3.2.3 Bond, Anchorage and Development Length
Bond
In order for reinforced concrete to behave as intended, it is essential that bond forces be developed
on the interface between concrete and steel, such as to prevent significant slip from occurring at
that interface. If the bar is smooth enough to slip, the assumption that the strain in an embedded
reinforcing bar is the same as that in the surrounding concrete, would not be valid. Consequently,
the beam would be very little stronger than if it were built of plain concrete, without reinforcement.

Figure 2.4.3.1 Bond stresses due to flexure (a) beam before loading; (b) unrestrained slip between

concrete and steel; (c) bond forces acting on concrete; (d) bond forces acting on steel.

Formerly plain bars were used with provision of end anchorage in the form of hooks. Such beam forms a
broken bond over the entire length between anchorages and acts as a tied arch (Fig. 2.4.3.2).

Figure 2.4.3.2 Tied arch action in a beam with little or no bond

To avoid development of wide cracks and dispense with special anchorage devices, deformed bars are
now universally used. With such bars, the shoulders of the projecting ribs bear on the surrounding
concrete and result in greatly increased bond strength.

Bond Stress

Figure 2.6.2.1 shows forces in an isolated piece of a beam of length dx. The moment at one end will
generally differ from that at the other end by a small amount dM.

73
Figure 2.4.3.3 Forces and stresses acting on elemental length of beam: (a) Free body sketch of

reinforced concrete element; (b) Free body sketch of steel element.

Assuming that concrete does not resist any tension stresses, the change in bar force becomes,

dM dM
dT = = (Z – Moment arm)
d − 0.4 x Z

As shown in figure 4.3.1b, this force is resisted by the bond at the contact surface between bar and
concrete.

Summing horizontal forces,

udx p = dT

Where: u = local average bond stress per unit of bar surface area.

 p = sum of perimeters of all the bars.

dT dM dM dx V
 u= = = =
dx p dxZ  p Z p Z p

Hence, the unit bond stress is proportional to the shear at a particular section, i.e., to the rate of change
of bending moment. The above equation applies to the tension bars in a concrete zone that is assumed
to be fully cracked. It does not apply to compression reinforcement, for which it can be shown that the
flexural bond stresses are very low.

Actual distribution of flexural bond stress:

74
 Figure 2.4.3.4 variation of steel force and bond
stress in reinforced concrete member subjected to
pure bending: (a) cracked concrete segment; (b)
bond stresses acting on reinforcing bar; (c)
variation of tensile force in steel; (d) variation of
bond stress along steel.
Figure 4.3.5 Effect of flexural cracks on bond
stresses in beam (a) beam with flexural cracks;
(c) variation of tensile force T in steel along span;
(d) variation of bond stress u along span.

2.3.2.4 Development Length

Ultimate bond failures for bars in tension are of two types: the first is direct pullout of the bar, which
occurs when ample confinement is provided by the surrounding concrete. The second type of failure is
splitting of the concrete along the bar when cover, confinement or bar spacing is insufficient to resist the
lateral concrete tension resulting from the wedging effect of the bar deformations. The latter if more
common than the former.

Figure 4.3.6 Splitting of concrete along reinforcement

75
The development length is defined as that length of embedment necessary to develop the full tensile
strength of the bar, controlled by either pullout or splitting. Referring to figure 4.3.7, the moment, and
hence the tensile stress, is evidentially maximum at point a and zero at supports. The total tension force
Abfs must be transferred from the bar to the concrete in the distance l by bond stress on the surface.

Figure 4.3.7 Development length

The safety against bond failure is that the length of the bar, from any point of given steel stress (fs or at
most fy) to its nearby free end must be at least equal to its development length.

The basic anchorage length, lb, is the straight length of bar required to anchor the force Asfyd. For a bar of
diameter-, this force must equal the shear force developed between the bar surface and the surrounding
concrete:

As f yd = (lb ) f bd
 2
But As =
4
 2
 f yd = lb f bd
4
f yd
 lb =
4 f bd

Where, fyd = design bond strength.

The required anchorage length lb,net depends on the type of anchorage and on the stress in the
reinforcement and can be calculated as:

As ,cal
lb ,net = alb  lb,min
As ,ef

Where, As,cal = theoretical area of reinforcement required by the design.

As,ef = area of reinforcement actually provided.

a = 1.0 for straight bar anchorage in tension or compression.

0.7 for anchorage in tension with standard hooks.

For bars in tension, lb,min = 0.3lb  10 or  200mm

For bars in compression, lb,min = 0.6lb  10 or  200mm

76
 Figure 4.3.8 Standard Hooks

Reinforcement shall extend beyond the point at which it is no longer required to resist tension for a length
given by:

(a) lb
(b) lb,net  d provided that in this case, the continuing bars are capable of resisting twice the applied
moment at the section.
2.3.2.5 Bar Cut off and Bend points
It is a common practice either to cut off bars where they are no longer required to resist stress or in case
of continuous beams, to bend up bottom steel so that it provides tensile reinforcement at the top of the
beam over the support. To determine bend points, or bar cutting points, the moment diagram resulting
from loading for maximum span moment and maximum support moment is shown below.

Figure 4.3.9 Tensile force diagram

Recognizing the various uncertainties, for bars with no special end anchorage the full development length
lb,net [d or 12] whichever is larger, must be provided beyond the peak stress location. The critical section

77
may be the point of max moment or a point where adjacent terminated reinforcement is no longer needed
to resist bending.

In the absence of explicit calculation, the sketch shown may serve this purpose.

Figure 4.3.11 Simplified curtailment rules for beams

2.3.2.6 Bar splices

Reinforcing bars are as by fabrication limited in length, say 12 m. Thus it is normal to splice bars in the
field. To do this, one has to notice the following regarding splicing.

➢ Splicing of bars must be avoided at points of max-moment.

➢ Bars which are spliced should be staggered.
➢ Splices are made simply by lapping the bars a sufficient distance to transfer stress
by bond from one bar to the other.

➢ The required length of lap for tension is approximately 1.3lb and that for compression is lb.

78
2.4 TWO WAY BEAM SUPPORTED SLABS
2.4.1 Introduction
Two way slabs are floor system whose individual panels are rectangular and are supported in such a way
that two way action results. When loaded, such slab lend into a dished surface rather than cylindrical one.
As the BMs are proportional to curvature, to resist these BMs, the slab must be reinforced in both directions.
Therefore, the slab must be designed to take a proportionate share of the load in each direction.

Let’s consider a simply supported two way slab shown below, with Lx and Ly, shorter and longer span,
respectively.

1m

Let it be subjected to uniform load

Pd KN/m2

Evidently, part of the load is carried by one set of strips

1m 1m Ly and transmitted to one pair of edge supports and the
remainder by the other.

1m
Lx
Let Pdx & Pdy be the share of Pd in x and y direction so
that,

Pdx + Pdy = Pd ------------ (2.1)

Let kx & ky be constants for load share such that,

KxPd = Pdx and kyPd = Pdy

Since, the deflection at the centre of the strip must be the same, one obtains,

4
5Pdx L4x 5Pdy Ly P L4y
=  dx = 4 − − − − − − − − − −(2.2)
384EI 384EI Pdy Lx
Lx P
Let =   dx =  4  Pdx =  4 Pdy
Ly Pdy

But Pdx + Pdy = Pd  (4 + 1)Pdy = Pd

Knowing kyPd = Pdy  kyPd(4 + 1) = Pd

1 4
 ky = kx =
 +1
4
4 +1
One may see that the large share of the load is carried in the short direction.

For instance, consider when

79
 Ly/Lx = 1, 1.5, 2

kx = 0.5, 0.835, 0.941

ky = 0.5, 0.165, 0.059

If the span moments are required for such simple spans

Mxmax = kxPdLx / 8

Mymax = kyPdLy/ 8

2.4.2 Analysis by Means of Coefficients

Slabs with side ratio less than 2 are treated as two way slabs and analysis can be made by means of
coefficients on the basis of the following assumptions and procedures.

- The slab is composed of rectangular panels, supported at all four edges by walls or
beams, stiff enough to be treated as an unyielding.
- Slabs are subjected to uniform load or concentrated load which can be converted to
equivalent uniform load not exceeding 20% of the total load.
Individual Moment Determination

Moments for each panels with edge either simply supported or fully fixed are calculated from,

mi = I Pd Lx2

Where mi = design BM per unit width at point of reference.

I = Coefficient given in table A - 1, as a function of Ly/Lx

Pd = Design uniform load (KN/m2)

Lx , Ly = shorter and longer spans of the panel, respectively

The Notation of Critical Moments

mxs
mxf
mys
Lx myf
The subscripts for moments are:

s = support
Ly
f = field (span)

x & y = are directions of shorter & longer span, respectively.

Division of panel into strips:

Slabs are divided in each direction into middle strips and edge strips as shown below.

80
 Ly Ly
Edge strip Lx/8

Edge strip

Edge strip
Middle strip Lx Middle strip 3Lx/4

Edge strip Lx/8

Ly/8 3Ly/4 Ly/8

The maximum BM computed apply only to the middle strips & reinforcement can be detailed in such a way
that at least about 50% of the positive bars is extended into the supports. The negative bars may be
terminated at a distance of L/4 to L/3 from the respective centreline of the support.

Reinforcement in an edge strip parallel to edge need not be less than As min , where

As min = 0.5bd/fyk , fyk in MPa.

Moment at Continuous Supports of Slabs

After obtaining support and span moments for individual panels of the slab, you may have support over
which the slab is continuous but with two different support moments.

The difference may be distributed between the panels on either side of the support to equalise their moments
as in moment distribution.

After distributing the unbalanced moment (only one balancing) appropriate adjustment for the span are
made as:

▪ if the support moment is moment is decreased, the span moment mxf , myf are increased to allow for
the change in support moment M in which the increase being equal to the change of support
moment multiplied by the factor given in Table A-2.
▪ if the support moment is increased, no adjustment shall be made to the span moment. However, the
average moment at support with no further adjustment may be made if the differences between initial
moments are less than 20% of the larger moment and LL does not exceed 2.5 times the permanent
load.
Loads to Supporting Beams

The design loads on beams supporting solid slabs spanning in two directions at right angles can be computed
using,

Vx = vx Pd Lx

Vy = vy Pd Ly

Table A-3 gives values of load transfer coefficient vx and vy and the assumed distribution of this loading
is shown below.

81
Moments in Continuous Slabs

General

The first stage of design is to determine support and span moments for all panels individually by treating
their edges as either simply supported or fully fixed. External edges are generally considered as simply
supported and continuous edges are considered as fully fixed in this stage.

If the slab is connected with an external wall or if any of its edges is partly fixed and partly simply supported,
the following procedure may be adopted:

(a) The ratio of the actual support moment to the bending moment of fully fixed slab, or the ratio of the
width of fixed part to the width of the simply supported part of the edge is evaluated.
(b) The bending moments of the slab are then computed by interpolating between different support
conditions.
For each support over which the slab is continuous, generally, there will be two different support moments.
The difference may be distributed between the panels on either side of the support to equalize their
moments, as in the moment distribution method for frames.

Two methods of differing accuracy are given here for treating the effects of this redistribution on moments
away from the support.

Method I

Method I may be used:

(a) When differences between initial support moments are less than 20 percent of the larger moment, and
(b) Only for internal structures where the live load does not exceed 2.5 times the permanent load (q k 
2.5gk) or 0.8 times the dead load for external structures (qk  0.8gk).
In other cases either Method II or other more accurate methods shall be used.

When Method I is used, dimensioning is normally, carried out either using:

(a) Initial moments directly, or

(b) Based on the average initial moment at the support.

Method II

In this method consideration of the effects of changes of support moments is limited to the adjacent spans.
Since no effects on neighbouring support sections need be considered, only a simple balancing operation
is required at each edge and no iterative process is involved.

The procedure for applying Method II, is as follows:

(a) Support and span moments are first calculated for individual panels by assuming each panel to be
fully loaded. This is done by using the coefficients.

82
 (b) The unbalanced moment is distributed using the moment distribution method. The relative stiffness
of each panel shall be taken proportional to its gross moment of inertia divided by the smaller span.
(c) If the support moment is decreased, the span moments mxf and myf are then increased to allow for
the changes of support moments. This increase is calculated as being equal to the change of the
support moment multiplied by the factors. If a support moment is increased, no adjustment shall be
made to the span moments. Refer EBCS-2

2.5 DESIGN OF COLUMNS

2.5.1 Introduction
Columns are the members that take axial compressive load and bending moments. The bending effect may
be due to the lateral loads, end moments, and/or due to eccentricity of the axial loads. Reinforced concrete
columns are classified in EBCS 2, as un-braced (sway) or braced (non-sway), based on how the horizontal
loads are transmitted by the super structure to the foundation.

Un-braced Columns (in sway frames): An un-braced structure is one in which frame action is used to
resist horizontal loads (lateral loads due to wind or earthquake). In such structure, beam and column
members may be designed to act together as a rigid frame in transmitting the lateral forces down to the
foundations through bending action in the beams and columns. In such an instance the columns are said to
be un-braced and must be designed to carry both the vertical (compressive) and lateral (bending) loads.
Moments in the columns can substantially reduce the vertical load carrying capacity. The frame as a whole
may exhibit significant lateral displacement. The bending moment can increase due to second order effect.

Braced columns (in non-sway frames): If the lateral loads in a frame are transmitted to the foundation
through a system of bracing or shear walls, the column member in such a frame is said to be braced column
and consequently carry only vertical loads. In such a case, second order effect will be negligible.

Second order effect or P-δ effect: Consider a slender column subjected only to equal and opposite end
moment, M, as shown in figure. The column is bent into a single curvature with a maximum deflection δ
at the mid height as shown. If the axial compression is applied at the ends of the column now, additional
bending moment is caused due to the axial load acting on the deformed shape. This additional bending
moment causes additional deflection and so on, until the final maximum deflection δ is reached at the stage
of equilibrium under combined axial force and bending moments. This is referred to as P- δ effects. It
should be observed that due to P- δ effects the maximum moment in the column is larger than the externally
applied end moment M. If the column is short, P- δ effect is negligible. If the column is slender, P- δ effect
is to be considered.

83
(Section 4.4.4.4 of EBCS 2) Isolated columns: Columns may be considered as isolated columns when
they are isolated compression members (such as individual isolated columns and columns with articulations
in a non-sway structure), or compression members which are integral parts of a structure but which are
considered to be isolated for design purposes (such as slender bracing elements considered as isolated
columns, and columns with restrained ends in a non-sway structure).

(Section 4.4.5 of EBCS 2) Slenderness ratio:

On the basis of the slenderness ratio columns may be classified as short or long (slender).

- For isolated columns, the slenderness ratio is defined by

Le
=
i where Le is the effective buckling length

i is the minimum radius of gyration of the concrete section only.

(Section 4.4.6 of EBCS 2) Limits of slenderness ratio:

Generally, the slenderness ratio of concrete columns shall not exceed 140.

Second-order effects in compressive members need not be taken into account in the following cases:

(a). For sway frames, the greater of the two

  25
15
 
d

(b). For non – sway frames

  50 − 25
(M1 )
(M 2 )
Where M1and M2 are the first-order (calculated) moments at the ends, M2 being always positive and greater
in magnitude than M1, and M1 being positive if member is bent in single curvature and negative if bent in
double curvature.

 d = N sd f A (N sd − design axial load )

cd c

Effective length of compression members

The effective height (length) of a column is the distance between the two consecutive points of contra
flexure or zero bending moments. The figure shown below may serve this purpose.

84
In accordance with EBCS-2, 1995, the effective length Le for an RC Column is given as,

Le  m + 0.4
a. Non-sway mode =  0.7
L  m + 0.8
Le 7.5 + 4(1 +  2 ) + 1.61 2
b. Sway mode =  1.15
L 7.5 + 1 +  2
Le
Or Conservatively = 1 + 0.8 m 1.15.
L
For the theoretical model shown below.

K1 + K c
1 =
K11 + K12 Lc2 Ic2
K2 + Kc
2 = Ib22 Ib21
K 21 + K 22 Ic
Lc
1 +  2 Ib12 Ib11
m =
2 Lc1 Ic1
where K1 and K2 are column stiffness coefficients (EI/L) for the lower and the upper column respectively.
Kc is the stiffness coefficient (EI/L) of the column being designed.

Kij is the effective beam stiffness coefficient (EI/L)

= 1.0 (EI/L) for opposite end elastically or rigidly restrained.

= 0.5 (EI/L) for opposite end free to rotate.

= 0.0 (EI/L) for a cantilever beam.

N sd
For a non – sway frame  0.1
N cr

Where: Nsd – the design value of the total vertical load.

Ncr – critical vertical load for failure in a sway mode given as

85
  2 EI e
N cr =
L2e

M bal
EIe= 0.2EcIc + EsIs (or EIe =  0.4 Ec I c )
(1 rbal )
Ec 1100 f cd Curvature 1
rbal
( d )10
= 5 −3

I c= Moment of inertia of the concrete sections of the substitute column w.r.to centre

Is = Moment of inertia of reinforcement sections of the conc. section

A frame may be classified as braced if its sway resistance is supplied by a bracing system which is
sufficiently stiff to assume that all horizontal loads are resisted by the bracing system. (Not more than 10%
of the horizontal loads are attracted by the frame)

Reinforcement arrangement & Minimum Code Requirements.

Functions of Lateral Reinforcement.

- they hold the longitudinal bars in position in the forms while the concrete is being

placed

- they prevent the slender longitudinal bars from buckling out ward by bursting the
thin concrete cover.

Rules for the arrangement:

- Diameter of ties, t t  6mm or  4

12 ml (min imum diameter of longitudinal bars)


- C/C spacing  b (least lateral dim ension)
300 mm


- Pitch of spiral  100mm

- Ties shall be arranged such that every bar or group of bars placed in a corner and
alternate longitudinal bar shall have lateral support provided by the corner of a tie

with an included angle of not more than 135o and no bar shall be farther than

150mm clear on each side along the tie from such a laterally supported bar.

Main or Longitudinal reinforcement

- Area of longitudinal reinforcement, As.

As
0.008Ac  As  0.08Ac or 0.008   0.08
Ac

86
 4 in rec tan gular arrangement
- Min. # of bars = 
6 in Circular arrangement.

- The diameter of longitudinal bars, l 12mm.

- The minimum lateral dimension of a column shall be at least 150mm and

the minimum diameter of a spiral column is 200mm.
- The Min. cover to reinforcement should never be less than

(a)  or n ( 40mm), or

(b) ( + 5mm ) Or ( n + 5mm ) if d g  32 mm.

n =  n  55 mm , n = no. of bars having the same diameter

dg – the largest nominal maximum aggregate size.

2.5.2 Axial compression

The ultimate capacity of an axially loaded short column can be determined by

Pdu = fcd(Ag - As) + fyd Ast , = fcdAg (1 – ρ) + ρ Ag fyd

Ast
Where, ρ = or Ast = ρ Ag
Ag

Pdu = Ag [ fcd (1 – ρ) + ρ fyd]

Ag = Gross concrete area; Ast = Area of main reinforcement

A column may be classified as long when the slenderness factor is defined as

Le
= 12; where Le = Effective height; b = least lateral dimension
b
For such columns a load reduction factor Cr is introduced in such a way that the concrete concentric design
axial load capacity can be given by

Pduc = Cr Pdu

Where Cr = 1.25 – Le/48b

2.5.3 Columns with moments

Interaction diagram: It is a plot of axial load capacity of a column against the bending moment it sustains.
To illustrate conceptually the interaction between axial load and moment in a column, an idealized,
homogeneous and linearly elastic column with compressive strength fcu equal to its tensile strength ftu is
considered. This type of column fails in compression when

σmax = fcu.

87
P My P My
+ = f cu ; or + =1 -------------------------(1)
A I f cu A f cu I

f cu I
But Pmax = fcu A & Mmax =
y

P M
Equation (1) becomes, + = 1; This equation is called interaction equation.
Pmax M max

It shows the interaction of (or) relationship between P and M at failure.

Reinforced concrete is not elastic, and it has ft << fc. Tensile strength, of course, is developed by rebars,
on the tensile zone of the member. Therefore, calculation of interaction in concrete member is complicated.
However the general shape of the diagram resembles the figure given below.

• Any combination of loading with in the curve is a safe loading

• Any combination of loading outside the curve represents a failure combination
• All combinations of Pu and Mu between points A and C will cause the concrete to fail in
compression before the tension rebars yield.
• All combinations of Pu and Mu between points C and F will result in tensile yielding of As before
the concrete fails in compression.
When a member is subjected to combined axial load and bending moment it is more convenient to replace
the axial load and moment with an equivalent load applied at an eccentricity ‘e’.

88
2.5.4 Design specifications from EBCS 2, 1995
Section 4.4.10: Design of isolated columns

Total eccentricity
etot = ee + ea + e2

Where ee =equivalent constant first-order eccentricity of the design axial load.

ee = eo, for eo equal at both ends of a column
For first order moments varying linearly along the length, the equivalent eccentricity is the higher of the
following two values.
ee = 0.6 eo2 + 0.4eo1
ee = 0.4 eo2
eo1 and eo2 are first order eccentricities at the ends with eo2 being positive and greater in magnitude than
eo1.
For different eccentricities at the ends, the critical end section shall be checked for first order moments.
etot = e02 + ea

ea = additional eccentricity in account of geometric imperfections.

Le
ea=  20mm
300
e2 = Second-order eccentricity .
K1 L2e (1 r )
For non – sway frames, e2 =
10


K1 = − 0.75 for 15    35
20
K1 = 1.0 for   35.

1 = Curvature at the critical sec tion

r
5
= K 2  10 −3
d 

Where d = the Column dimension in the buckling plane less the cover to the center of the longitudinal
reinforcement.
Md
K2 =
M bal
89
 Md = design moment at the critical section including second-order effects.
Mbal = balanced moment capacity of the column.

Design of columns for uni-axial bending

A column is said to be bending uniaxially if it is loaded with a bending moment only in one direction, in
addition to axial force. For the design of such a column interaction charts are
N sd
prepared using non-dimensional parameters, ν and μ, in which,  = and
f cd bh
M sd
=
f cd bh 2

A chart showing the interaction diagrams is shown in the next page. The charts are prepared (and
compiled in EBCS 2 - part 2) for different values of d' and h as given in the sample chart. As can be
calculated by the formula,

Ac f cd
As =
f yd

In using these charts for design, the following procedure may be adopted.

Given: axial load and bending moment, (BM = axial load × total eccentricity)

* Assume the cross section dimensions b and h.

* Assume d' and evaluate d'/h to choose appropriate chart number

* Calculate ν and μ,

* The coordinate (μ, ν) gives the value of ‘ω’

Ac f cd
* Determine As =
f yd

Design of columns for biaxial bending

A column may receive moments from beams and grade framing to it, in addition to the axial loads. This
situation of a biaxial loaded rectangular section is shown below with the corresponding interaction curves.

Uniaxial loading about y-y.

90
Uniaxil loading about X-X

edx Mdy
Biaxial loading about a diagonal axis x’-x’ where: r=arc tan =arc tan
edy M dx

Three-dimensional interaction diagram – Interaction surface

• An combination of Pdn, Mdx,and Mdy ling inside the surface can be applied safety.
• Any point lying outside the surface would represent failure.
• Due to the mathematical complication arising from the construction of interaction surface, in
practice a simpler approximation methods are used of which the one developed by Bresler is
satisfactory.
It is given as reciprocal load equation.

1 1 1 1
= + − , which simplifies to
Pdn Pdnx Pdny Pdo

Pdo Pdnx Pdny

Pdn =
Pdo ( Pdnx + Pdny ) − Pdnx Pdny

Where: Pdn is the desing axial load capacity when applid at edx and edy

simultaneously.(biaxial bending ).

Pdnx and Pdny- design axial load capacity when edx and edy are only actoing ( case of

91
 uniaxal loading).

Pdo – Design axial force capacity for concentric load case.

However, interaction charts prepared for this purpose can be easly used for actual design where the
following procdures need be followed.

• Given : Pd; Mb and Mh

b, h'
• Assume a cross section and evaluate =
b h
• Calculate μb , μh, and ν
Nd Mb Mh
= , b = and  h =
f cd Ac f cd Ac b f cd Ac b

b, h'
• Select suitable chart, which nearly satisfy the calculated = and ν
b h
• Enter the chart for suitable value of ν( 0.0,0.2,0.4………1.4)

Note: - ν > 1.4 shows very small concrete cross section

• For tntermideate value of ν ,use interpolation

• Select ώ corresponding to ν, μb , μh
bhf cd
• Compute As,tot= =
f yd
• Check minimum and maximum requirements.

2.6 YIELD LINE THEORY OF SLABS

2.6.1 Introduction
Rectangular one way or two-way slabs under normal uniform loading can be analyzed and then
designed using coefficients obtained from Tables published for this purpose.
In a situation where irregular shapes, varied support conditions, presence of openings, varied
loading and more complex conditions are encountered, the established theory of elasticity or
plasticity cannot be employed straight. For these circumstances, the yield line theory is found
useful.
The yield line theory is an ultimate load method of analysis of slab, i.e. the BM at the verge of
collapse is used as the basis for design. At collapse loads, an under reinforced slab begins to crack
with the reinforcement yielding at points of high moment. The crack lines or the yield lines
propagate with the increase in deflection until the slab is broken in to a number of segments.
A yield line is a line in the plane of the slab across which reinforcing bars have yielded and about
which excessive deformation (plastic rotation) under constant limit moment (ultimate moment)
continues to occur leading to failure.

92
2.6.2 Upper and lower bound theorem:
Plastic analysis methods such as the yield line theory derived from the general theory of structural
plasticity, which states that the ultimate collapse load of a structure lies between two limits, an
upper bound and a lower bound of the true collapse load.
The lower bound and upper bound theorem, when applied to slabs, can be stated as follows:

Lower bound theorem: If, for a given external load, it is possible to find a distribution of moments
that satisfies equilibrium requirements, with the moment not exceeding the yield moment at any
location, and if the boundary conditions are satisfied, then the given load is a lower bound of the
true carrying capacity.
Upper bound theorem: If, for a small increment of displacement, the internal work done by the
slab, assuming that the moment at every plastic hinge is equal to the yield moment and that
boundary conditions are satisfied, is equal to the external work done by the given load for that
same small increment of displacement, then that load is an upper bound of true carrying capacity.
If the lower bound conditions are satisfied, the slab can certainly carry the given load, although a
higher load may be carried if internal distributions of moment occur. If the upper bound conditions
are satisfied, a load greater than the given load will certainly cause failure, although a lower load
may produce collapse if the selected failure mechanism is incorrect in any sense. Accordingly the
yield line method of analysis for slabs is an upper bound method, and consequently the failure load
calculated for a slab with known flexural resistance may be higher than the true value.
The yield line phenomenon involves:

- a slab under increasing loads where cracking and reinforcement yielding occur in the most
highly stressed zone (i.e. around maximum moment)
- the highly stressed zone normally acts as a plastic hinge where the subsequent loads are
distributed to other region of the slab

- cracks develop forming patterns of yield lines until a mechanism is formed,

- collapse is then indicated by increasing deflection under constant load

Fig. 2.6.1 Deformation of slab with yield lines

93
 Sign convention
built in edge
positive yield line
negative yield line simply supported edge
axis of rotation point load
unsupported edge column support

Characteristic features of yield lines:

- yield lines are generally straight and end at a slab boundary or the intersection of other yield lines

- axes of rotation generally lie along lines of support

- Axes of rotation pass over column supports

- For a mechanism to develop, the yield line may pass through the intersection of the axes of rotation
of adjacent segments

Fig. 2.6.2 Typical Yield line patterns

2.6.3 Method of yield line analysis

There are two methods of yield line analysis of slabs:

(1) the equilibrium method

(2) the virtual work method

In either method, a YL pattern is assumed so that a collapse mechanism is produced. Then for that failure
mechanism, the geometric parameters that define the exact location and orientation of the yield lines are
determined and also the relation between applied loads and resisting moments is solved.

It is necessary to investigate all possible mechanisms for any slab to confirm that the correct solution, giving
the lowest failure load, has been found. For example the following rectangular slab may fail by either of
the two mechanisms shown.

94
 Fig. 2.3 Alterative mechanisms for a slab supported on three sides

2.6.3.1 Equilibrium method of Analysis

It makes use of the equilibrium equations for individual segment to obtain the collapse load.

The FBD represented by each collapsing segment is in equilibrium under

- applied loads,

- yield moments and

- Reactions or shears along support lines.

The method of segment equilibrium should not be confused with a true equilibrium method such as then
strip method. A true equilibrium method is a lower bound method of analysis.

Essentially, the yield lines form at lines of maximum moment where neither shear nor torsion is typically
present at positive yield lines.

For demonstration purpose consider the one way slab uniformly loaded and is continuous as shown in Fig.
below.

Let the slab with span L is reinforced to provide resistance of m2 KN.m per m through the span and m1 and
m3 KN.m per m at the two supports. Suppose it is desired to determine the collapse load wu.

95
 For a known yield moments m1, m2, m3, a trail
location of the positive yield line is assumed.

A C B
(a)
Normally for a given loading and correct collapse
pattern the solution is unique. However if a
wu different pattern is assumed, this solution can
describe nothing which pattern is the governing
(b)
one. Hence, it becomes essential to use the energy
X L-X approach in completed problem for further
verification.
L

wu wu
m2
For the problem posed, consider the FBD in Figure
m1 m3
(c) (c);
m2
X L-X

From left segment:

wu x 2
MA = 0  m1 + m2 − =0
2
From right segment:

wu (l − x) 2
 MB = 0  m 2 + m3 − =0
2
Solving for wu from the two expressions and equating, one may obtain a practical solution for x as:

m1 + m2  m − m1 
x= L − 1 + 1 + 3 
m3 − m1  m1 + m2 

For instance, when L = 3m, m1 = m2 = 7KN.m/m and m3 = 10KN.m/m

X = 1.427m and wu = 13.75 KN/m2

When m1 = m3 = 10KN.m/m and m2 = 7KN.m/m, L = 3m

X = 1.5m and wu = 15.11 KN/m2

2.6.3.2 Virtual work method of Analysis

Based on principle that work done by external forces in undergoing a small virtual displacements
is equal to the internal virtual work done in rotations along yield lines, the ultimate load which
the slab can sustain is determined. In other words, the work during small motion of collapse
mechanism is equal to the work absorbed by the plastic hinges formed along the yield lines. In

96
here, the segment of the slab with in the yield lines is assumed to go through rigid body
displacement with the collapse load acting on the structure.
WE = WI

i.e. Work done by external forces = Energy absorbed by the hinges (internal work)

To develop suitable expression for each work, let wu be the uniform distributed load,

W E =  wu dxdy xy =  Wu 

where: xy = virtual displacement at load point considered

Wu = resultant of the load on each segment

∆ = the corresponding displacement at centroid of the load in each segment

Since the relative rotation of the surface takes place about yield line, one may obtain

W I =  mun n L y

Where: mun = the ultimate moment across any yield line.

Ly = length of yield line

Qn = relative rotation of the two adjacent plates perpendicular to the yield line

Thus, WE = WI   Wu  =  mun n L y

For demonstration purpose, consider the one-way slab of the previous example.
wu

1 2 The slab is reinforced at left and right supports, and


in span in such a way that the capacities of the
X L-X
respective sections are m1, m3 and m2.
L

wu wu
Let ∆ be the plastic deflection at x-distance from left
m2
m1 m3 hand support to positive yL
m2
X L-X

wx w( L − x) 1
External work WE = + = wu L per m strip
2 2 2

Internal work W I =  mL y = (m1 + m 2 ) 1 + (m 2 + m3 ) 2 per m strip

 
For small deflection 1 = and  2 =
x L−x

97
  
WI = (m1 + m2 ) + (m2 + m3 )
x L−x
By principle of virtual work; WE =WI which simplifies to give:

2L(m1 + m2 ) − x(m1 − m3 )
wu =
xL( L − x)

dw u
To obtain the minimum collapse load =0
dx

 − (m1 − m3 ) xL ( L − x) − L(m1 + m2 ) − x(m1 − m3 )( L2 − 2 xL ) = 0 This gives the practical values

of x such that:

m1 + m2  m − m1 
x= L − 1 + 1 + 3  Thus, identical solution to the equilibrium methods is
m3 − m1  m1 + m2 
obtained

2.6.4 Moments along Skewed yield lines

Consider a two way slab orthogonally reinforced where the yield lines are inclined at an angle α with one
of the principal axes.

Fig. 2.4

The above Fig. shows an orthogonal gird of reinforcement having moment resistance m y per unit length
about the y axis and moment resistance mx per unit length about x axis.

From Fig. 3.3b:

98
 - the resisting moment per unit length along the α axis provided by the y direction bars is:

m x u cos
my = = m x cos 2 
u
cos
- the resisting moment per unit length perpendicular to α axis provided by the y direction bars is:

m x u sin 
m⊥y = = m x cos sin 
u
cos
From Fig. 3.3c:

- the resisting moment per unit length along the α axis provided by the x direction bars is:

m y v sin 
mx = = m y sin 2 
v
sin 
- the resisting moment per unit length perpendicular to α axis provided by the x direction bars is:

m y v cos
m⊥x = = m y cos sin 
v
sin 
Thus for the combined set of bars:

- the resisting normal moment per unit length measured along the α axis is:

m = m x cos 2  + m y sin 2  (1*)

- the resisting torsional moment per unit length measured along the α axis is

m⊥ = m x cos  sin  − m y cos  sin  (2*)

Definition:

An isotropically reinforced slab is one in which the ultimate moment per unit length of the slab is the same
in two orthogonal directions

An orthotropically reinforced slab is one in which the ultimate moment per unit length of the slab is different
in the two orthogonal directions

If a slab is isothropically reinforced with mx = my = m, eqns(1*) and (2*) become:

m = m

m ⊥ = 0

Therefore the ultimate moment resistance in an isotropically reinforced slabs in any direction is the same.

If a slab is orthothropically reinforced with mx = m and my = µm, eqns(1*) and (2*) become:

99
 m = m(cos 2  +  sin 2  )

m⊥ = m(1 −  ) sin  cos

2.6.5 Effects of restrained corners

Corner lever is the effect of forking of the yield line before reaching the corner. To this effect the following
schematic sketches the resulting yield pattern at the corners.

Hogging yield line

Uplift when the corners are not Corners held down but not well
held or fastened reinforced for negative moment

The triangular segment fails to form when the negative reinforcement is large and hence, the simple
diagonal yield line in to the corner is correct with out modification.

2.6.6 Slabs with more than one variable

So far the slabs consider have only one variable dimension which defines the yield line mechanism. When
the slab has more than one variable, the work equation, together with equations obtained by differentiating
with respect to each unknown, give the
L
necessary expressions to obtain
solution. This can be illustrated using
(1- )L
1 the following example.

L

In this case first develop suitable

 1L
expression from the work relation for
wu in terms of 1 & 2. Then

wu
 2L  2L =0
 1
(1-2  2)L

wu
=0
 2

Will provide two additional equations to make the problem solvable.

100
2.7 FLAT SLABS
Concrete two-way slabs may in some cases be supported by relatively shallow, flexible beams, or directly
by columns without the use of beams or girders. Such slabs are generally referred as column supported two-
way Flat slabs.
Flat plates: flat slabs directly supported on columns and designed relatively to support light loads.
Flat slabs: are different from flat plates in that they include drop panels and column capitals.

``

For analysis and design purpose the panel in flat slab is divided in to column strips and middle strips as
shown below (EBSC 2).

The effective diameter of a column or column head hc is the diameter of a circle whose area equals the
cross-sectional area of the column or, if column heads are used, the area of the column head based on
the effective dimensions as defined below.

101
2.7.1 Practical Analysis of Flat slabs
The two methods for the analysis of flat slabs are:
a) Direct Design method
b) Equivalent Frame Method

Direct Design Method as per EBCS 2, 1995

According to the EBCS 2 specification, the direct design method of analysis is
subjected to the following restrictions.
1. Design is based on the single load case of all spans loaded with the maximum design ultimate load.
2. There are at least three rows of panels of approximately equal span in the direction being considered.
3. Successive span length in each direction shall not differ by more than one-third of the longer span
4. Maximum offsets of columns from either axis between center lines of successive columns shall not
exceed 10% of the span (in the direction of the offset)

Load Transfer in Flat Slabs

In the flat plate floor (see Fig. 3.3b) where broad strips of the slab centered on the column lines in each
direction serve the same function as the beams. Therefore; for column supported construction, 100
percent of the applied load must be carried in each direction, jointly by the slab and its supporting beams.

102
Positive & Negative Moments in Panels

Edge stiffened flat slab

Slabs are frequently built with beams from column to column around the perimeter of the building. These
beams act to stiffen the edge of the slab and help to reduce the deflections of the exterior panels of the
slabs. (Very heavily loaded slabs and long-span waffle slabs sometimes have beams joining all columns in
the structure). The effects of beam stiffness on deflections and the distribution of moments are expressed
as a function of αf, defined as the flexural stiffness, 4EI/L, of the beam divided by the flexural stiffness of
a width of slab bounded by the centerlines of the adjacent panels on each side of the beam.

Since the length, l, of the beam and the slab are equal, this quantity is simplified and expressed in the
Code (ACI) as:

If there is no beam, αf= 0 (most of the case except at the edges where beams are provided for stiffening
edge panels).
103
104
 Factored moments in column strips

Shear in Flat Slabs, as per EBCS 2

The concrete section (thickness of the slab) must be adequate to sustain the shear force, since stirrups
are not convenient.

Two types of shear are considered

i) Beam type Shear: Diagonal tension Failure and critical section is considered at d
distance from the face of the column or capital and Vc is the same expression given
earlier for beams or solid slabs. i.e. Vc = 0.25fctd k1 k2 bw d
ii) Punching Shear: perimeter shear which occurs in slabs without beams around
columns. It is characterized by formation of a truncated punching cone or pyramid
around concentrated loads or reactions. The outline of the critical section is shown in
Fig. below.

105
The punching shear resistance without shear reinforcement is:
Vcp = 0.5 fctd k1 k2 u d
K1 = (1+50)  2.0
e= (ex ey)2  0.015
u = perimeter of critical section
d = ½(dx+dy), average effective depth

REFERENCES
1. Arthur H Nelson, Design of concrete structures, McGraw-Hill, 14th Edition,
2010
2. James Macgregor, Reinforced Concrete Mechanics and Design, 5th Edition.
3. W.H. Mosley, R. Hulse, J.H Bungey, Reinforced Concrete Design, Palgrave
Macmillan, 2007
4. Jack C. McCormac, Design of Reinforced Concrete, McGraw-Hill, 2005
5. Ethiopian Building Code Standard 2 (EBCS 2), 1995
6. Any Related Books

106
 CHAPTER 3
DESIGN OF STEEL AND TIMBER STRUCTURES
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Engineering structures are required to support loads and to resist force, and to transfer this loads
and forces to the foundation of the structure.
Structures that are designed by civil engineers includes, buildings, transmission towers, storage
vessels dams, retaining walls, etc, structures may be made from a number of different, materials
including steel, concrete, timber(wood), aluminium, stone, plastic etc, or from combination of
these.
Structures whose major constituent are components are steel are known as steel structures while
those with large timber components are timber structures.

3.1.1 Types of Steel Structures

Steel structural members can be used for the following types of structures
Frames:-

➢ Industrial buildings; Multi storey buildings; Bridges

Trusses

➢ Bridges; Buildings
Plate Girders:
➢ Bridges; Buildings

Plate type structure

➢ Bridge deck; Shell; Folded plate; Gas holders and tanks; Reservoirs for the
storage of liquids

Towers
➢ Transmission towers; Microwave towers

3.1.2 Structural members

Structural members can be classified as tension or compression members, beams beam-columns,
torsion members or plates according to the method by which they transmit the forces in the
structures.

107
3.1.3 Structural Design
There are three overall objectives to be met if a structural design is to be satisfactory:
I. To provide structure to meet functional requirement

II. To select structural members and frames to support loads

III. To satisfy economic requirements

The above objectives can be satisfied by using suitable materials, appropriate design and
detailing and specifying quality control procedures for construction.
3.1.4 Design Methods
Three Design methods evolved in practice

1. Allowable Stress Design (ASD)

2. Plastic Design

3. Limit State Design

Allowable Stress Design

A member is selected that under expected loads, known as service loads the stress will not
exceed a certain permitted or allowable stress.
Structures are analysed by elastic theory and sections are sized so that the permissible stresses
are not exceeded

Plastic Design method

Plastic theory is developed to take account of behaviour of past the yield point, is based on
finding the load that causes the structure to collapse, then the working load is the collapse load
divided by load factor.

108
Plastic design is a special case of limited state design; wherein the limit state for strength is the
achievement of plastic moment strength. Plastic moment strength is the moment strength where
all fiber of the cross sections are at yield point.
Limit State Design(LSD)

Limit state is a design philosophy under which a structure or part of structure is considered unfit
for use when such limiting condition is exceed a particular state called limit state.
Two main group of limit state exist:

1. The Ultimate Limit State (ULS)

This is reached when the structure or part of a structure collapses. The collapse may be due either
loss of equilibrium or stability, or to fail by rupture of structural members

2. The Serviceability Limit State (SLT)

This is reached when the structure, which remaining safe, becomes unfit for everyday due to
phenomenon such as excessive deformation, cracking or vibration.

3.1.5 Material Behavior

Steel is one of the most important structural members. The major advantage of steel is high
strength relative to the strength of other common structural materials: wood, masonry and
concrete. Unlike masonry and concrete, which are weak in tension, steel strong in both tension
and compression. Because of its high strength, structural steel is widely used in construction.

The most important properties of steel are yield strength and ultimate strength, modulus of
elasticity (Young’s modulus), shear modulus, Poisson’s, coefficient of thermal expansion, and its
density.
Stress-Strain Behaviour of Structural Steel

Typical stress-strain curve for structural steel is shown in Fig. 1.1. It is based on the application
of tensile forces to a test specimen.

109
The engineering stress-strain curve can be divided into four regions: Elastic region, inelastic or
plastic region, strain hardening and necking and failure.
Elastic Region

In this region the stress is proportional to the strain and hooks law applies (the relationship
between stress and strain is linear) the constant of proportionality is modulus of elasticity or
Young’s modulus(E). E is the slope of straight line from the origin to the proportional or elastic
limit of material. Hooks law apples only upto the proportional limit of the material. The elastic
regin ends when the stress reaches fy ,the yield stress. The yield stress is the stress at which there
is a marked increase in strain with no increase in loads.

Inelastic Region
Once fy is reached the material no longer behaves elastically, even complete removal of the load
will leave some permanent deformation to a specimen. In this region the steel deforms plastically
under a constant stress fy. During this phase plastic flow of the material is taking place, the extent
of which is a measure of ductility of the material. Ductility implies a large capacity for inelastic
deformation without rupture. Generally, ductility decreases with increasing steel strength.
The ability of structural steel to deform considerably before failure or fracture allows the
structure to undergo force redistribution when yielding occurs, and it enhance the energy
absorption characteristic of the structure.

Strain Hardening
Eventually yielding ceases and the yield stress starts to raise as the material strain hardens. The
increase in stress continues until the tensile strength is reached. The tensile strength or ultimate
stress fu is the highest stress, based on the original cross-sectional area.

Necking and Fracture

After reaching the maximum stress, a localized reduction in area, called necking begins, and
elongation continues with diminishing load until the specimen breaks.

Three types of structural steels are listed by EBCS3.The yield stress of these steel ranges from
235Mpa for Fe 360 steel to 355Mpa for Fe 510. As can be seen from table 1.1, the yield stress of
a given grade of steel is not a constant. It varies with plate thickness, very thick structural shapes
and plates have reduced yield stresses.

110
Table 1.1 Nominal value of yield strength fy and ultimate tensile strength fu for varies grades of
steel

Thickness t(mm)

Nominal Steel t  40mm 40mm  100mm

Grade
fy(Mpa) fu(Mpa) fy(Mpa) fu(Mpa)

Fe 360 235 360 215 340

Fe 430 275 430 255 410

Fe 510 355 510 335 490

The code states that the following values for the elastic properties are to be used:

a) Modulus of elasticity E= 210Gpa

b) Shear Modulus G=80Gpa

c) Poisson’s ratio………………………=0.3

d) Coefficient of thermal expansion =12 x 10-6 per oC

e) Unit mass =7850Kg/m3

3.1.6 Structural Steel Shapes

A structural steel can be a rolled shape or can be built-up from two or more rolled shapes or
plates connected t by welds or bolts. The more economical rolled shapes are utilized whenever
possible. However, special condition (such as he need for heavier members or particular cross-
sectional geometries) may dictate the use of built up members.

Rolled Sections
Hot rolled sections are produced in steel mills from steel billets by passing them through a
serious of rolls. The main sections are shown in fig.1.2a

a) Rolled Section

111
Compound Sections
Compound sections are formed by:

✓ Strengthen a rolled section such as universal beam by welding on cover

plates.
✓ Combining two separate rolled sections,as in the case of the crane girder

✓ Connecting two members together to form a strong combined member

compound sections are shown in fig.1.2b
Built-up Sections

Build-up sections are made by welding plates together to form I,H or Box
members which are termed plate girders, built-up column box girders or
columns,respectively.These members are used where heavy loads have to be
carried and in the case of plate and box girders where long spans may be
required. See fig.1.2c

b) Compound sections

Fig.1.2 Structural steel Shapes

112
3.2 Tension Members
3.2.1 Introduction
Tension Members are structural members that carries tension load. They are efficient carriers of
load and are used in many types of structures. They occur as principal structural members in
bridges and roof trusses. Cables in suspension bridges and cable –stayed bridges are example of
tension members. In building frames tension members occur as:

✓ Tension chords and internal ties in trusses

✓ Tension bracing members

✓ Hangers supporting floor beams

3.2.2 Types of Tension Members

The form of Tension member is governed to a large extent by the type of structure of which it is
a part and by a method of joining it to connecting portions of the structure.

Tension members may consists of a single structural shapes or they may be built-up from a
number of structural shapes as shown in figure 2.2.

Wire cables, circular, square and flat bars are the simplest forms of tension members in use for
light bridges and roof trusses. Steel section such as angle, I-, channel and tee-sections provide
more rigidity to words buckling in compression when reversal of load takes place under wind
load. Compound or built-up sections are used for heavy loads.
113
3.2.3 Strength design of Tension Members
The design of members subjected to a tensile force is the straightest forward to all structural
design problems. It consists of providing a member adequate cross-sectional area to resist the
applied load.
Failure of a tension member is considered to occur either due to insufficient gross cross-sectional
area of the member away from the joint or due to insufficient net cross sectional area of the
joints.
Neat section/Neat area
Holes for rivets or bolts in tension affect the member in two ways

1. They reduce the area of the cross section

2. They result in non-uniform strain on cross sections in the neighborhood of the hole

The area of the gross cross section minus the area which is lost because of holes is called the net
section or the net area. The member may break on a net section normal to its axis, or it may also
break on a zigzag section if the fastener is staggered.

i) For plates
When holes are arranged in parallel rows at right angle to the member axis as shown in fi 2.3, the
net section is obtained by subtracting the maximum sum of hole across any cross section from
the gross area. i.e.

An =Ag-dot-----------------------------(2.1)

Where An -net cross sectional area

Ag gross cross sectional area

do hole diameter

t –plate thickness

Staggered holes

In the case of staggered or zig-zag chain as shown in fig.2.4 failure pass sections are:
a) along line A-B-E

b) along zig-zag line A-B-C-D if the fasteners are staggered

114
 The net area is computed based on simple empirical formulas. The effective width of any
failure path is found by subtracting from the width of the section the width lost by holes in
the failure path and adding the quantity S2/4P for each zigzag.
The net section area Aeff can be determined from:

S 2t
An =-Ag-dot +  ----------------------- (2.2)
4p

Where Ag gross cross sectional area

do hole diameter
t –plate thickness

S-the pitch, spacing of the center of two consecutive holes in the chain measured parallel to the
member axis.

P- the spacing between the center of two holes measured perpendicular to the member
axis(gauge distance)
Relation between rivet diameter and rivet hole

The size of holes for fasteners shall not exceed the dimensions given in the following table
Riveted diameter(d) mm Hole diameter(do)mm

14 d+1

14< 22 d+2

=24 d+2

27 d+3

ii) Angle connected with its two Legs

The method of solution is to assume one leg of the angle to be rotated and brought in the
plane of the second leg a`s a result we get

115
 ❖ The gross width of the angle in its new position would be the sum of the length of
the two legs less the angle thickness
❖ The gauge distance P for rivet or bolt holes in the two legs is the sum of the
gauge distance in each leg less the angle thickness

iii) Angle Connected by two Leg

Angle connected by a single row of bolts may be treated as concentrically loaded and the design
ultimate resistance Nu,Rd of the net section determined as follows

a) with one bolt:

2(e2 − 0.5d o )tf u

u, Rd = --------------------------------(2.4)
 2

b) with two bolts:

0.4 net f u
N u, Rd = if P1  2.5do -----------------(2.5)
 2

0.7  net f u
= , if P15.0do
 2

c) with three bolts or more

0.5 net f u
N u, Rd = if P1  2.5do
 2

0.7  net f u
= if P15.0do -------------------------(2.6)
 2

For intermediate values of P1 a linear interpolation may be used. For unequal angle connected by
its smaller leg, Anet should be taken as the area of an equal leg angle having the size of the
smaller angle.

116
2 Channel and T-section

For single channel connected through the web or single tee connected through the flange,the
effective area should be calculated by:

 3a1 
 net = a1 +  a 2 ---------------------------------------------(2.7)
 3a1 + a1 

Where:a1 is the net sectional area of the connected leg.

a2 is the sectional area of the unconnected leg.

3) Double angle

a) For a double angle connected back to back and to the same side of a guesset plate or are
separated by small gap as shown below in figure 2.8, the effective area should calculated by:

 5a1 
 net = a1 +  a 2 ------------------------------------(2.8)
 5a1 + a1 

Where a1 & a2 are as before

c) For double angles or tee placed back to back and connected to each side of a gusset or to
each side of rolled section fig. below. the effective area should be calculated as for plates
using equation 2.1

117
3.2.4 Limit State design of Tension members
For members in axial tension, the design value of the axial tension force Nt,sd at each cross
section satisfy:

Nt,sd  Nt,.Rd ----------------------------(2.9)

where Nt,Rd=the design tension resistance capacity of the cross section, taken as the smaller
of
a) The design plastic resistance of the gross section

Af y
pl , Rd = ---------------------------------- (2.10)
 1

M1=1.1 partial safety factor for the section

A is gross area
b) The design ultimate resistance of the net section at the bolt hole

0.9 Aeff f u
 u , Rd = ------------------------------------ (2.11)
 2

M2=1.25 -partial safety factor for the net section

Aeff,Anet is the net area

3.2.5 Slenderness Ratio

In all tension members, minimum amount of member stiffness or rigidity is required with the
view of preventing undue sagging, deflection and vibration. This is accomplished by limiting the
slenderness ratio .

L
= --------------------------------- (2.12)
r
L=length of the member

I
r=minimum radius of gyration, r=
A
I=minimum 2nd moment of area

118
 A=the area of the cross section

3.3 DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS

3.3.1 Introduction
Compression members are structural members whose main function are the transfer of load by
means of compression action and are described by the terms `column', `stanchions', or strut. The
vertical compression members in a building are called columns or stanchions. The structural
members carrying compression load in a roof trusses and bridge trusses are called struts.
Typical cross –sections of compression members
Since the compressive stress for a compression members increase with decrease in l/r ratio, the
section should be proportioned to have the largest radius of gyration. A circular pipe has best
cross-section in this regard as its radius of gyration is highest for a given cross-sectional area
and is equal in all directions. However, in actual practice this section is not preferred due to
difficulty in joining with other members.

Rolled, compound and built-up sections are used for columns. Universal columns are used in
buildings were axial loads predominates, and universal beams often used to resist heavy
moments that occur in columns in industrial buildings. Single angle, double angles, tees
channels and structural hollow sections are the common sections used for struts in trusses,
lattice girders and bracing. Various types of compression member sections are shown in Fig
3.2.

3.3.2 Classification of Cross-sections

EBCS 3-1995, classifies sections in to four categories. Plastic, compact, semi-compact, or thin
walled.
Class 1 Plastic cross-sections: those which can develop a plastic hingeith-sufficieat rotation
capacity to allow redistribution of bending moments in the structure. Only class 1 section can be
used for plastic design.
Class 2 Compact cross-sections: those which can develop the plastic moment resistance of the
section but where local buckling prevents rotation at constant moment in the structure.

119
Class 3 Semi-compact cross-sections: those in which the stress in the extreme fibers should be
limited to yield because local buckling would prevent development of the plastic moment
resistance of the section.
Class 4 Slender (thin-walled) cross-sections: those in which yield in the extreme fibers cannot
be attained because of premature local buckling.
Element Classification:
Elements may be classified as plastic, compact or semi-compact if they meet the limits given in
Refer EBCS 3 Table 3.2

3.3.3 Behavior of Compression members:

Due to the slenderness nature of compression members they are prone to buckling. The
behaviour of compression members will depend on its slenderness ratio.
High slenderness ratio -→ more prone to buckling.
Medium slenderness ratio → Imperfections
Less slenderness ratio -→ No buckling
Types of compression members: 1) Stocky members (short) : L/r min <140
2) Slender columns (long) : L/r min >140
For Design of stocky members: Check for cross sectional resistance.
For Design of Slender members: Check for cross sectional resistance and Buckling resistance.
3.3.4 Column Design
3.3.4.2 Resistance of Compression members
a) Compression Resistance of Cross-section
A stub column ( 1  0.2 ) can achieve the full plastic resistance of the cross-section.
➢ Design compressive resistance  c, Rd for class 1, 2, 3 cross-sections equals the plastic
resistance  pl, Rd .

Af y
➢  c, Rd = 3.6
 o
➢ Design compressive resistance limited to local buckling resistance (class 4 section)
Aeff f y
 c, Rd =  o, Rd = -------------------3.7
 1
Where Aeff : is the effective area of the cross-section
120
The partial safety factors are Mo =1.1, M I =1.1
b) Buckling resistance of Compression members
For 1  0.2 load resistance reduced because of buckling. The design compressive resistance
reduced by buckling factor,.The design buckling resistance of a compressive member can be
Obtained from:
  Af y
 b, Rd =  ----------------------------------- (3.8)
 1
Where A =1, for class 1,2 or 3 cross-section
A =Aeff/A, for class 4 cross-sections
A:is gross area
Aeff :is effective cross-section
 is the reduction factor for the relevant buckling mode
The value of  for the appropriate non-dimensional slenderness 1 may be obtained from:
𝜒=1𝜑+𝜑2−𝜆20.5≤1------------------------------------- (3.9)
𝜑 = 0.5[1 + 𝛼(𝜆̄ − 0.2) + 𝜆̄2 ]------------------------------------- (3.10)
❖  is an imperfection factor depends on
✓ The shape of the cross-section
▪ The direction of buckling (Y or Z axis)
➢ The fabrication process (hot-rolled , welded or cold-formed )
❖ Four curves apply to different cross-section types corresponds to different values of
imperfection factor . Imperfection factor given in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3 Imperfection factors
Buckling curve a B c d
Imperfection factor, a 0.21 0.34 0.49 0.76

Buckling curve plotted as  versus non slenderness ratio.

Fig. 3.8 Column design curves

121
 ❖ Non – dimensional slenderness

( )
 =  A Af y /  cr 0.5 =     A 0.5 ---------------------------3.11
 1
Ncr is the elastic critical force for the relevant buckling mode
❖ 1 Defined as when cr equals fy

E 275
1 =  =93.9,  = ,(fy in Mpa)----------------3.12
fy fy

 is the slenderness for the relevant buckling mode

=Le/i -------------------------- (3.13)
Le, is effective length of column and i is radius of gyration.

3.4 Flexural Members

3.4.1 Introduction
Flexural members, otherwise known as beams, are structural elements that span between or across
supports carry principally lateral loads which are resisted by flexural bending and shear. A beam
is a combination of a tension element and a compression element. In view of his phenomenon, the
concepts of tension members and compression members are combined in the treatment of a beam
member. The main uses of beams are to support floors and columns, carry roof sheeting as purlins,
side cladding as sheeting rails, and to support bridge decks. The main kinds of flexural members
are as shown in Fig. 4.1

Fig. 4.1 Different sections of beams

According to the width-thickness ratios of the component elements, steel sections used for flexural
members are classified into a number of classes depending on the standard specification

122
implemented for design. Accordingly, EBCS 3, 1995 classifies flexural members into four classes
while AISC-LRFD Specification categorizes them into three classes.
3.4.2 Classification of Cross-sections
The four classes of flexural members adapted by EBCS 3, 1995 based on the width-to-thickness
ratios of their components are Class 1 (plastic), Class 2 (Compact), Class 3 (Semi-compact), or
Class 4 (thin-walled) according to their capacity in the following manner.

Class 1 cross sections, also known as plastic sections, can develop their plastic moment resistance
(fy times plastic moment resistance) with the rotation capacity required for plastic analysis. Only
cross sections falling in this class may only be used for plastic design.

Class 2 cross sections can develop their plastic moment resistance but with limited rotation
capacity. Cross-sections falling in this group are also known as compact sections.
Class 3 cross sections are those which can reach their “yield” moment (fy times elastic modulus)
but local buckling prevents the development of the plastic moment resistance. In Class 3 sections,
the stress in the extreme fibers should be limited to the yield stress because local buckling prevents
development of the plastic moment capacity. Cross-sections falling in this group are also known
as semi-compact sections.
Class 4 cross sections, also known as thin-walled cross-sections, are those in which local buckling
is liable to prevent the development of the “yield” moment: i.e., premature buckling occurs before
yield is reached.

The moment resistances for the four classes defined above are:

for Classes 1 and 2: the plastic moment (Mpl = Wpl . fy)

for Class 3: the elastic moment (Mel = Wel . fy)

for Class 4: the local buckling moment (Mo < Mel).

The four classes given above are recognized for beam sections in bending. For axial compression
members, Classes 1, 2 and 3 become one, and, in the absence of overall buckling are referred to
as "compact"; in this case Class 4 is referred to as "slender". Refer EBCS 3 1995.

3.4.3 Design Criteria for Flexural Members

The following criteria should be considered for establishing the moment resistance of flexural
members:
(1) Yielding of the cross section or its flexural strength

(2) Local buckling (Class 4 sections only)

(3) lateral-torsional buckling

(4) Shear strength including shear buckling

123
 (5) Local strength at points of loading or reaction; i.e., criteria for concentrated loads
(6) Deflection criterion; with respect to serviceability limits states,
Flexural members are to be designed in such a way that both the cross-sections resistance to applied
loads be established and member capacity verified against possible buckling failures. These will
be presented subsequently for both EBCS 3 1995.

3.4.4 Ethiopian Building Code Standard EBCS 3 1995

Resistance of Cross section
According to the EBCS 3 Specification, members designed to resist a factored uniaxial bending
Msd, calculated using appropriate load combinations, must satisfy the condition:

Msd  Mc, Rd (4.1)

Where Mc, Rd = design moment resistance of the cross-section taken as the smallest of:

a) the design plastic resistance moment Mpl, Rd of the gross section

W PI x f y
M =

PI , Rd
M0 For class 1 or 2 cross sections (4.2a)

b) the design elastic resistance moment Mel, Rd of the gross section

WeI x f y
M el , Rd = For class 3 cross sections (4.2b)
 M0

c) the design local buckling resistance moment Mo,Rd of the gross section
Weff x f y
M 0, Rd =
 M1 For class 4 cross sections (4.2c)
d) The design ultimate resistance moment of the net section at fastener holes Mu,Rd.It shall be
assessed by evaluating possible influence of the reduced section in the tension flange due
to fastener holes. Fastened holes in the tension flange need not be allowed for when:
A f , net fy  M2
0.9 
Af fu  M 0
When this relationship does not hold, a reduced flange area may be assumed which satisfies the
limit.

Torsional Buckling
Consideration of lateral-torsional buckling may be discounted for the following classes of
member:

- Bending only takes place about the minor axis

124
 - Beams laterally restrained throughout their length by adequate bracing
- Non-dimensional lateral slenderness parameter LT  0.4.

The design buckling resistance mo ment of a laterally unrestrained beam may be calculated as:

Mb,Rd = LTw,y Wpl.y fy/Ml (4.4)

w,y = 1 for class 1 or class 2 cross-sections

w,y = Wel.y/ Wpl.y for class 3 cross-sections

w,y = Weff.y/ Wpl.y for Class 4 cross-sections

Where:

Wpl.y = plastic modulus of cross-section about the major axis

Wel.y = elastic modulus of cross-section about the major axis
Weff.y = elastic modulus of effective cross-section about the major axis

LT = a reduction factor accounting for lateral-torsional buckling and given by:

LT = 1 for LT < 0.4

LT
( )
= 1
 2 0.5

 LT + 2 LT − LT
 but  LT 1 for  LT  0.4

 (
 LT = 0.5 1 +  LT  LT − 0.2 +  ) 2
LT 
− 1 f y W . y
 LT =  LT
E 
LT = lateral-torsional slenderness

LT = imperfection factor which shall be taken as LT = 0.21 for rolled sections and LT =
0.49 for welded sections.

Elastic Critical moment for lateral-torsional buckling

The elastic critical moment for lateral-torsional buckling of a beam of uniform symmetrical cross
section with equal flanges, under standard conditions of restraint at each end, loaded through its
shear centre and subjected to uniform moment is given by:
0.5
 2 EI z  I w L2GI t 
M cr =  + 2  (4.5a)
L2  I z  EI z 

E
Where G =
2(1 +  )

125
 It is the torsion. Constant
Iw is the warping constant
Iz is the second moment of area about the minor axis

L is the length of the beam between points which have lateral restraint.
The standard conditions of restraint at each end are:

- Restrained against lateral movement

- Restrained against rotation about the longitudinal axis
- Free to rotate in plane

In the case of a beam of uniform cross-section which is symmetrical about the minor axis, for
bending about the major axis the elastic critical moment for lateral-torsional buckling is given by
the general formula:
0.5
 EI z   K  I w 
2

M cr = C1 {  
( KL)2   K w  I z
+
( KL) 2 GI t
 2 EI z

+ C2 Z g − C3Z j 
2
  
− C2 Z g − C3Zj } (4.5b)
 

Where C1, C2 and C3 are factors depending on the loading and end restraint conditions k and kw
are effective length factors.

The effective length factors k and kw vary from 0.5 for full fixity to 1. 0 for no fixity with 0.7 for
one end fixed and one end free.
The factor k refers to end rotation on plan. It is analogous to the ratio l/L for a compression
member.

The factor kw refers to end warping. Unless special provision for warping fixity is made, kw should
be taken as 1.0.
Values of C1, C2 and C3 are given in Tables 4.12 and 4.13 for various load cases, as indicated by
the shape of the bending moment diagram over the length L between lateral restraints. Values are
given corresponding to various values of k.
For cases with k= 1.0 the value of C1 for any ratio of end moment loading as indicated in Table
4. is given approximately by:

C1 = 1.88 – 1.40 + 0.522 but C1  2.70

The sign convention for determining Zj, see Fig. 4. is:

a) Zj is positive for the compression flange

b) Zj is positive when the flange with the larger value of Iz is in compression at the point of
largest n1omen
The sign convention for determining Zg, is:

126
 c) For gravity loads Zg is positive for loads applied above the shear centre
d) In the general case Zg is positive for loads acting towards the shear centre from their point
of application.
For beams with doubly symmetric cross-sections Zj = 0, thus:
0.5
 EI z   K  I w 
2

M cr = C1 {  
( KL) 2   K w  I z
+
( KL) 2 GI t
 2 EI z
+ C2 Z g   2
  
− C2 Z g } (4.5c)
 

For beams with doubly symmetric cross-sections and with end-moment loading C2 = 0 and for
transverse loads applied at the shear centre Zg = O. For these cases:
0.5
 EI z   K  I w ( KL) 2 GI t 
2

M cr = C1    +  (4.5d)
( KL) 2   K w  I z  2 EI z 
 

For beams with doubly symmetric cross-sections and when K = kw = 1.0(no end fixity):
0.5
 EI z  I w ( KL) 2 GI t 
M cr = C1  +  (4.5e)
( KL) 2  I z  2 EI z 

Reduction factors for lateral-torsional buckling

LT  0.4 NO LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING

VERIFICATION REQUIRED

0.4 < LT  3.0 1 Rolled with LT = 0.21

 LT = 1
2
 + 2 −  LT

Welded with LT = 0.49

 = LT

 = LT , using:

a) curve a (α = 0.21) for rolled sections

b) curve c (α = 0.49) for welded sections, Refer EBCS 3 1995.
Shear Resistance
The shear resistance is either limited by the shear plastic resistance, VRd, or the shear buckling
resistance, Vb, Rd.

Plastic shear resistance

According to the EBCS 3 Specification, members designed to resist a factored shear force V sd
calculated using appropriate load combinations, must satisfy the condition:

127
 Vsd  Vpl,Rd (4.6)

Where

Vpl, Rd = the plastic shear resistance of a cross-section given by

V pl , Rd =
(
Av f y / 3 ) (4.7)
 M0

In which Av = the shear area, normally given by h x tw where h is the overall depth of the web
and tw the web thickness.
Shear buckling resistance

The design shear buckling resistance, Vb,Rd, may be obtained from:

dw tw  b
Vb, Rd =
 M1 (4.8)

Where:

b = the design value of the mean shear strength given in Table 4.6 as a function of:

0.8 d w fy
w =
k t w E
in which k is he buckling factor for shear obtained as follows:

➢ For unstiffened webs (webs with transverse stiffners at the supports but no
intermidaite transverse stiffners)
k = 5.34 (4.8a)

➢ For webs with transverse stiffeners at the supports and intermediate transverse
stiffeners with panel ratio a/dw < 1.0:
5.34 (4.8b)
k = 4 +
(a / d w ) 2

➢ For webs with transverse stiffeners at the supports and intermediate transverse
stiffeners giving panel aspect ratio a/dw  1.0:

4
k = 5.34 +
(a / d w )2 (4.8c)

In both the above latest expressions:

a = panel length between stiffeners
128
 dw = panel depth between flanges.

Table 4.6 design value of the mean shear strength b.

0.8 d w fw B FOR AN UNSTIFFENED WEB B FOR A WEB WITH TRANSVERSE

w = STIFFENERS INCLUDING AT SUPPORTS
k t w E

w  0.2 fy / 3 fy / 3
0.2 w  0.6
1 − 0.63 ( w − 0.2 ) f y / 3 1 − 0.63 ( w )
− 0.2 f y / 3

(1 − 0.42  ) f
w > 0.6 −
w y / 3 27 −  w fy
−
3
24 + 19 w

Transverse stiffeners should be designed to comply with the requirements stipulated under
“Transverse stiffeners” subsequently.

Resistance to bending and Shear

The theoretical plastic resistance moment of a cross section is reduced by the presence of shear.
For small values of the shear force this reduction is so small that it is counter balanced by strain
hardening and may be neglected. However, when the shear force exceeds half the plastic shear
resistance, allowance shall be made for its effect on the plastic resistance moment.

Provided that the design value of the shear force doesn’t exceed 50% of the design plastic shear
resistance Vpl,rd no reduction need be made in the resistance moments given by equations 4.2.
When Vsd exceeds 50% of Vpl,rd the design resistance moment of the cross section should be
reduced to Mv,rd the reduced plastic resistance moment allowing for the shear force obtained as
follows:
a) For cross section with equal flanges, bending about the major axis:
 Av 2  f y
M v , rd = Wpl −  but Mv,rd  Mc,rd
 4tw   Mo

Where  = (2Vsd/Vpl,rd – 1)2

b) For other cases Mv,Rd should be taken as the design plastic resistance moment of the cross
section, calculated using a reduced strength (1-)fy for the shear area, but not more than
Mc,rd

Resistance of webs to transverse Forces

The resistance of an unstiffened web to forces from concentrated loads or support reactions will
be governed by one of three possible failure modes:

129
 ➢ Crushing of the web close to the flange, accompanied by plastic deformation of the
flange.
➢ Crippling of web in the form of localized buckling and crushing of the web close to
the flange, accompanied by plastic deformation of the flange.
➢ Buckling of the web over most of the depth of the member.
As a guide, Table 4.7 indicates the need for checking a particular mode depending on the type of
section and load application.

Table 4.7. Checks for local strength of webs

TYPE OF SECTION CRUSHING CRIPPLING BUCKLING

Fabricated by welding:

1. Load resistance by web shear • •

2. Load resistance by reaction on opposite
flanges • •

Cold formed • •

Crushing resistance (Art. 4.6.6.3, EBCS 3)

The design crushing resistance Ry,rd of the web of an I, H or U section should be obtained from:

( ss + s y )tw f yw
Ry , rd = (4.9a)
 M1

In which sy is given by:

bf f yf  f , Ed
s y = 2t f ( )( )[1 − ( )2 (4.9b)
tw f yw f yf

- But bf should not be taken as more than 25tf and f,Ed is the longitudinal stress in the flange.
- At the end of a member sy should be halved
Crippling resistance (Art. 4.6.6.4, EBCS 3)
The design crippling resistance Ra,rd of the web of an I, H or U section should be obtained from:

t t s
( Ef yf )[( f ) + 3( w )( s )]
tw tf d
Ra , rd = 0.5tw
2
(4.10)
 M1
130
 Where Ss is the length of stiff bearing (see Section 4.6.6.2, EBCS 3)
Ss/d should not be taken as more than 0.2
Buckling resistance (Art. 4.6.6.5, EBCS 3)

1) The design buckling resistance Rb,rd of the web of an I, H or U section should be obtained
by considering the web as a virtual compression member with an effective breadth beff
obtained from:
b eff = h 2 + s 2

2) Near the ends of a member (or at openings in the web) the effective breadth b eff should not
be taken as greater than the breadth actually available, measured at mid-depth, see Fig.
5.15.
3) The buckling resistance should be determine from chapter three using buckling curve c and
BA = 1.
4) The buckling length of the virtual compression member should be determined from the
conditions of lateral and rotational restraint at the flanges at the point of load application.
5) The flange through which the load is applied should normally be restrained in position at
the point of load application. Where this is not practicable, a special buckling
Transverse stiffeners (Art. 4.6.6.6 and 4.6.4.4, EBCS 3)

1. When checking the buckling resistance, the effective cross section of a stiffener should be
taken including the width of web plate equal to 30tw, arranged with 15tw, each side of
the stiffener(see Fig. 4.3, chapter-4). At the ends of the member (or openings in the web)
the dimension of 15tw, should be limited to the actual dimension available.

Fig 4.3 Effective cross section of stiffeners for buckling

2. the out of plane buckling resistance

should be determined by considering them as compression members using buckling curve
C and a buckling length L of not less than 0.75d, or more if appropriate for conditions of
restraint.
The buckling resistance of symmetric stiffeners may be determined from:

A fy
N b , Rd =   A
 M1 (4.11)
Where:
131
 A = 1 for Class 1,2,3 cross-sections

= Aeff/A for Class 4 cross-section

where Aeff is the effective cross-section for Class 4 cross-sections

A = gross area

 = a reduction factor accounting for buckling

= 1.0 for   0.2

1
=
(
 + 2 − )
2 0.5
But   1 for 0.2    3.0

in which:

 (
 = 0.5 1 + 0.76  − 0.2 +  ) 2


Lef f 1 fy A  2 
 = =  A Af y / N er =  A ; 1 = = 93.9
r  E 1 (E / f )y
5

 = 235 f
y

Leff = effective length of stiffener  0.75dw or more if appropriate for conditions of

restraint.
Ner = the elastic critical force for the relevant buckling mode

r = radius of gyration of the gross cross section

 = an imperfection factor.

3. For both the simple post-critical method and tension field method , the compression force
Ns in an intermediate transverse stiffeners should be obtained from:
dt 
N s = Vsd − w bb but Ns  0 (4.11a)
 M1

In which bb is the initial shear buckling strength from eqns (5.4c, 5.4d &5.4e)); the lower
value of for the two panels adjacent to the stiffener should be used.
4. The second moment of area of an intermediate stiffener, I s, should satisfy the following:

132
 If a I s  1.5 d 3 w t 3 w / a 2
dw  2:

if a  2 : I s  0.75 d w t 3 w
dw

5. End stiffeners and stiffeners at internal supports should normally be doubled sided and
symmetric about the centre line of the web.
6. Where single sided or other asymmetric stiffeners are used, the resulting eccentricity
should be allowed for.
7. In addition to checking the buckling resistance, the cross section resistance of a load
bearing stiffener should also be checked adjacent to the loaded flange. The width of the
web plate included in the effective cross section should be limited to Sy (see Section 4.6.6.3,
EBCS 3)
Flange Induced Buckling

1. To prevent the possibility of the compression flange buckling in the plane of the web,
the ratio d/tw of the web shall satisfy the following criterion:
d E Aw
k (4.12a)
tw f yf Afc

Where Aw is the area of the web

Afc is the area of the compression flange

fyf is the yield strength of the compression flange

The value of the factor k should be taken as follows:

For class 1 flanges = 0.3

For class 2 flanges = 0.4

For class 3 or class 4 flanges = 0.55

2. When the girder is curved in elevation, with the compression flange on the concave
face, the criterion should be modified to:
d K ( E / f yf ) Aw / Afc
 (4.12b)
tw  dE 
1 + 
 3rf yf 

Where r is the radius of curvature of the compression flange

3. When the girder has transverse web stiffeners, the limiting value of d/tw may be
increased accordingly.
133
Deflection Criterion
Deflection is a serviceability consideration. As a result service loads (not factored loads) are used
in calculating beam deflections. Since most beams are fabricated with a camber, which somewhat
offsets the dead load deflection, consideration is often given to deflection due to live load only.
For beams supporting plastered ceilings, the service live load deflection preferably should not
exceed L/360, where L is the beam span. A larger deflection limit can be used if due considerations
are given to ensure the proper functioning of the structure. Refer Art 5.2 of EBCS 3, 1995

3.5 Structural connections

3.5.1 Introduction
All connections shall have a design resistance such that the structure remains effective and is capable of
satisfying all the basic design requirements. Connection design will be based on the basis of realistic
assumption of the distribution of internal forces provided that:

(a) Assumed internal forces are in equilibrium with applied forces.

(b) Each element in the connection is capable of resisting the internal forces.
(c) Deformations are within the deformation capacity of the fasteners or welds and of the connected
parts.
Usually, members meeting at a joint should be arranged with their centroidal axes meeting at a point. Where
there is eccentricity at intersections the members and connections should be designed to accommodate the
moments which result. In the case of bolted connections of angles and tees with at least two bolts per
connection, the setting out lines of the bolts may be adopted instead of centroidal axes.

Joints in simple construction should not develop significant moments adversely affecting the structure.
Joints between members in rigid construction should be capable of transmitting the forces and moments
calculated in design.

Bolted connections

The size of holes for all fasteners shall not exceed the dimension given in Table 2.5.1

Table 2.5.1 Maximum Dimensions of Holes

Bolt shank Clearance hole Oversize hole Short slotted hole Long slotted hole
diameter (mm) diameter (mm) diameter (mm) dimensions (mm) dimensions (mm)

14 d+1 d+4 d+1 d+4 d+1 2.5d

14<d22 d+2 d+5 d+2 d+6 d+2 2.5d

24 d+2 d+6 d+2 d+8 d+2 2.5d

27 d+3 d +8 d+3 d +10 d+3 2.5d

For edge distances and spacing of holes refer to table 2.1.1

Design shear rupture resistance

The design value of the effective resistance Veff,Rd for rupture along a block shear failure path shall be
determined from:

134
 0.60 f y A v ,eff
Veff,Rd =
 Mo

Effective shear area, Av,eff = tLv + L1 + L2 - ndo

Where L1 = 2.5do but  a1

L2 = 5.0 do but  a2

n = number of fastener holes on the block shear failure path.

t = thickness of the web or bracket.

d 0
cope cope

a 1

L 1 L 1 a 1
L 1 a 1

Block shear Block shear Block shear

failure path L v failure path L v failure path L v

L 2 L 2 L 2
a 2

a 2
a 2

cope

(a) plain end (b) coped end (c) doubled coped end

Figure 2.5.1 Net shear area – Block shear

Shear capacity of bolts:

The shear capacity per shear plane Fv,Rd of a bolt shall be taken as:

Fv,Rd = fv,dAs

Where fv,d = design shear strength.

0.6 f ub 0.87 f yb
fv,d = but 
 Mb  Mb

fub = nominal ultimate strength of the fastener.

fyb = nominal yield strength of the fastener.

As = shear area; for threads in shear plane As is taken at the bottom of the threads and if

threads do not occur in the shear plane As taken as the shank area.

Bearing capacity

▪ The effective capacity of a bolt in bearing on any ply shall be taken as the Sesser of the bearing capacity
of the bolt and the bearing capacity of the connected ply.
▪ The bearing capacity of the bolt Fbb,Rd will be taken as
Fbb,Rd = dtfbb,d

Where d = nominal diameter of the bolt.

135
 t = thickness of the connected ply, or, if the bolts are countersunk, the thickness of the ply mines
half of the depth of counter sinking.

fbb,d = design bearing strength of the bolt.

0.9( f ub + f yb )
fbb,d =
M

▪ The bearing capacity of the connected ply Fbp,Rd shall be taken as:
Fbp,Rd = dtfbp,d but  1 e1t fbp,d
2
Where d = nominal diameter of the bolt

t = thickness of the ply.

fbp,d = design bearing strength of the connected parts.

0.8( f u + f y )
fbp,d =
 M2

e1 = is the edge distance

Bolts subject to tension

▪ The tension capacity Ft,Rd of a bolt (including countersunk bolts) shall be obtained from:
Ft,Rd = ft,d As
Where, ft,d = design tension strength

0.7 f ub 1.0 f yb
ft,d = but 
M M

As = tensile stress area.

Combined shear and Tension

For bolts subjected to both shear and tension the following additional relationship shall be satisfied.
Fv , sd Ft , sd
+  1.4
Fv , Rd Ft , Rd

The grade of a bolt is given by two figures separated by a point (table 2.5.3) the first figure is 1% of the
minimum ultimate strength in N/mm2 and the second is 1/10th of the percentage ration of the minimum
yield strength to the minimum ultimate strength. Thus 5.6 grade means that the minimum ultimate strength
is 500 N/mm2 and the yield strength is 60% of this strength which is 300 N/m2. The nominal values of the
yield strength fyb and the ultimate strength fub to be adapted as characteristic values in calculations are given
below:

136
 Table 2.5.3

Bolt grade 4.6 4.8 5.6 5.8 6.8 8.8 10.9

Fyb(N/mm2) 240 320 300 400 480 640 900

Fub (N/mm2 400 400 500 500 600 800 1000

Tensile stress Areas for Bolts

Tensile stress area for bolts as determined by ISO standards shank and tensile areas are tabulated below
(Table 2.5.2)

Table 2.5.2
Bolt diameter (mm) Tensile area (mm2) Shank area (mm2)

12 84 113

16 157 201

20 245 314

22 303 380

24 353 452

27 459 572

30 561 707

Theoretical background of Eccentrically loaded bolted connections

P P M = Pe
e

Direct Forces Forces due to Moment

There are six bolts shown in the joint. P is the eccentrically applied force at a distance e from the centroid
of the bolt group. The forces in any bolt can be due to the direct action of the applied force P and due to
the moment due to eccentricity.

Direct force in one bolt F1 = Force P / No. of bolts = P/n

137
 Due to moments each bolts get torsional shear. Forces due to moment in any bolt act perpendicular
to radius vector ‘r’.

Shear stress (f2) due to moment in a bolt is proportional to the radius vector ‘r’

(f2) α r or (f2) = kr

Force due to moment in one bolt = F2 = A.(f2) = Akr

Moment of resistance of one bolt = F2. r = Akr2

Total Moment of resistance of bolt system = Σ Akr2 = Pe = M

Pe PeAr Mr
k= F2 = =
 Ar 2  Ar 2 r2

F2 may have two components along vertical and horizontal directions based on its line of action (ie. F2 cos
θ and F2 sin θ, where θ is the angle between F1 and F2).

Resultant force in the bolt = R = ( F1 + F2 cos  ) 2 + ( F2 sin  ) 2

Tension and compression zones for the bolts subjected to axial forces
Load
Tension

dc
dc/7

Compression

Welded connections
The particular advantage of welding is that it produces a more rigid connection than can be obtained by
the use of bolts. Welding does require, however, greater skill and more supervision, and is therefore more
expensive.

Welds shall generally be classified as: (EBCS.3)

a) Fillet welds.
b) Butt welds (with full or partial penetration)
c) Slot welds.
d) Plug welds.
e) Flare groove welds.
Fillet welds

Butt welds are used to lengthen plates in the end-on position, and are not often used in structural connections
because plate sizes in the connections are relatively small. The fillet weld most commonly used in structural
connections has equal leg lengths and has a flat or convex face. The maximum size of fillet weld from a
single run metal arc manual process is 80mm, but the maximum preferred to guarantee quality is 6mm.
138
fillet welds are generally continuous, although they may be intermittent provided that they satisfy code
requirements.

Provision of EBCS-3

• Fillet welds may be used for connecting parts where the fusion faces form an angle of between 600 and
1200
• Fillet welds terminating at the ends or sides of parts should be returned continuously around the corners
for a distance of not less than twice the leg length s of the weld unless access or the configuration
renders this impracticable. This detail is particularly important for fillet welds on the tension side of
parts carrying a bending load.
• In lap joint the minimum lap shall be not less than 4t where t is the thickness of the thinner part joined.
Single fillet welds should only be used where the parts are restrained to prevent opening of the joint.
• Fillet welds may be continuous or intermittent.
Design of a fillet weld

Effective Length

• The effective length of a fillet weld shall be taken as the overall length less one leg width s for each
end which does not continue at least twice the leg width s round a corner. The effective length should
not be lese than 40mm or 6 times the throat thickness.
• Provided that the weld is a full size throughout one, no reduction in effective length need be made for
either the start or the termination of the wild.
Throat thickness

• The effective throat size a of a fillet weld shall be taken as the perpendicular distance from the root of
the weld to a straight line joining the fusion faces which lies within the cross section of the weld . It
should not, however, be taken greater than 0.707 times the effective leg width s.
• The throat thickeners of a fillet weld should not be less than 3mm.

h h=
45°
s

a = ½ (h) = ½ (1.414 s)
45°

s
a

Long Joints

• In lap joints longer than 150a the design resistances of a fillet weld should be reduced by a reduction
factor Lw given by,
Lw,1 = 1.2 – 0.2Lj / (150a) but Lw,1  1.0
Where Lj = overall length of the lap in the direction of the force transfer.

139
• For fillet welds longer than 1.7 meters connecting transverse stiffeners in plated members, the reduction
factor Lw may be taken as:
Lw,2 = 1.1 - Lw/ 17 but 0.6  Lw,2  1.0
Where Lw = length of the weld in meter.

140
3.6 Combined Bending and Axial Load Members
3.6.1 Introduction
Nearly all members in a structure are subjected to both bending moment and axial force-either
tension or compression. When the magnitude of one or the other is relatively small, its effect is
usually neglected and the member is designed either as a beam, or as an axially loaded column.
For many situations neither effect can properly be neglected and the behaviour under combined
loading must be considered in design. A special class of such members that are subjected to both
axial compression force and bending moment are called beam-columns. They represent the general
load case of an element in a structural frame.

There are a number of factors that affect the performance of a member under combined axial force
and bending moment. A number of categories of combined bending and axial load along with the
likely mode of failure may be summarized as follows:
a. Axial tension and bending: failure usually by yielding.
b. Axial compression and bending about one axis: failure by instability in the plane of
bending, without twisting.
c. Axial compression and bending about the strong axis: failure by lateral-torsional buckling.
d. Axial compression and biaxial bending-torsionally stiff sections: failure by instability in
one of the principal directions. (W shapes are usually in this category.)
e. Axial compression and biaxial bending thin-walled open sections: failure by combined
twisting and bending on these torsionally weak sections.
f. Axial compression, biaxial bending, and torsion: failure by combined twisting and bending
when plane of bending does not contain the shear center.

It may be apparent from this summary that no single design procedure is likely to properly account
for such varied behaviour. Current design procedures generally follow empirical interaction
procedures to design structural members under combined stresses. Through such interaction
equations the true behaviour is accounted for more accurately for most of the stability situations.

In addition to mode of moment application as noted above, the behaviour of a beam-column also
depends on its length on its lateral support conditions. In this later context, and with special
reference to beam-columns, the behaviour can be classified into the following five cases:
Case 1: A short column subjected to axial load and uniaxial bending about either axis or
biaxial bending.
Failure generally occurs when the plastic capacity of the section is reached. Note
limitations set in Case (2) below.

Case 2: A slender column subjected to axial load and uniaxial bending about the major axis
y-y.
If the column is supported laterally against buckling about the minor axis z-z out
of the plane of bending, the column fails by buckling about the x-x axis. This is not
141
 a common case (see fig. 6.1a) at low axial loads or if the column is not very slender
a plastic hinge forms at the end or point of maximum moment.
Case 3: A slender column subjected to axial load and uniaxial bending about the minor axis
z-z.

The column does not require lateral support and there is no buckling out of the
plane of bending. The column fails by buckling about the z-z axis. At very low axial
loads it will reach the bending capacity for z-z axis .
Case 4: A slender column subjected to axial load and uniaxial bending about the major axis
y-y.

This time the column has no lateral support. The column fails due to a combination
of column buckling about the z-z axis and lateral torsional buckling where the
column section twists about x-axis as well as deflecting in the yx and yz planes (see
fig. 6.1b).

Case 5: A lender column subjected to axial load and biaxial bending.

The column has no lateral support. The failure is the same as in Case 4 above but
minor axis buckling will have the greatest effect. This is the general loading case
(see fig. 6.1c).

3.6.2 Overall Stability

In a beam column the treatment of cross-sectional behavior take account of the way in which the
moment M at the particular cross-section under consideration was generated. Figure 6.2 shows a
beam-column undergoing lateral deflection as a result of the combination of compression and
equal and opposite moments applied at the ends.

142
 Fig. 6.2 Primary and secondary moments
The moment at any point within the length may conveniently be regarded as being composed of
two parts:

• primary moment M
• secondary moment Nv
Effect of Pattern of Primary Moment
Figure 6.2a showed how, for the particular case of equal and opposite end moments, the primary
moments are amplified due to the effect of the axial load N acting through the lateral displacements
v. When the pattern of primary moment is different the two effects will not be so directly additive
since maximum primary and secondary moments will not necessarily occur at the same location.
Figure 6.2b illustrates the situation for end moments M and M, where  can adopt values between
+1 (uniform single curvature) and -1 (double curvature). The particular case shown corresponds
to a  value  -0,5.

For the case illustrated the maximum moment still occurs within the member length but the
situation is clearly less severe than that of Figure 6.2a assuming all conditions to be identical apart
from the value of . It is customary to recognize this in design by reducing the contribution of the
moment term to the interaction relationship.
Since the case of uniform single curvature moment is the most severe, it follows that a safe
simplification is always to use the procedure for = 1.0.
Returning to Figure 6.2b, it is possible for the point of maximum moment to be at the end at which
the larger primary moment is applied. This would usually occur if the axial load was small and/or
slenderness was low so that secondary bending effects were relatively slight. In such cases design
will be controlled by the need to ensure adequate cross-sectional resistance at this end.
3.6.3 Limit State Design, EBCS 3 1995
Resistance of Cross Section
According to the EBCS 3 Specification, members designed to resist factored bending moments
My.sd and Mz.sd, calculated using appropriate load combinations, must satisfy the following
condition:
143
 a. When Vsd  0.50Vbs , rd

N Sd M y.Sd + N Sd e Ny M z .Sd + N Sd e Nz (6.1)

+ +  1.0
N Rd M c. y.Rd M c. z.Rd

Where:
NSd, My.Sd, Mz.Sd are the design forces acting at the cross-section
NRd is the resistance to axial force as discussed earlier

Mc.y.Rd,Mc.z.Rd are the resistances to uniaxial moment respectively

eNy, eNz are the shifts in the neutral axis when the cross-section is subjected to uniform
compression. Note that for class 1, 2 and 3 cross-sections and for doubly symmetric Class 4 cross-
section, both eNy and eNz are both zero. For single-symmetric Class 4 sections, either eNy or eNz is
zero.

Note that for angles, the y and z axes in the above should be taken as the u and v axes respectively.
When Nsd is tensile, both eNy and eNz are to be taken as zero and Nsd is to be taken as positive.

b. When Vsd  0.50Vbs , rd

The design resistance of the cross-section to the combination of moment and axial force should be
calculated using a reduced yield strength (1-) fy for the shear area where  = (2VSd/VRd – 1)2

Buckling Resistance

a. Axial tension and bending

Members subject to combined axial tension and bending should be checked to the requirements of
flexural members presented in Chapter Four, but advantage may be taken of the stabilizing effect
of the tension when considering lateral-torsional buckling as follows:
When the axial tension and bending moment can vary independently, the design value of the axial
tension should be multiplied by a reduction factor, for vectorial effects, of 0.8.
The check should be carried out using an effective design internal moment MSd obtained from:

MSd = Wc c (6.2)

Where

c = the net stress in the extreme fiber due to the vectorial effects of factored loads.

Wc = the elastic section modulus for the extreme fiber.

b. Axial Compression and Bending

144
In addition to satisfying the requirements of cross-sectional resistance presented above, at every
point along the length of the member and the general requirements for flexural as presented in
Chapter Four, interaction effects should be considered between compressive loads and bending
moments. The following interaction criteria are suitable:
1. Axial compression and uni-axial major axis moment:
i. To avoid buckling about the major axis:
Nsd k y M y Sd + N Sd eN y
+ 1 (6.3a)
Nb. y.Rd  wyWpl . y f y  Ml

 y N sd
In which k y = 1 − but k y  1.5
X y Af y

W pl . y − Wel . y 
 y =  y − (2  my − 4) +   but  y  0.9

 W el . y 


Conservatively:

Nsd 1.5M y Sd + N Sd eN y
+ 1 (6.3b)
N b. y.Rd  wyW pl . y f y  Ml

ii. To avoid buckling about the minor axis (for members subject to lateral-torsional
buckling):
N Sd k M + N Sd eNy
+ lT y.Sd  1.0 (6.3c)
Nb. z .Rd M b.Rd

 LT N sd
In which k LT = 1 − but kLT  1
X z Af y

 LT = 0.15z −  M .LT − 0.15 but LT  0.9

Conservatively:

N Sd M y.Sd + N Sd e Ny
+  1.0 (6.3d)
N b. z.Rd M b.Rd

2. Axial compression and uni-axial minor axis moment:

To avoid buckling about the minor axis:

N Sd k M + N Sd eNz
+ z z.Sd  1.0 (6.4a)
Nb. z .Rd  w. yWpl . z f y  Ml

Conservatively:

145
 N Sd 1.5M z .Sd + N Sd eNz
+  1.0 (6.4b)
Nb. z .Rd  w. yWpl . z f y  Ml

3. Axial compression and biaxial moments:

i. All members should satisfy:
N Sd k M + N Sd eNy k z M z .Sd + N Sd eNz
+ y y.Sd +  1.0 (6.5a)
(Nb. z.Rd )min  w. yWpl.z f y  Ml  w.zWpl.z f y  Ml
 z N sd
In which k z = 1 − but kz  1.5
X z Af y

Wpl . z − Wel . z 
 z = z − (2 mz − 4) +   but z  0.9
 W el . z 

Conservatively:

N Sd 1.5M y.Sd + N Sd e Ny 1.5M z.Sd + N Sd e Nz

+ +  1.0 (6.5b)
(N b. z.Rd )min  w. yW pl . z f y  Ml  w. zW pl . z f y  Ml

ii. Members potentially subject to lateral-torsional buckling should also satisfy:

N Sd k M + N Sd eNy k z M z.Sd + N Sd eNz
+ LT y.Sd +  1.0 (6.5c)
Nb. z.Rd M b.Rd  w. zWpl . z f y  Ml

Conservatively:

N Sd M + N Sd eNy 1.5M z .Sd + N Sd eNz

+ y.Sd +  1.0 (6.5d)
Nb. z.Rd M b.Rd  w. zWpl . z f y  Ml

In the above equations:

NSd,eNy and eNz are defined in above under “Resistance of Cross-section”
MySd and MzSd are the maximum design moments, each considered separately, occurring in
the member.
Nb.yRd and Nb.zRd are the flexural buckling resistances for the y and z axes respectively (see
under “Flexural buckling”, Chapter two - Compression Members).

(Nb.Rd)min is the lesser of Nb.yRd and Nb.zRd (all buckling modes considered)
Xy and Xz are reduction factors (see chapter 3 or 4) for the y-y and z-z axes respectively.

my and mz are equivalent uniform moment factors for flexural buckling (see Figure)

M.LT is an equivalent uniform moment factor for lateral-torsional buckling (see

Figure 6.3)

wy and w.z are the values of w determined for the y and z axes respectively in which
146
 w = 1 for class 1 or 2 cross sections

= Wel/Wpl for class 3 cross-sections

= Wel/Wpl for class 4 cross-sections

Wpl.y and Wpl.z are the plastic moduli for the y and z axes respectively

Mb.Rd is the lateral-torsional buckling moment (see Chapter Four-Flexural

Members)
Note that for angles, the y and z axes in the above should be taken as the u and v axes respectively.

c. Biaxial Bending
The cross-sectional resistance should be checked as provided earlier as well as the general
requirements for beam members (see Chapter Four-Flexural Members).
The following interaction criteria are suggested for verification of buckling resistance for biaxial
bending in the absence of axial compression:

k y M y.Sd k z M z .Sd
+  1.0 (6.6a)
 w. yWpl . y f y  Ml  w. zWpl . z f y  Ml

And, where lateral-torsional buckling is a possible buckling mode:

k LT M y.Sd k z M z.Sd
+  1.0 (6.6b)
M b.Rd  w. zWpl . z f y  Ml

Where all quantities are defined under “axial compression and bending” earlier.

3.6.4 Limit State Design, AISC-LRFD SPECIFICATION

According to the AISC-LRFD Specification, doubly or singly symmetric structural members
designed to resist a factored axial load NSd bending moment Mu, calculated using the appropriate
load combinations, must satisfy the condition:

1. For Pu/Pn  0.2:

Pu 8  M ux M uy 
  1.0
+ + (6.7a)
Pn 9  b M nx b M ny 


2. For Pu/Pn  0.2:

Pu 8  M ux M uy 
+  +   1.0 (6.7b)
2Pn 9  b M nx b M ny 


Where:

a. If P is tensile,
Pu = factored tensile axial force

147
 Pn = design tensile strength (see Chapter Two-Tension Members)
Mu = factored moment
Mn = design flexural strength (see Chapter Four-Flexural Members)

 = t = resistance factor for tension = 0.9

 = resistance factor for flexure = 0.9

b. If P is compressive,
Pu = factored compressive axial force
Pn = design compressive strength (see Chapter Three-Compression Members)
Mu = factored moment to be determined as per subsequent discussion

Mn = design flexural strength (see Chapter Four-Flexural Members)

 = c = resistance factor for compression = 0.85

b = resistance factor for flexure = 0.90

The factored moment Mu should be determined from a second-order elastic analysis. In lieu of
such an analysis, the following equation may be used:
Mu = B1Mnt + B2Mlt (6.8)

Where
Mnt = factored moment in member, assuming the frame does not undergo lateral

translation (provision of artificial restraint at the joints)

Mlt = factored moment in member as a result of lateral translation (equal and opposite
forces at the same joint)

B1 = Cm/(1-Pu/Pc) 1.0

Pe = 2El/(KL)2, with K1.0 in the plane of bending

Cm = a coefficient to be determined from the following discussion

B2 = 1 1 − ( Pu  oh  HL ) or 
B2 = 1 1 − ( Pu  P )
e

p u = sum of all factored loads acting on and above the story under consideration

oh = first-order inter-story translation

 H = sum of all lateral loads acting on and above the story under consideration
L = story height

148
For end-restrained members that do not undergo relative joint translation and are not subject to
transverse loading between their supports in the plane of bending, Cm is given by:

M 
C m = 0.6 − 0.4 1  (6.9a)
 M2 

Where: M1/M2 is the ratio of the smaller to larger member end moments. The ratio is positive if
the member bends in reverse curvature and negative if the member bends in single curvature. For
end restrained members that do not undergo relative joint translation and are subject to transverse
loading between their supports in the plane of bending,
Cm = 0.85 (6.9b)

For unrestrained members that do not undergo relative joint translation and are subject to
transverse loading between their supports in the plane of bending,
Cm = 1.00 (6.9c)

The selection of trial sections for use as beam-columns is facilitated by rewriting the interaction
equations, Eq.(6.7a) and Eq.(6.7b) into the so-called equivalent axial load form.

For Pu/cPn > 0.2:

Pu + mxMux + myUMuy  cPn (6.10a)

For Pu/cPn  0.2:

Pu 9 9
+ m x + m yUM uy  c Pn (6.10b)
2 8 8

Where;

mx =
8
(c Pn b M nx )
9
m yU = ( c Pn b M ny )
8
9

Numerical values for m and U are provided in the AISC Manual of Steel Construction. The
advantage of using Eqs. (6.10) for preliminary design is that the terms on the left-hand side of the
inequality can be regarded as an equivalent axial load, (Pu)eff. The similarity in form between the
two equations and Eq.(3.7a), Chapter Three, allows the designer to take advantage of the column
tables provided in the manual for selecting trial sections.

Biaxial Bending
Members subjected to bending about both principal axes (e.g., purlins on an inclined roof) should
be designed for biaxial bending. Since both the moment about the major axis, Mux and the moment
about the minor axis, Muy, create flexural stress over the cross section of the member, to avoid

149
yielding at the most severely stressed point the following equation for the yielding limit state must
be satisfied:

fun bfy (6.11)

where: -
fun = Mux/Sx + Muy/Sy = the flexural stress under factored loads

Sx, Sy = elastic section moduli about the major and minor axes, respectively

b = 0.90

fy = specified minimum yield stress

In addition, the limit state for lateral torsional buckling about the major axis should also be
checked, i.e.,

bMnx  Mux (6.12)

Where bMnx the design flexural strength about the major axis (see Chapter Four-Flexural
Members). Note that lateral torsional buckling will not occur about the minor axis.

Equation (6.11) can be rearranged to give:

M ux M uy  Sx  M ux M ux  d 
Sx  +   +  3.5  (6.13)
b f y b f y S   f b f y  df 
 y  b y

The use of Eq. (6.13) greatly facilitates the selection of trial sections for use in biaxial bending
problems.
Combined Bending, Torsion, and Axial Force

Members subjected to the combined effect of bending, torsion, and axial force should be designed
to satisfy the following limit states:
Yielding Under Normal Stress

fy  fm (6.14)

Where: -

 = 0.90

fy = specified minimum yield stress

fun = maximum shear stress determined from an elastic analysis under factored loads

Yielding Under Shear Stress

(0.6fy)  fun (6.15)

Where;
150
  = 0.90

fy = specified minimum yield stress

fvu = maximum shear stress determined from an elastic analysis under factored
loads.

Buckling

cfcr  fun or fuv, whichever is applicable. (6.16)

Were;

cfcr = cPn/Ag, in which cPn is the design compressive strength of the member

(see Chapter Three-Compression Members)

fun,fvn = normal and shear stresses as defined in Eq. (6.14) and (6.15).

REFERENCES

1. W.M.C. McKenzie, Design of structural Steel Work, Palgrave Macmillan.., 1998

2. W.M.C. McKenzie, Design of structural Timber, Palgrave Macmillan..,2000
3. R. L Brocken brough &F. S. Merritt, Structural Steel Designer's Handbook,
McGraw-Hill, 1999
4. EBCS-3 Ethiopian Building Code Standard-Design of Steel Structures, 1995
5. EBCS-5: Ethiopian Building Code Standard – utilization of timber,1995

151
 CHAPTER 4

STRUCTURAL DESIGN

4.1 ANALYSIS OF LATERAL LOADS ON STRUCTURES

4.1.1 Analysis of Wind Load on Structures
The wind loads that act on a structure result from movement of the air against the obstructing
surfaces. Wind effects induce forces, vibrations, and in some cases instabilities in the overall
structure as well as its non-structural components.
Wind forces are variable loads which act directly on the internal and external surface of structures.
The intensity of wind load on a structure is related to the square of the wind velocity and the
dimensions of the members that are resisting the wind (frontal area). Wind velocity is dependent
on geographical location, the height of the structure, the topography of the area and the roughness
of the surrounding terrain.
Methods of analysis
The response of a structure to the variable action of wind can be separated in to two components,
a background component and a resonant component. The background component involves static
deflection of the structure under the wind pressure. The resonant component, on the other hand,
involves dynamic vibration of the structure in response to changes in wind pressure. In most
structures the resonant component is relatively small and structural response to wind forces is
treated using static methods of analysis alone. However, for tall or otherwise flexible structures,
the resonant component of wind should be calculated using dynamic methods of analysis. Such
structures are not considered further here.

Static effects of wind load on buildings

Reference wind velocity

The reference wind velocity for a locality is defined as the mean wind velocity at 10m above
farmland averaged over a period of 10 minutes with a return period of 50 years. It is calculated
using.

Vref = CDIRCTEMCALTVref, 0

Where Vref,0 is the basic reference wind velocity 10m above sea level and CDIR, CTEM and CALT are
factors relating to direction, seasonal variations in temporary structures and altitude respectively.

The factors CDIR, CTEM and CALT will be specified for local conditions by individual countries. For
each of these factors, a value of unity may be assumed unless otherwise specified for a particular
152
region. The direction factor, CDIR. Allows for the orientation of the structure in relation to the
direction of the prevailing wind. The seasonal variation factor, CTEM, may be applied to structures
of a temporary nature which are exposed to wind for only part of a given year. It reflects the fact
that storm winds are less likely in the summer months in most European countries. (Temporary
structures are subjected to a reduced risk of exposure to strong winds simply by virtue of their
reduced design life. This phenomenon can be allowed for by means of a separate adjustment to the
wind reference velocity.) The altitude factor, CALT, allows for the altitude of the site on which the
structure is located. Wind speeds tend to be greater in sites located at high altitudes.

Exposure coefficient

Wind velocity tends to decease near ground level owing to frictional forces between the wind and
the ground. If the terrain is rugged, the decrease in velocity can be quite substantial. The exposure
coefficient takes account of the variation from the reference wind velocity due to the roughness
around the structure, the local topography and the height of the structure above ground level.
EBCS1 defines the exposure coefficient at height z meters, using the relationship:

 7kT 
Ce ( z ) = C r2 ( z )Ct2 ( z ) 1 + 
 C r ( z )Ct ( z ) 
Where Cr and Ct are roughness and topography coefficients respectively and kT is a terrain factor.
The terrain factor is a function of the nature of the terrain, for ground roughness categories and
parameter values Refer EBCS 1.

The topography coefficient, Ct, accounts for the increase in mean wind speed over isolated hills
and escarpments. Details for its calculation in such cases are given in EBCS 1, Figure 3.6 and 3.7.
For all other situations, Ct may be taken as unity.

The roughness coefficient, Cr(z), accounts for the variability of mean wind velocity due to the
height of the structure above ground level and the roughness of the terrain. It is defined by the
logarithmic relationship:

Cr(z) = kr Ln(z z0) for z  zmin

Cr(z) = Cr(zmin) for z  zmin

Where z0 is the roughness length and zmin is the minimum height. Both z0 and zmin are dependent
on the ground roughness and are given in Table 4.1.

153
External wind pressure

The wind pressure acting on the external surface of a structure is function of the reference wind
pressure which is given by:

q ref =
1
2
2

 ref N / m2 
Where  = air density (kg/m3)

ref = reference wind velocity (m/s)

Fig. 4.1 Reference height, Ze depending on h and b.

The density of air varies with temperature, elevation and the expected atmospheric pressure in the
region during a storm. EBCS1 gives a recommended design value of  at 200 C for different
altitudes.

Table 4.2 Values of air density

Site altitude (m) above sea level  (kg/m3)
0 1.20
500 1.12
1000 1.06
1500 1.00
2000 0.94

In order to determine the contact pressure on the outside of a structure or part of a structure, the
reference pressure, qref. of the wind must be multiplied by an external pressure coefficient. cpe, and
an exposure coefficient. Thus the external pressure is:
154
 We = ce(ze)cpeqref

Where ce(ze) is the exposure coefficient evaluated at a reference height, ze. Reference heights for
the calculation of external pressure coefficients depend on the breadth to height ration of the
structure. For rectangular buildings whose breadth, b, is less than their height, h, as illustrated in
Fig. 4.1(a), the reference height equals the actual height. When h exceeds b but is less than 2b, the
building is considered in the two parts illustrated in Fig. 4.1(b). When h exceeds 2b, the building
is considered in multiple parts. A lower part extends upwards from the ground a distance b. An
upper part extends downwards from the top a distance b. the rest of the building can be divided in
to any number of parts. With the reference height in each case calculated as the distance from the
ground to the top of the part.

The external pressure coefficient, Cpe, accounts for the variation in dynamic pressure on different
zones of the structure due to its geometry, area and proximity to other structures. For instance, the
wind acting on the structure in Fig. 4.2 is slowed down by the windward face and generates a
pressure on that face. The wind is then forced around the sides and over the top of the structure,
causing suction on the sides and on all leeward faces. Suction can also be generated on the
windward slope of a pitched roof if the pitch is sufficiently small.

(b)
(a)

Fig. 4.2 Wind flow past a rectangular building. (a) plan; (b)end elevation

The external pressure coefficients for the various zones of the walls and roofs of building are given
in EBCS 1 for different building shapes.

Pressure coefficients are considered positive when the pressure is action on to the surface of the
structure and negative when the pressure is acting away from that surface. Thus, the external
pressure coefficient is positive when acting inwards.

The external pressure coefficient cpe for buildings and individual parts of buildings depend on the
size of the loaded area A. They are given for loaded areas A of 1m3 and 10 m3 in the relevant tables

155
for the appropriate building configurations as cpe,1 and cpe,10 respectively. For other loaded areas
the variation of the values may be obtained from Fig. 4.4.

Figure 4.4 Variation of external pressure coefficient for buildings with size of the
loaded area A
The figure is based on the following:

cpe = cpe,1 A  1m2

cpe = cpe,1 + (cpe,10 - cpe,1) log10A 1m2 < A < 10m2
cpe = cpe,10 A  10m2
Internal wind pressure

Internal pressure arises due to openings, such as windows, doors and vents, in the cladding. In
general, if the windward pane has a greater proportion of opening than the leeward panel, then the
interior of the structure is subjected to positive (outward) pressure as illustrated in Fig.4.5 (a).
Conversely, if the leeward face has more openings, then the interior is subjected to a negative
(inward) pressure as illustrated in Fig. 4.5(b). Like external pressure internal pressure is considered
positive when acting on to the surface of the structure. Thus, internal pressure is positive when the
pressure acts outward.

For External pressure coefficients Refer EBCS-1, part 2.3.

Internal pressure on a building or panel is given by:

wi =ce(zi)cpiqref

Where zi is the reference height for internal pressure equal to the mean height of the openings and
cpi depends on the distribution of openings around the building. The values recommended by
EBCS1 are given in Fig 4.6 for a building without internal partitions. In such a building, internal
pressure is assumed to act uniformly over the total area of the building. For buildings with internal
partitions the extreme values, cpi = 0.8 and cpi = -0.5, may be used.

156
 Fig. 4.6 Internal pressure coefficients, cpi, in buildings with openings (from EBCS1)

Wind force on structures

The total wind force action on individual zones of clad structures is proportional to the difference
in pressure between the external and internal faces. That is:

Fw = (we – wi) Aref

Where Fw is the total inward force and Aref is the reference area, generally equal to the projected
area of the zone normal to the wind direction. When calculating the total force on (all zones of) a
building, the forces on each zone can be calculated using the above equation (3.9) and summed.
Alternatively, the total force on an entire structure (or an exposed individual member) can be
expressed as:

Fw = ce(ze)cf qref Aref

Where cf is a force coefficient. While, strictly speaking, the force coefficient is approximately
equal to the algebraic sum of the external pressure coefficients on the windward and leeward faces,
they are in fact slightly different owing to frictional effects on the side walls. EC1 provides tables
of force coefficients for common forms of structures and sections used in structural frames.

4.1.2 Analysis of Earthquake Load on Structures

An earthquake is the vibration of Earth produced by the rapid release of accumulated energy in
elastically strained rocks.
It is the earth’s natural means of releasing stress. Energy released radiates in all directions from
its source, the focus and then it propagates in the form of seismic waves.
Earthquake or seismic load on a building depends upon its geographical location, lateral stiffness
and mass, and is reversible. Its effect should be considered along both axes of a building taken
one at a time. A force is defined as the product of mass and acceleration. During an earthquake,
the mass is imparted by the building whereas the acceleration is imparted by the ground
157
disturbance. In order to have a minimum force, the mass of the building should be as low as
possible. There can be no control on the ground acceleration being an act of the Nature! The point
of application of this internal force is the center of gravity of the mass on each floor of the building.
Once there is a force, there has to be an equal and opposite reaction to balance this force. The
internal force is resisted by the building and the resisting force acts at the center of rigidity at each
floor of the building or shear center of the building at each story.

Methods of analysis
The return period of earthquake in a given region depends up on its seismicity. Depending upon
the probability of occurrence of an earthquake in a given region, it is desirable to design the
building for a specified force (as specified in the design codes).
As per EBCS 8, there are two methods of analysis
1. Static analysis (or Seismic coefficient method): This type of analysis can be
applied to buildings whose response is not significantly affected by contributions
from higher modes of vibration. These requirements are deemed to be satisfied
by buildings which meet the criteria for regularity in plan and/or elevation as
given in EBCS 8, and have fundamental period of vibration T1 in the two main
directions less than 2 sec.
2. Dynamic analysis (or Response spectrum method): This method of analysis can
be conducted for all types of buildings.
• The static method is generally applicable to buildings up to 40m in height
Seismic Action
The intensity of earthquake is usually described in terms of the ground acceleration as a fraction
of the acceleration due to gravity, i.e. 0.1g, 0.2g, 0.3g etc. The static analysis procedure provides
for the calculation of the total lateral force, defined as the design base shear which is then
distributed over height of the building.
Base shear force (Refer Page 21, Art.2.3.3.2.2 – EBCS 8)
Seismic base shear force is given by:
Fb = Sd(T1)W
Where Sd(T1) = the design spectrum
T1 = Fundamental period of vibration in sec = C1 H3/4
H = Height of the building above the base in m
C1 = 0.085 for steel moment resisting frames
= 0.075 for reinforced concrete moment resisting frames and eccentrically braced
steel frames
= 0.050 for all other buildings
W = Seismic dead load

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 = Total permanent load plus 25% of the floor variable (live) load for storage and
warehouse occupancies.
= Total permanent load only for other occupancies

Design spectrum (Refer Page 10, Art.1.4.2.2 (4) to (7) – EBCS 8)

For linear analysis, the design spectrum Sd(T), normalized by the acceleration of gravity g, is
defined by,
Sd(T) = αβγ
Where α = the ratio of design bedrock acceleration to the acceleration of gravity g
and is given by α = α0I
Where α0 = the bedrock acceleration ratio for the site and depends on the seismic
zone.

I = Importance factor, refer Table 2.4 Chapter 2, EBCS-8.

β = design response factor for the site

= 1.2 S/T2/3 ≤ 2.5
Where S is the site coefficient for soil characteristics, Refer Page 8, Art.
1.3.2 – EBCS 8

T is Fundamental vibration period.

γ = Behavior factor to account for energy dissipation capacity
γ = γ0 kD kR kW ≤ 0.70
γ0 = Basic value of the behavior factor
= 0.2 for frame system and dual system
= 0.3 for core system
= 0.5 for inverted pendulum system
kD = Factor reflecting the ductility class
= 1.00 for DC “H”
= 1.50 for DC “M”
159
 = 2.00 for DC “L”
kR = Factor reflecting the regularity in
elevation
= 1.00 for regular structures
= 1.25 for non-regular structures
kW = Factor reflecting the prevailing failure
mode in structural systems
= 1.00 for frame and frame equivalent dual
systems
= (2.5 – 0.5 α0) for wall and wall equivalent
systems ≥ 1 for core systems
Here, α0 = aspect ratio of the walls
= (Height of wall / Length of wall)
Storey Shear
Vertical distribution of base shear along the height of the structure: (Storey shear) (Page 22,
Art.2.3.3.2.3 – EBCS 8)
Portion of the base shear distributed over the height of the structure
Fi = (Fb – Ft) Wi hi
Σ Wj hj
Where Ft = 0.07 T1 Fb

4.2 STRIP METHOD FOR SLABS

4.2.1 Introduction
The upper bound theorem of the theory of plasticity was present in yield line theory. The yield line
method of slab analysis is an upper bound approach to determine the capacity of slabs.
Disadvantage:

▪ In upper bound analysis if an error occurs it will be on the unsafe side. The actual carrying
capacity will be less than, or at best equal to the capacity predicted, which is certainly a cause
for concern in design.
▪ When applying this method it necessary to assume the distribution of reinforcement is known
over the whole slab. It can be used for design only in an iterative sense i.e. trial design until a
satisfactory arrangement is found.

160
These circumstances motivated Hillerborg (1956) to develop what is known as the strip method
for slab design. In contrast to yield line analysis, the strip method is a lower bound approach, based
on the satisfaction of equilibrium requirements everywhere in the slab. By the strip method, a
moment field is first determined that fulfills equilibrium requirements, after which the
reinforcement of the slab at each point is designed for this moment field.
Lower Bound Theorem

If a distribution of moment can be found that satisfies both equilibrium and boundary conditions
for a given external loading, and if the yield moment capacity of the slab is no where exceeded,
then the given external loading will represent a lower bound of the true carrying capacity.

Advantages:
▪ The strip method gives results on the safe side, which is certainly preferable in practice.
▪ The strip method is a design method by which the needed reinforcement can be calculated.
4.2.2 Basic Principles
The governing equilibrium equation for a small slab element having sides dx and dy is:

 2 mx  2my  2 m xy
+ − = −W
x 2 y 2 xy

Where: W = The external load per unit area.

mx and my = BM’s per unit width in x and y directions respectively.

mxy = the twisting moment.

The basis for the simple strip method is that the torsional moment is chosen equal to zero; no load is
assumed to be resisted by the twisting strength of the slab. (The reinforcements are parallel to the axes
in the rectilinear coordinate system)

 m xy = 0

The equilibrium equation then reduces to

 2 mx  2my
+ = −W
x 2 y 2

This equation can be split conveniently in to two parts, representing twist less beam strip action,

 2 mx
= − kW
x 2

 2my
= − (1 − k )W
y 2

Where the proportion of the load taken by the strips is k in the x- direction and (1-k) in the y-
direction. In many regions in slabs, the value k will be either 0 or 1 i.e. load is dispersed by strips
161
in x- or in y- direction. In other regions, it may be reasonable to assume that the load is divided
equally in two directions (i.e. k = 0.5).
Choice of Load Distribution

Theoretically, the load W can be divided arbitrarily between x- and y- directions. Different
divisions will of course, lead to different patterns of reinforcement, and all will not be equally
appropriate. The desired goal is to an arrangement of steel that is safe and economical and that will
avoid problems at the service load level associated with excessive cracking or deflections.
Knowledge of the moment field according to the elastic theory is thereby very helpful. In general,
the designer may be guided by his knowledge of the general distribution of elastic moments.

To see an example of the strip method and to illustrate the choices open to the designer. Consider
the square, simply supported slab shown below, with side length a and a uniformly distributed
factored load w per unit area. The simplest load distribution is obtained by setting k = 0.5 over the
entire slab, as shown.

The load on all strips in each direction is thus w/2 (with k = 0.5), as illustrated by the load
dispersion arrows. This gives maximum design moments
mx = my = wa2/16

Implying a constant curvature for strips in the x- direction at x = a/2 corresponding to a constant
moment wa2/16 (see fig. d). Similar constant curvatures are also expected at various x’s
corresponding to the constant BM’s at x = constant. The same applies for y-direction strips.
It is recognized however that the curvatures, hence the moments, must be greater in the strips near
the middle of the slab than near the edges. If the slab were reinforced according to this solution
extensive redistribution of moments would be required, certainly accompanied by much cracking
in the highly stressed regions near the middle of the slab.

162
So what we need is a type of load distribution which can give a moment distribution such that we
get great curvatures in say x- direction strips near slab middle and less near the edges.
Try the alternative, more reasonable distribution shown below. Here the regions of different load
dispersion, separated by the dashed dotted discontinuity lines, follow the diagonals, all of the load
on any region is carried in the direction giving the shortest distance to the nearest support (k = 0
or k = 1 in the different regions).

y
Simple supports 4 sides

wa2/8

A A
y
(a) x (d) mx across x = a/2
a
w w
(b) wx along A-A
wy2/2
(c) mx along A-A

The lateral distribution of moments shown in figure (d) would theoretically require a continuously
variable bar spacing, obviously impracticality. A practical solution would be to reinforce for the
average moment over a certain width, approximating the actual lateral variation in figure (d) in a
stepwise manner. Hillerborg notes that this is not strictly in accordance with equilibrium theory
and that the design is no longer certainly on safe side, but other conservative assumptions, e.g.,
neglect of membrane strength in the slab or strain hardening of the reinforcement, would surely
compensate for the slight reduction in safety margin.

A third alternative is with discontinuity lines parallel to the edges. Here again the division load
is made so that the load is carried to the nearest support, as before, but load near the diagonals has
been divided, with one-half taken in each direction. Thus k is given values 0 or 1 along the
middle edges and 0.5 in the corners and center of the slab, with load dispersion in the directions
indicated by the arrows.

163
 y
Simple supports 4 sides

a/4

B B
a

A A
y
(a) Plan view a/4 x
a (d) mx across x = a/2

(b) wx and mx along A-A

(c) wx and mx along B-B

Fig. Square slab with load near diagonals shared equally in two directions

Two different strip loadings are now identified. For an x- direction strip along section A-A, the
maximum moment is:

w a a wa 2
mx =   =
2 4 8 64

And for a strip along section B-B, the maximum moment is:

a a w a 3a 5wa 2
mx = w   +   =
4 8 2 4 8 64
This design leads to a practical arrangement of reinforcement, one with constant spacing through
the centre strip of width a/2 and a wider spacing through the outer strips, where the elastic
curvatures and moments are known to be less. The averaging of moments necessitated in the
second solution is avoided here, and third solution is fully consistent with the equilibrium theory.
The three examples also illustrate the simple way in which the moments in the slab can be found
by the strip method, based on familiar beam analysis. It is important note, too, that the load on the

164
supporting beams is easily found because it can be computed from the end reactions of the slab-beam
strips in all cases.

Rectangular slabs

y y
b/2*b/2 a - b/4 b/2*b/2 b/4 a - b/2 b/4

b/4 w/2
b/2
w/2
b
b/2
w w b
b/2
x w
a
(b) Rectangular slab with discontinuity lines
originating at corners b/4
x
a
(c) Rectangular slab with discontinuity lines
parallel to the sides

The second, preferred arrangement, shown in Fig. (b) gives design moments as follows:
In the x- direction

Side strips: mx = w/2 * b/4 * b/8 = wb2/64

Middle strips: mx = w * b/4 * b/8 = wb2/32

In the y- direction
Side strips: my = wb2/64
Middle strips: my = wb2/8
This distribution, requiring no averaging of moment across band widths, is always on the safe side
and is both simple and economical.

Fixed edges and continuity

Up to now we have dealt with positive moments in strips, where a large amount of flexibility in
assigning loads to the various regions of the slab was provided. This same flexibility extends to
the assignment of moments between negative and positive bending sections of slabs (strips) that
are fixed or continuous over their supported edges. Some attention should be paid to elastic
moment ratios to avoid problems with cracking and deflection at service loads.
The figure below shows a uniformly loaded rectangular slab having two adjacent fixed edges and
the other two edges simply supported. Let us consider slab strips with one end fixed and one end

165
simply supported as shown below. In determining by strip method, slab strips carrying loads only
near the supports and unloaded in the central region are encountered (see figure). It is convenient
if the unloaded region is subject to a constant moment (and zero shear) because this simplifies the
selection of positive reinforcement.
The following are recognized:

▪ Although the middle strips have the same width as those of the rectangular slab with simple
supports, the discontinuity lines are shifted to account for the greater stiffness of the strips with
fixed ends. Their location is defined by coefficient , with a value clearly less than 0.5, so that
the edge strips have widths greater and less than b/4 at the fixed end and simple end respectively
(see fig.).

▪ For a BM diagram for x- direction middle strips (section A-A) with constant moment, over the
unloaded part the following maximum moments are achieved.

w Positive moment in the span

 b  wb  1 b   2 wb 2
2
V=0
mxf m xf = w  −    =
wb/2  2  2 2 2  8
b/2
Negative moment at the left support
w
wb2/8
b  2 wb 2
m xs = w(1 −  )  (1 −  ) −
b
mxs V=0 2 4 8
(−)b/2
=
(1 − 2 )wb 2

166
Observing, the absolute of the negative moment at a support plus the span moment = the

“cantilever” moment. =
 2 wb 2
+
(1 − 2 )wb 2 =
(1 −  )2 wb 2
8 8 8
Now the ratio of negative to positive moments in the x-direction middle strip is:

m xs 1 − 2
=
m xf 2

Hillerborg notes that as general rule for fixed edges, the support moment should be about 1.5 to
2.5 times the span moment in the same strip.

 For mxs/mxf = 2

22 + 2 - 1 = 0   = 0.366

Higher values should be chosen for longitudinal strips that are largely unloaded and in such cases
a ratio of support to span moment of 3 to 4 may be used. However Asmin may govern for such high
ratios with too small positive moment.
▪ Next moment in the x- direction edge strips:
Note that they are one half of those in the middle strips because load is half as great.
▪ Moment in the y- direction middle strips:
It is reasonable to choose the same ratio between support and span moments in the y- direction

as in the x- direction.

→ Choose the distance from the right support to maximum moment section as b [the

cantilever span = (1- )b  mys = (1-2)wb2/2].

wb

b w

V=0
myf

167
 V=0

w (−)b

Hence, the ratio of negative to

positive mys moment is as before:

m xs 1 − 2
=
m xf 2

Moment in the y-direction edge strips:

With the above expressions, all the design moments for the slab can be found once a suitable
value for  is chosen. 0.35 ≤  ≤ 0.39 give corresponding ratios of negative to positive moments
from 2.45 to 1.45, the range recommended by Hillerborg. For example, if it is decided that
support moment is to be twice the span moments, the value of  = 0.366 and the negative and
positive moments in the central strip in the y- direction are respectively 0.134wb2 and 0.067wb2.
In the middle strip in the x- directions, moments are one-fourth those values; and in the edge
strips in both directions, they are one-eighth of those values.

4.3 PLASTIC ANALYSIS OF FRAME STRUCTURES

4.3.1 Introduction
According to the theory of plasticity, a structure is deemed to have reached the limit of its load
carrying capacity when it forms sufficient hinges to convert it into a mechanism with consequent
collapse. This is normally one hinge more than the number of degrees of-indeterminacy in the
structure.

All codes for concrete, steel and steel-composite structures (EBCS-2, EBCS-3, EBCS-4) allow
the plastic method of analysis for framed structures. The requirement is that, sufficient rotation
capacity is available at the plastic hinges.

168
In this chapter we will introduce the plastic method of analysis for line elements. It is called the
“plastic hinge theory”. The method is known as the “yield line theory” for 2D elements (e.g.
slabs). Both are based on the upper bound theorem of the theory of plasticity. Recall that the strip
method is also a plastic method of analysis based on the lower bound theorem.

Therefore, the capacity of the line elements are greater or at best equal to the actual capacity of
the member.

4.3.2 Plastic Hinge Theory

It is based on the hypothesis of a localized (concentrated) plastic hinge.

The load carrying capacity of a structure is reached when sufficient numbers of plastic hinges
have formed to turn the structure into a mechanism. The load under which the mechanism forms
is called the ultimate load.

As an example, let us consider a typical interior span of a continuous beam subjected to UDL.

The ultimate state is reached when 3 plastic hinges form (2 over the supports plus 1 in the span)

The ultimate load Ppl corresponding to the ultimate state is given by:

169
 Ppl l 2
From = 2 M pl
8
16M pl
 Ppl =
l2

Compare with the elastic strength of the continuous beam, Pel. Here section capacities are
determined on the basis of linear elastic stress distribution where only the extreme fibers have
plasticized.

From structural analysis,

Pel l 2
M el =
12
From;

M el Pel l 2 12Wel M
y = =  Pel =  y 2
= 12 2el
Wel 12We l l
So that;

Ppl 16M pl l 2 16  M pl  16   pl M el 
= =   =   =  pl   pl
Pel 12M el l 2 12  M el  12  M el 
where pl = (16/12) = 1.3333

In continuous beams or frames (statically indeterminate) there exist:

a) plastic cross-section reserve pl

b) plastic system reserve pl

4.3.3 Method of Analysis

As in the linearly elastic method, either the equilibrium method or the principle of virtual
work is applicable for the plastic method of analysis.

For example, consider single span-fixed end beam.

System and loading;

170
The Goal is to determine Fpl.
(i) Equilibrium method
From FBD of element 1

M A = ( F + Q23 )a − 2 M = 0  Q23 = (2 M / a ) − F

From FBD of element 2

M B = Q23b + 2 M = 0  Q23 = −2 M / b

Therefore;

 a+b
(2M / a) − F = −2M / b  Fpl = 2M  
 ab 
(ii) Principle of virtual work

• External virtual work = internal virtual work

 2 2   a+b
F = M  +   Fpl = 2M  
 a b   ab 

4.3.4 Frames
One of the important application areas of the method of plastic hinge theory, which has been
proved by experiments are frames. The procedure is one of trial and error as in continuous beams
using the basic or combined modes.

The combination procedure, based on selective combination of the elementary mechanisms leads
to result more quickly.
Three elementary(basic) mechanisms (basic modes of failure) are to be distinguished. They are
the beam mechanism, frame mechanism, and joint mechanism.

171
The beam and frame mechanisms represent independent failure mechanisms. Joint mechanism
can occur only in combination with another elementary failure mechanism. It does not represent
a failure mechanism alone.
Number of elementary (basic) mechanisms k is determined from k = m-n; where m = possible no
of plastic hinges depending on system and loading, and n = degree of statical indeterminacy.

The no of possible combination including the basic modes (elementary mechanisms) is given by:
q=2k-1

The combination method will be explained by means of the portal frame.

k = m-n = 5-3 = 2

The no of possible combination q, which includes the basic mode I and II is:
q = 2k – 1 = 2 2 – 1 = 3

See the three mechanisms with the plastic moments as shown below. When a plastic hinge forms
at a joint, it must be on the columns and the hinge must be shown on the column side of the joint.

All member rotation angles are equal in this example. In more complicated structures, the
relationships b/n the various rotations must be determined.
The virtual work equations are:
• Mechanism I:

172
 3F  = (M + 2  2M + M )
l 3
 Fl = 6M  F = 4Ml
2 2
• Mechanism II:

• Mechanism III:

Substituting the values for l and h

→ Mechanism I: F=0.666M

→ Mechanism II: F=1.000M

→ Mechanism III: F=0.615M

Therefore Mechanism III governs with Fpl=0.615Mpl.

REFERENCES
1. Ethiopian Building Code Standards, EBCS 1995 & ES EN 2015
2. Agarwal P., Shrikhande M., “Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures”, Prentice-Hall
3. Hillerborg A., “Strip method design handbook”, E & FN Spon
4. Jack C. McCormac. (2007). Structural Steel Design, McGraw-Hill.
5. Arthur H Nilson. (2003). Design of Concrete Structures, McGraw-Hill.

173
 CHAPTER 5

BRIDGE DESIGN

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Bridges are important structures to pass obstacles, such as rivers, gorges, roads and railways. They
are not seen or understand in the same way by everyone. For instance: A simple bridge over a
small river will be viewed differently by different people because the eyes each one sees it with
are unique to that individual.

- Some one travelling over the bridge everyday while going to work may only realize a
bridge is there because the road way has posts and railing on either side.
- Others may remember a time before the bridge was built how far they had to travel to visit
friends and to get the children to school.
- Civic leaders see the bridge as a link between neighbourhoods and a way to provide fire
and police protection and access to hospital.
- In business community, the bridge is seen as opening up new markets and expanding
commerce.
- An artist will consider the bridge and its setting as a possible subject for a future painting.
- A theologian may see the bridge as symbolic of making a connection between God and
human beings.
- While a boater on the river, looking up when passing underneath the bridge, will have a
completely different perspective.

Bridges affect people. People use them and engineers design them and later build and maintain
them. Bridges must be planned and engineered before they can be constructed. Bridge engineering
is one of the fascinating fields in civil engineering calling for expertise in many areas: structural
analysis and design, geotechniques, traffic projection, surveying, runoff calculation and methods
of construction.

Mankind takes lessons from nature to construct bridges

• Tree fallen accidentally across a stream was the earliest example of a beam type bridge.
• Similarly, the natural rock arch formed by erosion of the loose soil below was the earliest
forebear of arch bridges.
• Creeper hanging from tree to tree allowing monkeys to cross from one bank to the other
was the forerunners of suspension bridges.
5.1.1 Transportation System and Bridges

Transportation system which is implemented on land needs bridges. Basically, in Road

Transportation System Bridge is mandatory for two reasons.

1. To pass obstacles
174
 2. To facilitate the transportation system. This is to say in larges cities there is traffic jam
when two or more roads meet at a point. For such cases bridges, called interchanges are
provided. E.g. Gotera interchange, Addis Ababa

A bridge controls the capacity of the transportation system. For instance: If the strength of the
bridge is unable to carry heavy trucks, loads limits will be posted and heavy trucks will be rerouted.

Bridges are expensive structures. The cost per meter of a bridge is high in comparison to the road.

If the bridge fails, the transportation system will not be in a position to give function. Therefore,
bridge designer has control over the

• capacity,
• cost and
• Safety.

5.2 Investigation for Bridges

5.2.1 Bridge Site Selection

In locating a bridge crossing the following considerations come in to picture.

• The reach of the river should be straight. Especially this has to hold on upstream side of the
crossing. This is necessary so that the approach flow is not angular and the obstructions caused by
piers, etc have minimum disturbance effect on the flow.
• The river in the reach should have a regime flow free of excess of currents.
If this is present, it will be aggravated by the piers that have to be put up and will result in excessive
scour which endanger the foundation.

• The channel in the reach should be well defined.

• The crossing site should be as narrow as possible.
• The crossing site should have firm high banks which are fairly inerodable. In this case the river
flow will be defined and confined and any excessive velocity will not cause erosion.
• The site on a meandering river should be a nodal point. A nodal point is defined as the location
where the river regime does not normally shift and the location serves as a fulcrum about which
river channel swing laterally (both upstream and downstream)
• The site should have suitable strata at reasonable and workable depth for founding piers and
abutments.
• The site should allow for constructing approach road.
• The site should be selected where skewness can be avoided.

For a river crossing it is important to identify the type of river to be crossed. There are two types
of rivers namely alluvial and incised.

Alluvial rivers are winding and they erode their banks and scour their beds; they have flood plains
on either side of the channel and the flow regularly overtops the channel banks to spread across
the flood plain. They are continually active, scouring and depositing materials on the banks and
175
transporting sediments.

Incised rivers have a relatively stable banks and arc generally narrower and deeper than alluvial
rivers.

Bridge crossing over alluvial rivers nearly always require training works to stabilize the channel
flow with in tile bridge waterway opening.

Data Collection

Once the engineer has identified a likely site for the bridge, he/she needs to obtain field information
on the catchment area and run off, local terrain conditions and water levels, navigational (like Baro
River) and other clearance requirements.

Field reviews shall be made by the designer in order to become familiar with the site. The most
complete survey data cannot adequately depict all site conditions or substitute for personal
inspection by someone experienced in bridge design.

River Survey

Information required by the designer for analysis and design should include all features that can
affect the magnitude and the frequency of the flood flow which will pass the site under study.
These are: Climatologically characteristics, land runoff characteristics, stream gauging records,
high water marks and size and performance of existing structures in the vicinity.

High water marks can be obtained from gauges or from local people. In addition, they can be
identified from small debris, such as grass or twigs caught in tree branches, elephant grass or
similar matted down, mud lines on stones or bridges, are all high-water indicators.

The hydrologic characteristics of the basin or watershed of the stream under study are needed for any
predictive methods used to forecast flood flows. Although many of these characteristics can be found from
office studies, some are better found by a field survey of the basin. The size and configuration of the
watershed, the geometry of the stream network, storage volumes of ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and flood
plains, and the general geology and soils of the basin can be found from maps.

Having determined these basin characteristics, runoff times, infiltration values, storage values, and runoff
coefficients can be found and used in calculating flood flow values using different methods. Like: Reve’s
formula, rational formula, Area-Velocity formula

5.2.2 Soil Investigation

Once at the site it is easy and of great value to sample for soil, rock, stone, water, etc. in
cooperation with the soil investigators.

Soil investigation is required to get soil profile, engineering property of the foundation material
and foundation level of the abutments and piers for design of the foundation.

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This information is obtained by analyzing samples taken from boreholes, test pits or geophysical
surveying.

Samples of at least 2Kg each should be collected marking station number and river name where
the crossing site is fixed.
5.2.3 Field Sketching and Photos

It has proved very practical to make a simple sketch of the bridge site with approximate water
shores, existing structures, scour holes, main stream location, etc including very rough dimensions
with approximate measurements

As a minimum, photos shall be taken looking upstream and downstream from the site as well as along the
contemplated highway centreline in both directions. Details of the streambed and banks should also be
photographed along with any existing structures in the vicinity both upstream and downstream. Close-up
photographs complete with a scale or grid shall be taken to facilitate estimates of the stream bed gradation.

Economical Span

Span determination is usually dictated by the hydraulic requirement. However, there are conditions
where lengthen spans are chosen for the sake of road alignment.

For a given span the most economical span is the length at which superstructure cost equals to
substructure cost.

Hydraulic Requirements

Bridges are designed to accommodate design discharge at design flood. When a river has a wide
flood plain, the economical solution may be using short span bridge with proper scour and erosion
protection for the embankment, abutments and piers.

Piers should be located in such a manner that they can provide the required lineal waterway and navigational
clearance.

The alignment of piers and abutments should, if possible, be set parallel to the direction of flow during
maximum flood.

Free Board

The waterway below the superstructure must be designed to pass the design flood and the floating debris
carried on it.

The free board allows for uncertainty in determining DFL also. The minimum free board above the design
water level is given in table below unless refined hydraulic analyses have been made.

Table: Free Board

Discharge (m3/s) Vertical Clearance/Free board (m)

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 0 to 3.0 0.3

3.0 to 30.0 0.6

30.0 to 300 0.9

> 300 1.2

These clearance measurements should be increased for backwater effects when the flow is
restricted by short span bridge or when the river has history of unusual large floating items or in
case of navigational requirements.

Grade Requirements

Often in mountainous areas the road way grade is governed by the capacity of heaviest vehicle to
climb, vertical curve and sight distance. These requirements may increase the span beyond the
hydraulic requirement.

5.3 Types of Bridges and their Selection

5.3.1 Types of Bridges

Bridges can be classified in different ways

(a) Traffic type/functionality

- Road bridge
- Railway bridge
- Pedestrian bridge
- Aqueduct
- Viaduct
- Equipment bridge

(b) Life Span

- Temporary bridges
- Permanent bridges
- Semi-permanent bridges

(c) Horizontal Arrangement

- Straight/Normal bridge
- Skewed bridge
- Curved bridge

(d) Vertical Arrangement

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 - Horizontal/ Flat/ Normal
- Inclined

(e) Span

- L ≤ 6m (Culvert)
- 7m < L ≤ 15m (Small span bridges)
- 16 ≤ L ≤ 50m (Medium span Bridges)
- 50 ≤ L≤ 150m (Large Span Bridges)
- L≥150m (Extra Large Span Bridges)

(f) Construction Materials

- Timber Bridges
- Masonry Bridges
- Reinforced Concrete Bridges
- Prestressed Concrete Bridges
- Steel Bridges
- Composite Bridges
(g) Span Arrangement

- Simply Supported
- Continuous
- Cantilever

(h) Structural Arrangement

- Slab Bridges
- Girder (Deck girder Bridges)
- Box Girder
- Portal Frame Bridges
- Arch Bridges
- Truss Bridges
- Plate Girder Bridges
- Cable Stayed Bridges
- Suspension Bridges
- Box Cell/ Box culvert

(i) Movements

- Movable Bridges
- Fixed Bridges

5.3.2 Selection of Bridge Type

In selection of a bridge type, there is no unique answer. For each span length range there is more than one
bridge type that will satisfy the design criteria. Generally the following factors should be considered.

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• Geometric Condition of the Site: The type of bridge selected will often depend on the horizontal and
vertical alignment of the highway route and on the clearances above and below the road way. E.g. If the
alignment is on a curve, box and slab type bridges are best options.

• Subsurface Conditions of the Site: The foundation soils at a site will determine whether abutments
and piers can be founded on spread footings, driven piles and etc.

The potential for seismic activity at a site should be a part of the subsurface investigation because this
will change details of the substructure. E.g. an inclined leg rigid frame bridge requires strong foundation

• Functional Requirements: Bridge should serve the present and future traffic.

E.g. If future widening or replacement of bridge decks is a concern girder type bridge is best option.

• Aesthetics: It is necessary to understand what qualities and features of a bridge tend to make that
aesthetics statement a good one. This understanding requires training and time.

- When a bridge is placed across a relatively shallow valley, the most pleasing appearance occurs
when there are an odd number of spans with span lengths that decrease going up the side of the
valley.
- Harmony between the whole structure and its surrounding needed to be addressed.
- Repeating similar spans too many times can become monotonous, just as hearing the same
music with a heavy beat that is repeated over and over again can be uncomfortable.

Moreover, contrast and texture, light and shadow are additional aesthetic parameter in bridge design.

• Economics and ease of maintenance: In comparison of the economics of different bridge types, the
construction cost and maintenance cost should be taken together. A general rule is that the bridge with
minimum number of spans, fewest deck joints and widest spacing of girders will be the most economical.
By reducing the number of spans, the construction cost of one pier is eliminated.

Deck joints are a high maintenance cost item, so minimizing their number will reduce the life cycle cost
of the bridge,

Generally, concrete structures require less maintenance than steel structures.

• Construction and erection considerations: The selection of the bridge type to be built is often
governed by construction and erection considerations. In general, the larger the prefabricated or precast
member, the shorter the construction time. However, the larger the members, the more difficult they are
to transport and lift into place.

The availability of skilled labor and specified materials will also influence the choice of a particular
bridge type.

• Legal Considerations: Applicable laws like environmental laws also govern the type of bridge.

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5.4 Bridge Loadings
5.4.1 Types of loads

The following permanent and transient loads and forces shall be considered for design of bridges where
applicable. The load provisions may also be applied to the structural evaluation of existing bridges.

• Permanent Loads

DC = dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments

DD = down drag

DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities

EH = horizontal earth pressure load

EL = accumulated locked-in effects resulting from the construction process

ES = earth surcharge load

EV = vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill

• Transient Loads

BR = vehicular braking force

CE= vehicular centrifugal force

CR = creep

CT= vehicular collision force

EQ = earthquake

FR = friction

IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance

LL = vehicular live load

LS = live load surcharge

PL = pedestrian live load

SE = settlement

SH= shrinkage

TG = temperature gradient

TU = uniform temperature

WA = water load and stream pressure

WL = wind on live load

WS = wind load on structure

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Dead Loads

Dead load shall include the weight of all components of the structure, appurtenances and utilities attached
thereto, earth cover, wearing surface, future overlays, and planned widening.

In the absence of more precise information, the densities, specified in table below, shall be used for dead
loads.

Densities and Force Effects of Different Materials

MATERIAL DENSITY (kg/m3) Force effect (kN/m3)

Bituminous Wearing Surfaces 2250 22.5

Cast Iron 7200 72

Cinder (volcanic stone) Filling 960 9.6

Compacted Sand, silt, or Clay 1925 19.3

Concrete Normal 2400 24

Loose Sand, Silt, or Gravel 1800 18

Soft Clay 1700 17

Rolled Gravel or Ballast 2250 22.5

Steel 7850 79

Stone Masonry 2725 27.3

Wood Hard 960 9.6

Soft 800 8

Water Fresh 1000 10

Live Loads

Number of Design Lanes: Generally, the number of design lanes should be determined by taking the
integer part of the ratio w/3600, where w is the clear roadway width in mm between curbs and/or barriers.

Multiple Presence of Live Load: The provisions of this subchapter shall not be applied to the fatigue limit
state for which one design truck is used, regardless of the number of design lanes.

Trucks will be present in adjacent lanes on roadways with multiple design lanes but this is unlikely that all
adjacent lanes will be loaded simultaneously. This will be considered by the multiple presence factors.

Number of Loaded Lanes 1 2 3 >3

Multiple Presence Factors “m” 1.20 1.0 0.85 0.65

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When the loading condition includes the pedestrian loads combined with one or more lanes of the vehicular
live load, the pedestrian loads shall be taken to be one loaded lane.

Vehicular Live Loads

Vehicular live loading on the roadways of bridges structures, designated HL-93, and shall consist of a
combination of the:

• Design truck or design tandem, and

• Design lane load

• Design truck: The weights and spacing of axles and wheels for the design truck shall be as specified
in Figure below.

Plan of Design Truck Load

showing tire contact areas

4.3 m

4.3 –9.0 m

1.8 m
3.000 mm

Fig. Characteristics of the Design Truck

• Design Tandem: The design tandem used for Strategic Bridges shall consist of a pair of 110 kN axles
spaced 1.2 m apart. The transverse spacing of wheels shall be taken as 1.8 m. See below.

110 kN

1.2 m

110 kN

1.8 m

Fig. Design Tandem Load

• Design Lane Load: The design lane load shall consist of a load of 9.3 kN/m, uniformly distributed in
the longitudinal direction. Transversely, the design lane load shall be assumed to be uniformly
distributed over a 3.0-m width. The force effects from the design lane load shall not be subject to a
dynamic load allowance.
Dynamic Load Allowance
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 ➢ (IM = Vehicular Dynamic Load Allowance): Dynamic effects due to moving vehicles shall be
attributed to two sources:

1- Hammering effect is the dynamic response of the wheel assembly to riding surface discontinuities,
such as deck joints, cracks, potholes, and delaminations, and
2- Dynamic response of the bridge as a whole to passing vehicles, which shall be due to long undulations
in the roadway pavement, such as those caused by settlement of fill, or to resonant excitation as a
result of similar frequencies of vibration between bridge and vehicle. The frequency of vibration
of any bridge should not exceed 3 Hz.

Dynamic load allowance need not be applied to:

• Retaining walls not subject to vertical reactions from the superstructure, and
• Foundation components that are entirely below ground level.

The dynamic load allowance shall not be applied to pedestrian loads or to the design lane load.

The factor to be applied to the static load shall be taken as: (1 + IM/100).

Component IM

Deck Joints – All Limit States 75%

All Other Components

• Fatigue and Fracture Limit State 15%

• All Other Limit States
33%

Table Dynamic Load Allowance, IM

The dynamic load allowance for culverts and other buried structures, in %, shall be taken as:

IM = 33 (1.0 - 4.l*10-4 DE) > 0%

Where:

DE = the minimum depth of earth cover above the structure (mm)

5.4.2 Design Philosophy

In engineering design the general principle is that the resistance of a cross section has to exceed the effects
come from the applied loads. That is

Resistance ≥Effect of Loads

When a particular loading condition reaches and just exceeds the resistance capacity of the provided section
failure is the result. Such a condition is referred to as a Limit State.

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A limit state is a condition beyond which a bridge system or bridge component ceases to full fill the function
for which it is designed.

Preventing a limit state from being reached is the central goal of design of bridges. In addition to this
function, appearance and economy must get due attention.

Safety is achieved by using reasonable margin of safety factors. These factors are results of collective
experience and judgment of qualified group of engineers and officials.

In Highway Bridge design AASHTO LRFD provision is used for bridge design. The resistance side of the
inequality of Equation above is multiplied by a statistically based resistance factor, whose value is usually
less than one, and the load side is multiplied by a statistically based load factor, whose value is usually
greater than one.

The load effect at a particular limit state involves a combination of a different load types (Qi) that have
different degrees of predictability. Due to this reason the load effect side is written in a summation form.
The equation is

  Rn   i  Qi

And this equation involves both load factors and resistance factor due to this the design method is called
load and resistance factor design method. In AASHTO LRFD bridge design specification the equation is
given by

   i  Qi    Rn

The additional parameter η is known as load modifier which is incorporated to consider ductility,
redundancy and operational importance of the bridge.

Under the umbrella of the LRFD the strength limit state, extreme event limit state, service limit state and
fatigue and fracture limit state exist.

Load Factors and Load Combinations:

The total factored force effect shall be taken as:

Q = ii Qi

Where:

i= load modifier

Qi = force effects from loads specified herein

i = load factors specified in Tables B and C below

Rn= is resistance

185
Components and connections of a bridge shall satisfy the above equation for the applicable
combinations of factored extreme force effects as specified at each of the limit states. Refer
AASHTO Table A, Table B and Table C.

For example, at Strength I Limit State where the permanent load reaction is positive and live load
can cause a negative reaction, the load combination would be:

0.9DC + 0.65DW + 1.75(LL+IM)

If both reactions were negative, the load combination would be:

1.25DC + 1.50DW + 1.75(LL+IM).

Load Modifiers, i = D R I :

D = a factor relating to ductility, as specified below

R = a factor relating to redundancy as specified below

I = a factor relating to operational importance as specified below

Ductility, redundancy, and operational importance are significant aspects affecting the margin of safety of
bridges.

• Ductility: The structural system of a bridge shall be proportioned and detailed to ensure the development
of significant and visible inelastic deformations at the strength and extreme event limit states prior to
failure.

For the strength limit state:

D  1.05 for non-ductile components and connections

D = 1.00 for conventional designs and details complying with these Specifications

D  0.95 for components and connections for which additional ductility-enhancing measures have
been specified beyond those required by these Specifications

For all other limit states:

D = 1.00

• Redundancy: Multiple load-path structures should be used unless there are compelling reasons not to
use them.

For the strength limit state:

R 1.05 for nonredundant members

=1.00 for conventional levels of redundancy

0.95 For exceptional levels of redundancy

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 For all other limit states:

R = 1.00

• Operational importance: This definition shall apply to the strength and extreme event limit states
only. Some bridges or structural components and connections shall be declared to be of operational
importance.

Such classification should be based on social/survival and/or security/defense requirements.

For the strength limit state:

l  1.05 for important bridges

= 1.00 for typical bridges

 0.95 For relatively less important bridges

For all other limit states:

l = 1.00

For Conventional Construction, Resistance Factors Ф shall be taken as

For flexure and tension of RC = 0.9

For flexure and tension of PSC = 1.0

For shear and torsion = 0.9

For bearing on concrete = 0.7

For compression in strut-and-tie model = 0.7

For compression in anchorage zones = 0.8

For tension in steel in anchorage zones = 1.0

For resistance during pile driving = 1.0

5.5 Superstructures
An efficient design of bridge superstructure is essential to achieve overall economy in the whole bridge
structure in that the superstructure dead weight may form a significant portion of the gravity load the bridge
must sustain and transmit to the foundation. A light superstructure is economical not _only material
requirements of the superstructure but also requires smaller size for substructure and foundations. A clear
understanding of the structural behavior of structural behavior under loads is essential for efficient design.

A bridge superstructure is an integrated body of various members of reinforced concrete, prestressed

concrete, steel, composite, diaphragms, trusses, arches, etc. Determination of' forces in theses components
is essential for design purposes.

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5.5.1 Reinforced concrete bridges:

Steel and concrete are construction materials.

Reinforced concrete bridges possess several advantages over steel bridges.

- adaptability of concrete wide variety of structural shapes

- Low maintenance cost

- Long life and better resistance to temporary overloads and dynamic loads than steel bridges.
- Cast-in-place Reinforced concrete structures are continuous and monolithic, attributes, which
translate into easy construction, low cost and good seismic resistance. They can also be given
the desired aesthetic appearance.

The disadvantage

- large dead weight

- difficulty to widen
- longer construction time
- requires formwork and false work

Bridge live loads occupy partial area of the decks unlike live loads in buildings which is taken uniformly
distributed all over the floor area. Live load on bridges can occupy random positions both longitudinally
and transversely, and this affects the live load shared by various beams. This aspect of live load distribution
is one of the primary concerns in the analysis of bridge decks.

Influence lines will be used to determine load position for maximum effect and the magnitude of these
effects.

The following RC bridges will be discussed.

Slab bridge

T-girder bridge

Box girder bridge

Continuous RC bridge

RC rigid frame bridges

Slab Bridge:

Slab Bridge normally requires more concrete and reinforced steel than Girder Bridge of the same span but
the formwork is simpler and less expressive, hence they are economical when these cast factor balance
favourably.

Slab bridges are most commonly used to span short spans up to 12 meters. The load carrying mechanism is
by plate action, i.e., by bending and twisting due to continuity in all directions. Application of a load on the
portion make the slab deflect into a dish shape locally, causing a two-dimensional system of bending and

188
twisting moments, the mechanism through which the load is transferred to the adjacent elements of the
deck, which are less severely loaded.

Where: Z is the downward deflection of the plate

q is intensity of uniform load

D is flexural rigidity of tile plate

In the absence of closed form solution to the above equation, approximate methods are developed.

One method is the method of influence surfaces, which uses design charts. These charts have been prepared
by Pucher or slabs of various shapes and support conditions (1964), and by Rusch and Heregnroder (1961)
and Dalas and Hanuska (1964) for simply supported skew slabs.

Grillage method is also used for analysis and softwares are available for this. Another method that
AASHTO recommends is the Strip Method.

Load distributions:

The equivalent width of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear and moment with one lane, i.e., two lines
of wheels, loaded shall be determined as:

E = 250 + 0.42 L1W1

The equivalent width, E of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear and moment with more than one
lane loaded shall be determined as:

W
E = 2100 + 0.12 L1W1 
Where: E = NL (mm)
equivalent width

L1 = modified span length taken  of the actual span or 18,000 (mm)

W1 = modified edge-to-edge width of bridge taken to be  of the actual width or 18,000 mm

for multilane loading, or 9,000 mm for single-lane loading (mm)

W = physical edge-to-edge width of bridge (mm)

NL = number of design lanes as specified

Where decks span primarily in the direction of traffic, the effective width of a strip, with or without an edge
beam, shall be taken as the sum of the distance between the edge of the deck and the inside face of the
barrier, plus 300 mm, plus one-half of the strip width. The effective width shall not exceed either the full
strip width or 1800 mm.

189
T-girder Bridge:

T- Girders are used for bridges spanning from about 10meters-25 meters. These usually consist of equal1y
spaced beams (generally with spacing of 1.8-3.6m) spanning longitudinally between supports. The slab is
structural1y continuous across the top. The slab serves dual purpose of supporting the live load on the
bridge and acting as the top flange of the longitudinal beams. Diaphragms are provided transversely
between the beams over the supports and depending on the span, at midspan and other intermediate
locations. The purpose of providing diaphragms is to ensure lateral distribution of live loads to various
adjacent stringers, the magnitude of the share of each stringer depends on the stiffness of the diaphragms
relative to the stringers and on the method of connectivity.

Design of T- girder bridges consists of deck slab analysis and design, and the T-girder analysis and design.

Structural analysis of the deck slab involves taking a continuous strip perpendicular to the girders
(AASHTO Art.9.6.1) and analyzing by moment distribution or using design aid given by AASHTO, ILS
for critical position of loads. Extreme positive moment at any point will be taken to apply to all positive
moment regions (Art 4.6.2.1.1). The width of equivalent interior transverse strip over which the wheel loads
can be considered distributed longitudinally in cast - in - place concrete decks is given as [Table Art. 4.6.2.
I .3-1]

• overhang, 11401-0.83lX
• positive moment, 660+0.55S
• negative moment, 1220+0.25S

Where X is the distance from the wheel load to centerline of support and S is the spacing of' the T-beams.

In the design of overhang deck slab design forces acting on the post and railings or barrier should be
considered.

Load Distribution Factors for the Girders:

For moment:

- Interior girders: The live load flexural moment for interior beams with concrete decks shall be
determined by applying the lane fraction. Refer AASHTO for detail.

- Exterior girders: The live load flexural moment for exterior beams shall be determined by applying
the lane fraction. Refer AASHTO for detail.
For shear:

- Interior girders: The live load shear for interior beams shall be determined by applying the lane
fractions. Refer AASHTO for detail.

- Exterior girders: The live load shear for exterior beams shall be determined by applying the lane
fractions. Refer AASHTO for detail.
The lever rule involves summing moments about one support to find the reaction at another support by
assuming that the supported component is hinged at interior supports.

190
When using the lever rule on a three-girder bridge, the notional model should be taken as shown in Figure
13-1. Moments should be taken about the assumed, or notional, hinge in the deck over the middle girder to
find the reaction on the exterior girder.

Multiple presence factors shall not be used with the approximate load assignment methods other than
statical moment or lever arm methods because these factors are already incorporated in the distribution
factors.

Box Girder Bridge:

Concrete box girder bridges are economical for spans of above 25 to 45m. They can be reinforced concrete
or prestressed concrete. Longer span than 45m will have to be prestressed.

They are similar to T-beams in configuration except the webs of T-beams are all interconnected by a
common flange resulting in a cellular superstructure. The top slab, webs and bottom slab are built
monolithically to act as a unit, which means that full shear transfer must be provided between all parts of
the section.

Reinforced concrete box girders have high torsional resistance due to their closed shape and are particularly
suitable for structures with significant curvature. This construction also lends itself to aesthetic treatment.

Concrete box girder bridges have several advantages over other types;

1. The relatively shallow depth of box girders is all advantage where headroom is limited like in urban
overpasses.

2. Monolithic construction of the superstructure and substructure offers structural as well as aesthetic
advantage. The pier caps for continuous box girders can be placed with in the box, facilitating rigid
connection to the pier.

3. They provide space for utilities such as water and gas lines, power, telephone and cable ducts, storm
drains and sewers, which can be placed in the hollow cellular section.

Typical cross section is shown in Fig. below. While the interior webs are all vertical the exterior webs may
be vertical, inclined or curved. When the exterior webs are inclined their slope should preferably be IH:
2V.

Design Consideration:

The structural behaviour of box girders is similar to T-beams. Box girders are essentially T-beams with
transverse bottom flange resulting in a closed, torsionally stiff multi-cell configuration.

The interior webs resist shear and often only a small portion of girder moments. Consequently they are
usually thinner than the webs of T-beams. This is so because, in the case of continuous T-beams, the webs
must resist the negative girder moments as well as all the shear, and contain all the reinforcement for
positive moments.

The bottom slab (soffit) contains reinforcement for the positive moment and also acts as a
compression flange in the negative moment regions of continuous spans. The bottom slab also affords a
191
superstructure considerably thinner than a T- beam bridge of the same span and permits even longer spans
to be built.

Cross-sections are taken as shown in Fig. below a and b for analysis for exterior and interior girders
respectively. The structural analysis is same as for T-beams. Section analysis is also same except the
compression bottom flange for continuous spans. The entire slab width is assumed effective for
compression.

Continuous RC bridge:

Advantages

- Less number of bearings than simply supported bridge since one line of bearings is used over
the piers
- Reduced width of pier, thus less flow obstruction and less amount of material
- Requires less number of expansion joints due to which both the initial cost and maintenance
cost become less. The rigidity quality over the bridge is thus ~proved.
- Lesser depth of girder, hence economical supports.
- Better architectura1 appearance
- Lesser vibration and deflection

Disadvantages

- Analysis is laborious and time consuming

- Not suitable on yielding foundations

RC rigid frame bridges:

In rigid frame bridges, the deck is rigidly connected to the bridge and piers. All the advantages of a
continuous span bridge are present here.

Additional advantages of rigid frame bridges over continuous ones are

- More rigidity of the structure

- Less moments in deck being partly transferred to the supporting members
- No bearings are required
- Better aesthetic appearance than the continuous span structure

As in continuous span bridges, these structures also require unyielding foundation materials. The analysis
is however, more laborious than the former.

5.5.2 Steel Bridge:

Steel bridge construction consists of rolled steel beams, plate girders or trusses with reinforced
concrete deck or steel plate deck-beam bridges.

- Steel has got several advantages.

- It is a high quality, homogeneous, isotropic material that is perfectly elastic to its yield point.
192
 - It has high tensile and compressive strengths.
- Past the yield point it offers considerable ductility to provide a large reserve of strength.
- Steel bridges can be built faster than reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete bridge.
- They can be erected with ease and this minimizing construction costs.
- Steel superstructures are usually lighter than concrete superstructures which translate into
reduced substructures costs, which can be significant when soil conditions are poor.
- Steel superstructures can be designed with shallower depth than RC, which is an important
consideration when overhead clearance is required.
- Steel bridges are easy and faster to repair than RC.

Steel bridges have some major disadvantages that make then much less favorable than RC or PSC bridges

- Corrosion of steel is the major drawback which requires prohibitively high maintenance cost.
- Corrosion can reduce cross section of structural members and weaken the superstructure also.

Some steel bridge types:

- Rolled steel beam bridge

- Plate girder and steel box girder bridges
- Steel truss bridges
- Plate Deck-Stringer Bridges
5.5.3 Arch Bridge:

Arches are generally characterized by the development of inclined rather than vertical reactions under
vertical loads.

Cross-sections are designed for thrust, moment and shear, with magnitudes depending on the location of
the pressure line.

If the pressure line coincides with the axis of structure, (as in a uniformly loaded parabolic arch), all cross
sections will be subjected to compression, with no moment or shear. If the pressure line falls with in the
kern, there will not be tension. But if shape of structure and pressure line differs moment may become
dominant.

Compared to the girder bridges, arch bridges are economical because the dead load moments in arch bridges
are almost absent when the arch is properly design.

The loads on the arch are carried by the arch ribs mainly through direct axial thrusts, the bending moment
and shear forces being small compared to Girder Bridge which requires larger section. This is due to the
hogging moment which balances the sagging moment created by the horizontal force, H, at the support .

The main parameter of an arch is the rise to span ratio, r/l (1/6 to 1/10).

From economic point of view it is attempted to coincide the center of pressure of a given load with center
of line of the arch.

193
5.5.4 Cable Stayed Bridge:

Cable stayed bridges are ideal for spanning natural barriers of wide rivers, deep valleys and for vehicular
and pedestrian bridges crossing wide interstate highways because they can provide long spans unobstructed
by piers.

Span arrangement types:

- Two span (symmetrical or asymmetric)

- Three spans
- Multi Span

The arrangement of the cable stays is one of the fundamental items in the design of cable-stayed bridges. It
influences, in fact not only the structural performance of the bridge but also the method of erection and
economies.

Longitudinal cable arrangement:

- Radiating (converging)

- Harp

- Fan /Modified fan/

5.5.5 Suspension Bridge:

The twin main cables from the tower of a suspension bridge form a catenary from which the hangers are
suspended and fixed to the deck.

Sag ratio for cables should be L/9-L/13

Suspension bridges are economical when the span exceeds 300m. Suspension bridges consist of one main
span and two side spans.

L1/L =0.17100.50

The cables being very flexible do not take any bending moment and arc subjected only to tensile forces.
The stiffening truss stiffens the deck and distributes the live load of the deck on to the cables. Otherwise
the cables would be subjected to local sag due to action of concentrated live load and thus causes local
angle change in the deck system.

The stiffening trusses arc hinged at the towers and suspended at node points from suspenders, which are
usually high tensile cables.

Vertical suspenders have been used in many bridges but diagonal suspenders have the advantage of
increasing the aerodynamic stability.

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5.6 SUBSTRUCTURES
5.6.1 Piers
Piers provide vertical supports for spans at intermediate points and perform two main functions:

• transferring superstructure vertical loads to the foundations

• resisting horizontal forces acting on the bridge

Although piers are traditionally designed to resist vertical loads, it is becoming more and more
common to design piers to resist high lateral loads caused by seismic events.
Generally piers are subjected to:

• Dead loads
• Live loads and impact from the superstructure
• Wind loads on the structure and the live loads
• Centrifugal force from the superstructure
• Longitudinal force from live loads (vehicular braking force)
• Drag forces due to the friction at bearings
• Earth pressure
• Stream flow pressure
• Ice pressure
• Earthquake forces
• Thermal and shrinkage forces
• Ship impact forces
• Force due to prestressing of the superstructure
• Forces due to settlement of foundations

Pier Types
Solid Wall Pier: A solid wall pier (also known as a continuous wall pier) as its name would imply,
consists of a solid wall which extends up from a foundation consisting of a footing or piles. The
top of the wall is equipped with individual pedestals upon which the superstructure rests.
Their slender and streamlined proportions provide a minimal resistance to flood flows. Using solid
wall piers in stream or river crossings is advantageous since they are not as prone to accumulating
debris as multiple column piers.
Hammerhead Pier: A hammerhead pier utilizes one or more columns with a pier cap in the shape
of a hammer. They are predominately found in urban settings because they are both attractive and
occupy a minimum of space, thereby providing room for underpass traffic.

Column Bent Pier: A column bent pier, as its name would imply, consists of a cap beam and
supporting columns in a frame-type structure. In dense urban interchanges, use of column bent
piers can lead to a cluttered image producing a “concrete jungle” effect.

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Pile Bent Pier: The pile bent pier is a variation on the column bent pier with the supporting
columns and footing replaced with individual supporting piles. The end piles are generally
equipped with a batter in the transverse direction.

Finally selection of pier is made based on the following considerations.

• Aesthetics

• Economy

• Flow of water and traffic under the bridge

• Superstructure

Design Criteria: In general, the design of a highway bridge pier should address:
❏ Safety against overturning
❏ Safety against sliding
❏ Safety against bearing failure of the soil
❏ Safety against excessive or differential settlement
5.6.2 Backwall and Wingwall
Wingwall
A wingwall is a side wall to the abutment back wall or stem designed to assist in confining earth
behind the abutment backwall.
Backwall
A backwall, sometimes called the stem, is the primary component of the abutment acting as a
retaining structure at each approach.
5.6.3 Abutments
Abutment is component of a bridge
• provides the vertical support to the bridge superstructure at the bridge ends
• connects the bridge with the approach roadway
• retains the roadway base materials
From the view of the relation between the bridge abutment and roadway or water flow that the
bridge overpasses, bridge abutments can be divided into two categories: open-end abutment and
closed-end abutment.
For the open-end abutment, there are slopes between the bridge abutment face and the edge of the
roadway or river canal that the bridge overpasses. Those slopes provide a wide open area for the
traffic flows or water flows under the bridge. It imposes much less impact on the environment and
the traffic flows under the bridge than a closed-end abutment. Also, future widening of the roadway
or water flow canal under the bridge by adjusting the slope ratios is easier. However, the existence
of slopes usually requires longer bridge spans and some extra earthwork.
The closed-end abutment is usually constructed close to the edge of the roadways or water canals.
Because of the vertical clearance requirements high abutment walls must be constructed. The high
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abutment walls and larger backfill volume often result in higher abutment construction costs and
more settlement of road approaches than for the open-end abutment.
Generally, the open-end abutments are more economical, adaptable, and attractive than the closed-
end abutments. However, bridges with closed-end abutments have been widely constructed in
urban areas and for rail transportation systems because of the right-of-way restriction and the large
scale of the live load for trains, which usually results in shorter bridge spans.

Based on the connections between the abutment stem and the bridge superstructure, the abutments
also can be grouped in two categories: the monolithic abutment and the seat type abutment.
The monolithic abutment is monolithically constructed with the bridge superstructure. There is no
relative displacement allowed between the bridge superstructure and abutment.
The seat-type abutment is constructed separately from the bridge superstructure. The bridge
superstructure seats on the abutment stem through bearing.
Abutments can be classified based on the load resisting mechanism as:
1. Gravity abutments: resist the load acting with its dead weight and dead weight of retained
soil or backfill on its inclined back face. They can be constructed using stone masonry or
concrete masonry.

2. Cantilever abutments: load resistance derived from cantilever action and usually
constructed from reinforced concrete.

3. Counterfort abutments: are similar to cantilever ones but ties called counterforts are
provided to tie the stem to the footing.

4. Reinforced earth abutments: The essential concept is the use of multiple-layer strips or
fibers to reinforce the fill material in the lateral direction so that the integrated fill material
will act as a gravity retaining structure. Overturning and sliding are needed to be checked
under the assumption that the reinforced soil body acts as a gravity retaining wall.

5.6.4 Design of Backwall Abutments

Loads:
All loads acting on piers act on abutments except forces that result from buoyancy, stream flow
and collision of barge.
Impact will not also be considered for the design of abutments.

Earth pressure is the major force acting on abutments in addition to those forces mentioned.
In seismic areas, seismic forces should be considered for the back face of the wall due to inertia
of the retained soil mass.

Mononobe-Okabe method is used for seismic analysis.

In this analysis for free standing abutment

The horizontal inertia force

FH=Kh*Ws
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The vertical inertia force
FV=Kv*Ws
Where Kh=αo and Kv is in between 0.3*Kh and 0.5*Kh

αo is bedrock acceleration, in Ethiopia case refer to EBCS 8,1995.

If the abutment is restrained from horizontal displacement, i.e. abutment supported on batter
piles, Kh=1.5 αo.

In case of seismic active pressure force, the load is applied at a larger distance from static active
pressure case i.e. at 0.6*H.
Design:
Length and shape of abutment wingwalls are usually dictated by terrain, height of bridge and
level of HWM.
Length of abutment backwall is governed by width of the superstructure.

Design of abutments is started by providing preliminary dimension then checked for different
design criteria.
Masonry abutments shall be checked for the followings.

• The location of the resultant on the base is determined by balancing moments about the
toe of the wall. Location of resultant X from the toe is:

B/3≤x≤2B/3 base on soil

B/4≤x≤3B/4 base on rock

• Check for sliding

Фs*Fru≥∑γi*Phi

Where:
Фs=performance factor [used to account for uncertainties in structural properties, soil properties,
variability in workmanship, and inaccuracies in the design equations to estimate the capacity.]

Fru=Nu*tanδb+Ca*Be
Nu=factored vertical resultant (force/length)

δb=friction angle between base and soils (degrees)

Ca= adhesion (force/length2)

Be=effective length of base in compression (length)

γi= load factor force component

Phi=horizontal earth pressure force causing sliding (force/length)

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 • Check for bearing

σmax ≤ σall

5.6.5 Scour
Scour is the washing away of streambed material by water channel flow. Typically, scour occurs
when the water channel becomes narrowed or constricted. From basic fluid dynamics, we know
that a smaller opening leads to a greater velocity (Q = Av). If constrictions in the channel are
significant, the velocity of the stream can increase such that the substructure footings and/or piles
become undermined. Sharp bends or curves in the water channel also increase velocity which can
create cross-currents and turbulence. Scour can either occur locally at specific substructure
components (local scour) or over the entire structure crossing the channel (general scour).
The removal of material from under a pier’s foundation, often associated with scour, is known as
undermining or undercutting.
Scour generally takes place because one or a combination of the following conditions occurs:
❏ Natural conditions in the channel
❏ A constriction in the channel
❏ The bridge itself being a constriction

When scour occurs at a specific localized point in the channel, such as a pier, abutment, drainage
structure, or some other obstruction, it is known as local scour. Local scour is evidenced by
turbulence around piers which erodes material from under the foundation. If scour takes place over
a large area of the channel it is known as general scour. General scour occurs over a long period
of time and is initiated by an alteration in channel flow patterns.
Scour which results from a reduction in the cross-sectional area of a channel due to the placement
of an obstruction such as a highway bridge or drainage structure is known as constriction scour.

The total potential scour at a highway crossing usually comprises the following components:

• Aggradation and degradation:

When natural or human activities cause streambed elevation changes over a long period of time,
aggradation or degradation occurs. Aggradation involves the deposition of material eroded from
the channel or watershed upstream of the bridge, whereas degradation involves the lowering or
scouring of the streambed due to a deficit in sediment supply from upstream.
• stream contraction scour:
Contraction scour usually occurs when the flow area of a stream at flood stage is reduced, either
by a natural contraction or contraction of a bridge. The decreased flow area causes an increase in
average velocity in the stream and bed shear stress through the contraction reach. This in turn
triggers an increase in erosive forces in the contraction. Hence, more bed material is removed from
the contracted reach than is transported into the reach.
• local scour:
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When upstream flow is obstructed by obstruction such as piers, abutments, and embankments,
flow vortices are formed at their base as shown in Figure below (known as horseshoe vortex). This
vortex action removes bed material from around the base of the obstruction. A scour hole
eventually develops around the base.
• lateral stream migration:
Streams are dynamic. The lateral migration of the main channel within a floodplain may increase
pier scour, embankment or approach road erosion, or change the total scour depth by altering the
flow angle of attack at piers.

Since scour problem is dangerous to a bridge, proper consideration should be made in design of
substructure. If the scour depth exceeds the foundation depth there is possibility of bridge failure.
Therefore, to avoid bridge failures due to erosion, the depth of the pier should be more than the
scour depth. A general rate is to take depth of erosion as four times the height which the water
level raises at the obstruction section. So the foundation of the substructure should be located at
least the depth of erosion below the stream bed.

Scour Protection:
Scour protection is required when some restriction is made to the flow of the flood.
Riprap:
It is carpet of loose stones, which protects the loose bed material for bed protection and loose bank
or embankment material from erosion by water current. The stone elements must be heavy enough
not to be carried away by water.
Gabion and Reno mattresses:
The standard gabion is a rectangular basket made of steel wire mesh with sizes of 2m, 3m and 4m
long by 1m wide by 0.5m or 1m high. Reno mattress is a mattress - shaped version of the gabion
for use when the gabions height and bulk are not needed as in lining river beds and banks. Their
standard size is 6m length, divided in to 6 compartments of 1m width.
Filter Blankets:
If the river bed and bank material are non - cohesive and fine, they may be washed away through
the spaces between the voids in riprap or gabion lining. This can be prevented by using textile
filter or using gravel filter.
Vegetation:
Many plant types can be used to protect river banks against erosion. The most successful ones
are almost always those found growing naturally along the river being bridged.

5.7 Bearings And Railings

5.7.1 Bearings
Bearings are structural devices positioned between the bridge superstructure and the substructure.

Their principal functions are as follows:

1. To transmit loads from the superstructure to the substructure, and

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2. To accommodate relative movements between the superstructure and the substructure.

Movements should be accommodated properly and these result from

a) longitudinal movement due to temperature changes-reversible

b) rotation due to deflection of girders- live load deflection is reversible

c) vertical movement due to settlement of support- irreversible

d) movement due to shrinkage, creep or prestressing-irreversible

Bearings are categorized in to two as

a) Fixed bearings – are fixed against translation, but free to rotate

b) Expansion bearings-are free to translate and rotate

Selection of the type depends on the type of superstructure, type of substructure supports and the length of
the span.

- A simply supported span requires fixed bearings at one and expansion joints at the other.

- A continuous girder require fixed bearing at one and expansion bearing on all other supports

- A two span girder will have fixed bearing at the centre support and expansion bearings at the two
abutments

Bearings are important components of bridges and call for care in design, skill in execution, regular
attention in maintenance. Faulty design or malfunctioning bearings due to clogging by debris have often
resulted in collapse of bridges due to the high stresses induced due to restrained motion.

On certain major bridges bearing cost is as high as 10-15% of the total cost. It is worth designing
carefully and inspecting regularly for maintenance.

Types of Bearings

For slab bridges no special bearings are provided because the translational movement is very small. Edges
of supports are beveled to allow for rotation.

The following are the different types of bearings for girder bridges

- Sliding plate bearing- is the simplest type of bearing. This utilizes one plate sliding on another.
This type is used for bridges up to 30m span. Flat plates were common but due to freezing and
high frictional forces the surface of the upper plate is slightly curved as shown in Figure below.

- Roller bearing- in this type rotation is accommodated by the pin and translation by the use of a
roller or a group of rollers. This is used for spans of moderate length.

- Rocker bearing- this is used for longer spans and is used to accommodate large live load
deflections.

In seismic areas suitable guides should be provided to prevent the roller and rocker components
from being displaced off abutments and piers during earthquakes.

- Elastomeric bearing- is made of a polymeric substance called elastomer (either natural or

synthetic rubber).
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 This can be reinforced with steel plates, which are usually the case, or may be unreinforced. This
is very strong in compression and relatively week in shear, thus allowing horizontal displacement.
This has shown good weathering performance and so incurs low maintenance cost. This type is
favored for bearings. This is used for medium to large spans.

- Lead Rubber bearing-is an elastomeric bearing equipped with lead core and is used in highly
seismic areas. See Figure below. Under normal loading conditions, the lead core resists lateral
loads. Under seismically induced dynamic loads, however, the lead core yields and assists the
elastomeric material in resisting loads while at the same time accommodating lateral flexibility.

5.7.2 Railings
Railings are provided along edges of bridges for protection of traffic and pedestrian. There are three types
of railings.

1. Traffic railings

2. Pedestrian railings

3. Combination railings

The following guideline indicate the application of various types of rails

- Traffic railings is used when a bridge is for the execution use of highway traffic

- A combination railing in conjunction with raised curb and side walk is used on low-speed
highways.

- On high speed highways the pedestrian path should have both an out board pedestrian railing and
an inboard combination railing.

Aesthetics and freedom of view from passing vehicles should also be taken in to consideration.

Traffic Railing

The primary purpose of traffic railings is to contain and redirect errant vehicles. Specifically they serve
the purposes of

- primarily containing the average vehicle

- protecting the occupants of a vehicle in collision with the railing

- protecting other vehicles near the collision

- protecting people and property on roadway and nearby areas underneath

A traffic railing should provide a smooth and continuous face on the traffic side.

Steel and concrete posts should set back from the face to the rail.

Pedestrian Railing

Pedestrian railing can be made from concrete, metal and timber.

A pedestrian walkway should be separated from roadway by a barrier curb, traffic railing or combination
railing.

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Combination Railing

Consists of traffic and pedestrian railings.

5.8 Culverts and Low-Level Water Crossings

5.8.1 Culverts
Culverts are cross drainage structures used to drain rain run off collected by side ditches from one
side of the highway to the other. In any highway or railway project, the majority of cross drainage
works fall under this category.

Where the waterway opening is less than about 15m2, and particularly where the road crosses
the waterway on a relatively high embankment, a culvert will usually be cheaper than a bridge.

In addition to providing culverts at the lowest point, it is good practice to install, culverts for cross
drainage at regular intervals down a long grade.

As a general rule, there should be at least one culvert every 300m, unless the road follows a ridge.
Therefore, cost of culverts account for a significant proportion of the project cost.

Culverts are usually constructed from:

- Precast concrete jointed pipes
- Single or multi-cell reinforced concrete boxes, prefabricated or built in situ
- corrugated steel pipes made of prefabricated panels

Single precast concrete pipe culverts are commonly used for small openings up to 2m2, while multiple
concrete pipes with common headwalls cater for larger areas. Alternatively, reinforced concrete box
culverts are used with internal box size up to 4m x 3.5m. Twin or multiple boxes may be required for larger
waterway openings. In difficult ground conditions a flexible steel pipe has an advantage over a rigid
concrete culvert through its ability to accommodate a certain amount of differential settlement over the
length of the culvert without overstressing the material. A culvert made of rigid concrete sections will not
be tolerant to differential settlement unless it is specifically designed for such conditions either by
increasing its structural strength or by segmenting the culvert along its length to allow it to flex. In theory
such a solution may appear to be satisfactory, but the provision of watertight joints to permit flexing to
occur can be costly and the satisfactory performance of the joints cannot always be guaranteed. Leakage
from culverts, particularly those carrying embankments, can have serious consequences, since weakening
of the embankment material may lead to an embankment failure. If properly constructed a reinforced
concrete culvert is likely to have a service life in excess of 60 years and will almost certainly be more
durable and require less maintenance than a steel pipe. By comparison, a corrugated steel pipe culvert, well
protected against corrosion by plating and bitumen coating, can be expected to have a working life in the
order of 30 to 40 years in a non-aggressive environment. It is usual to design culverts to last the life of the
highway. Despite the best efforts of the engineer, it must be expected that some culverts will become silted
or obstructed by debris. For this reason pipes of internal diameter less than 0.6m are not recommended
since they are difficult to clean.

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Like bridges, culverts are designed to be large enough to pass the design flood without damage to
the embankment or surrounding land.

Highway drainage ditches collect general run-off water which is cross drained using culverts. This
concentration of flow is almost certain to cause erosion damage to many types of soil. Before or
at the entrance to culverts it is important to control the flow velocity, particularly since an abrupt
change in direction of flow may occur at these points making erosion damage more likely. Control
may be achieved by reducing the gradient, installing check-drains or by building a drop inlet. It is
also important to control the velocity of flow at the outlet, because erosion damage to the road
embankment or surrounding farmland occurs more frequently at the discharge end. For this reason,
where gradients arc steep, the arrangements shown in Figure below are preferred. A curtain wall
is often necessary at the outlet of a culvert carrying more than a minimal flow, in order to prevent
scour undermining the structure. A concrete or rip rap apron may be required to dissipate the
energy of the discharge, or it may be necessary to contain the flow in a paved channel until the
natural gradient becomes small enough not to induce fast flows with consequential deepening of
the channel.

The proper location of each culvert is important because it affects the drainage pattern and hence the
strength of the surrounding soils, the area of waterway, ditch and culvert maintenance, and erosion damage.

There are four rules concerning location and alignment of culverts

- Where a road crosses a valley, the lowest point requires a vent, whether there is an established
stream or not.
- Where there is an established stream, the culvert should follow the existing alignment, unless the
alignment can be improved.
- The gradient of the culvert should be the same as the gradient of the stream.
- Measures may be necessary to ensure that the watercourse does not move. This could cause severe
damage and the consequent change of location of the culvert would be expensive.
The gradient of the culvert is important because it affects future maintenance. If it is too steep, it
will encourage erosion at the outlet. If it is less steep than the stream, there is likely to be a sediment
problem. A gradient of 2 to 4 per cent is advisable where silts are carried in the flow; a minimum
of 0.5 per cent is recommended for clear water. It is also important to set the culvert invert at the
same level as the natural stream bed. Culverts are frequently set low to avoid humps in the road
above. Where the road embankment is not high enough to provide adequate clearance above the
pipe, the ditch has to be lowered on both sides of the road or the embankment raised. This may
necessitate widening the side slopes and demonstrates the importance of detailing drainage
structures early in the design of a road. Where an established stream is met at an angle to the road
alignment, it is usually better to follow the line of the stream with a skewed culvert, even though
the construction cost will be increased by the greater length. An abrupt change in the direction of
flow at the inlet and outlet of a square crossing may be accommodated without problem for most
of the year, but when heavy rains cause maximum flow the change of direction can result in severe
erosion or wash-out. It may also be necessary to stabilize a shifting channel or even move it to
improve the geometry where stream and road interact. The principal objectives here are:

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 - to avoid a bend at either end of the culvert if possible
- if a bend is unavoidable, to place it at the outlet

Any change of stream channel must be constructed so that there is no possibility of the stream
regaining its original course.

HEADWALLS
Headwalls retain and protect the embankment at the ends of a culvert and help to counteract the
dislocation of jointed pipes due to the spreading forces at the base of large embankments. They
also divert debris from falling into the waterway, reduce seepage of water into the embankment
and prevent small animals from burrowing alongside the pipe. Where conditions favor erosion,
headwalls should incorporate deep curtain walls and side slope protection in the form of gabions
or hand-pitched stone.
Since large headwalls are expensive to build, it is advisable initially to make the culvert pipe long
enough to reach the toe of the embankment. Headwalls are usually made of masonry or concrete.

CONCRETE RIPE CULVERTS

On most road constructions, sections of concrete pipe are butted together and connected by mortar,
and the embankment material is compacted around them. This is cheap and often serves for several
years. A far better quality culvert is obtained by surrounding the pipe with concrete. If the sub
grade is likely to settle under the weight of the embankment, the concrete surround should be
reinforced to take tensile stresses. All soft clay material and rock should be excavated from below
the pipe to a depth of at least 200mm and replaced with good granular material, well compacted.

FLEXIBLE STEEL CULVERTS

These are made from pre-formed corrugated sections bolted together to form a circular or elliptical
tube. They can accept a certain amount of longitudinal or radial deformation without sustaining
damage and so are better suited to unstable conditions than rigid concrete structures. They are also
easier to transport and faster to construct than the equivalent size of pre-cast pipe culvert, but
require specialist manufacture.
All soft unstable material should be excavated and back filled to foundation level with gravel
mixture, crushed stone or other suitable material. In the case of rock foundations, the rock should
be excavated to at least 250mm below the foundation level and wide enough to prevent the pipe
resting directly on rock at any point. It should then be back filled to provide a cushion for the
pipe.
Back filling will be made in layers of approximately 200mm, loading each side and layer evenly
and fully compacted before placing the next. The inside shape may need to be protected by
strutting as the fill is built up on each side and eventually above the pipe.
All the fill material should be of good quality, extending to a distance roughly equal to the pipe
diameter each side and above, or up to the road base if this distance is less.

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The degree of protection against corrosion required to extend the working life of a corrugated steel
pipe structure is determined on the basis of:
- The importance of the structure and its required working life
- The corrosive nature of the environment in which it exists.
Durability studies indicate that metal loss associated with corrosion usually originates on the
interior surface of the structure and progresses towards the exterior or buried face. The conclusion
is that protective treatment to the exposed surfaces should generally be superior to that applied to
the buried surfaces. All corrugated steel structures should be hot-dipped galvanized and hot coated
with bitumen on the inside. Bituminous paving to the invert of the pipe will also help extend the
life of the structure.

REINFORCED CONCRETE BOX CULVERTS

Reinforced concrete box culverts may be constructed either as a monolithic box or as a U section
with a simply supported top slab propping the sidewalls. Twin or multiple cell box culverts are
used where the horizontal opening is more than about 4m. These too may be constructed with
monolithic top slab and walls or with a separately cast lid. Culverts with separately constructed
top slabs are simpler to construct because they require less complicated steel reinforcement and,
though containing more material, they generally offer a more economical form of construction.
Owing to reversal of bending moment in the walls and bottom slab, reinforcement to both faces
of these elements is required but the top slab of a single cell culvert requires only bottom
reinforcement.
For a twin box culvert with a separately cast top slab, the outer walls are again propped
apart and the centre wall may be positively located to the top slab by the provision of dowel
bars. The top slab of a twin box culvert is designed as a two span continuous beam spanning
over the central wall and requires top reinforcement in the region of the central wall.

5.8.2 Low Level Water Crossings

In favorable conditions, low level water crossings can provide economical and relatively simple
alternatives to conventional bridges. These are of two basic types:
- fords and bed-level causeways
- vented causeways and submersible bridges
Both types are appropriate for sites where traffic volumes are low or where a reasonably short
detour provides access to an all-weather bridge. For most of the year the maximum depth of water
over the carriage way should be less than 150mm. The success or service life of the structure will
depend considerably on its hydraulic design. Fords and bed-level causeways, like conventional
bridges, will be constructed so that they cause little interference with the design flood. Vented
causeways and submersible bridges inevitably disrupt river flow and so are liable to sustain
damage or indirectly cause scour to the river bed or banks which in turn may affect the road
approaches to the crossing. Since fords and bed-level causeways arc overtopped by all water
flowing in the river channel there is no reason to raise the road surface above the stream bed.
Vented causeways and submersible bridges usually present a dry carriage way for ordinary flows

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and are overtopped during the design flood. The best location for a low level crossing is similar to
that recommended for a conventional bridge, with the exception that a broad, straight stretch of
river will provide slower and shallower water as well as easier road approaches. The maximum
gradient for motor traffic should be 10 per cent, and for animals 5 per cent. The change of gradient
should be gradual to prevent the underside of vehicles touching the road and to preserve long sight
distances. Equal cut and fill construction of the approach roads requires less work than the cut and
remove spoil, but the placing of the spoil in the river channel may cause scour problems during a
flood. On roads where speeds are naturally slow and where the horizontal curve on the approach
side is clearly visible, steep approaches may be relieved by a diagonal descent of the river bank.
Even where the road is a single track, it is advisable to make the crossing and its approaches two
lanes in width, so as to allow traffic to pass any vehicle, which breaks down or fails to mount the
gradient.

FORDS

Fords are the simplest form of river crossing at places where the stream is wide, shallow and
slow, the approaches gentle, and the surface firm. The running surface in the stream can be
strengthened and made more even using stones brought in and buried just below the surface.
Alternatively, if stones are carried in the flow, these may be trapped by barriers made of
boulders, gabions or piles.

a. Boulders [fig. a]
Large stones placed across the river bed at the downstream side of the crossing are claimed to filter
the flow of water and retain gravel and sand, which eventually form a more level and even surface
for vehicles.

b. Gabions
A more expensive but durable improvement may be made by replacing the boulders with gabions to trap
river gravel or retain imported material, as shown in Fig b. It is important that gabions protrude only 150-
300mm above the natural bed level of the river, depending on the nature of the bed material, otherwise they
will act as a weir and cause heavy scour downstream of the crossing.

As an alternative to conventional gabions, tube baskets can be made from a roll of fencing mesh filled with
stone or shingle. During filling, the edges are raised and then bent over at the top to form a tube and tied;
finally a wire rope is attached as shown in Fig c. After installation, sand and gravel transported by the
stream is trapped behind the baskets and provides a firmer fairly level surface suitable for vehicles.

c. Piles
Where gabions are unobtainable, timber piles driven into the river bed with or without stone
protection make an acceptable cut-off wall. To be fully effective, timber piles should have a length
of about 2m, and should be placed at no more than 0.6m centers. If the river is fast a continuous
line of piles may be necessary. A curtain wall may be required on the upstream as well as the
downstream side if the roadbed is erodible.
The top of the piles should be no more than 0.3m above bed level.

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BED LEVEL CAUSEWAYS
Where the type of traffic or the distance to an alternative crossing justifies the expense, a pavement may be
laid on the river bed. A paved ford is also called a bed-level causeway, drift, paved dip or Irish bridge. To
protect the pavement from scour damage, curtain walls or aprons are usually required on both the upstream
and the downstream side and these must continue up the approaches to the height of the design flood.

If the bed is inerodible the causeway need not be provided with curtain walls, but the bed on both the
upstream and downstream sides of the crossing should be trimmed flat to reduce turbulence.

VENTED CAUSEWAYS
Vented causeways are designed to pass an ordinary flood with very little water overtopping the carriageway,
but may still be inundated and unusable for a few days each year. These structures present a considerable
obstacle to the free flow of both normal flow and the design flood, so they must be built massive enough to
withstand water pressure and debris impact.

They must also be provided with adequate scour protection where the bed is erodible, and marker
posts.
The vents are usually concrete or corrugated steel pipes from 0.6 to 1.0m diameter, set in a block of concrete
or masonry. Where prefabricated pipes are not available, vaulted masonry tunnels have proved successful.
Concrete or masonry retaining walls and aprons are required to channel the flow and prevent scour at both
entrance and exit.

In order to prevent blockage of the stream by debris or silting, careful attention is required to setting the
pipes level with the stream bed and at the same gradient. No part of the vents should be narrower than the
entrances and wedge-shaped deflector ramps may be required on the upstream side to; guide large floating
debris above the vents. Alternatively, a grill of posts installed upstream of the causeway will collect tree
branches before they reach the structure. The capacity of the vents is sufficient to pass all ordinary floods
without damage and with no more than 150mm of water over-topping the structure.

SUBMERSIBLE BRIDGES
Where the traffic is dense enough to justify a dry crossing of a substantial ordinary flood and the design
flood is much greater, a submersible bridge is an alternative to a vented causeway. Submersible bridges are
able to pass a larger flow than the vents of a causeway of the same height but are more susceptible to
damage by the design flood. The overturning moment at the pier foundations becomes very large unless the
piers are kept short, and the horizontal and vertical forces on the deck require solid restraint. Because of
these difficulties, submersible bridges are not recommended for any foundation other than rock, and even
then a vented causeway or conventional bridge may be a more durable alternative. Construction is usually
of reinforced concrete with continuous reinforcement between the sub-structures and the deck.

REFERENCES
1. T.R. Jagadeesh and M.A. Jyaram, Design of Bridge Structures, Prentice-Hall of
India Pvt. Ltd 2004
2. Richard M. Barker and Jay A. Puckett, Design of Highway Bridges: An LRFD
Approach, Wiley Publisher 2006
3. AASHTO Design Specifications: SI Units 2nd Edition, 1998
4. Ethiopian Roads Authority Manuals, 2004

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