Learning Language Through Literature A Sourcebook For Teachers of English in Hong Kong (Peter Falvey Peter Kennedy)

Learning Language
Through Literature
A Sourcebook for Teachers
of English In Hong Kong
Learning Language
Through Literature
A Sourcebook for Teachers
of English In l o ng Kong
EDITED B Y PETE R FALVE Y AN D PETE R KENNED Y
Hong Kon g Universit y Pres s

# ; # * ^ tf. « L it
Hong Kong University Press
14/F Hing Wai Centre
7 Tin Wan Praya Roa d
Aberdeen
Hong Kon g
© Hong Kong University Press 199 7

First Published 199 7
Reprinted 200 6
ISBN 962 209 434 1
All rights reserved. No portion of this publication ma y

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Printed in Hong Kong by Nordica Printing Co. Ltd.

For Margaret and Gabriela
Contents
CONTRIBUTORS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
INTRODUCTION
SECTION I Introductio n to the Primary Sectio n
CHAPTER 1 Writin g an d the Use of Literature in the English 9

Classroom
John Harris and Tony Mahon
CHAPTER 2 Vers e and Worse — Poetry an d Rhyme in the EFL 2 9

Primary Schoo l Classroo m
Margaret Falvey
CHAPTER 3 Pictur e Books and Fantasy Texts 5 1

Jenny Tyrrell
CHAPTER 4 Th e Place of Story-telling in Language Teaching 6 5

Erica Laine
viii Learnin g Languag e Throug h Literatur e
CHAPTER 5 Th e Use of Children's Literature in the English 73

Primary Classroo n
John Harris and Madeleine Leung
SECTION I I Introductio n to the Secondary Sectio n 83
CHAPTER 6 Makin g Textbook Languag e More Literar y 85

Mike Murphy
CHAPTER 7 Poetr y Writing and Language Learnin g 93

Dick Tibbetts
CHAPTER 8 Usin g Song s in the English Language Classroo m 107

Philip Chan Kam Wing
CHAPTER 9 Drama in the Classroo m 111

Dino Mahoney
CHAPTER 1 0 Usin g Storie s in the Language Classroom at Senio r 135

Secondary Leve l
Peter Kennedy
SECTION II I Introductio n t o the Tertiary Section 14 7
CHAPTER 1 1 Dram a Texts as Theatre — Participatory Activities 14 9

Drawn fro m Theatr e Practic e
Velda Harris
CHAPTER 1 2 Teachin g and Writing Poetry in the Secondar y 167

School — Bridging the Credibility Ga p
Peter Falvey
CONCLUSION 179
FURTHER READIN G 183
INDEX 199
Contributors
Philip Chan Kam Wing Lecturer , Schoo l of Educatio n

Open Learning Institute of Hong Kon g
Margaret Falve y Associat e Professor .

Department of Curriculum an d Instructio n
The Chinese University o f Hong Kon g
Peter Falve y Senior Lecturer, Faculty o f Educatio n

The University o f Hong Kon g
John Harri s (formerly) Associate Professo r

Faculty of Educatio n
Velda Harris Lecturer, English Departmen t

Sheffield Halla m Universit y
Peter Kenned y Lecturer (Englis h Studies )

School of Professional an d Continuing Educatio n
Erica Lain e Special Projects Unit Manage r

The British Council, Hong Kon g
Learning Languag e Through Literatur e
Madeleine Leun g Senior Inspector, Curriculu m Developmen t Uni t

Education Department , Hon g Kon g
Tony Maho n Lecturer in Englis h

The Hong Kong Institute of Educatio n
Dino Mahone y Associate Professor, Departmen t o f Englis h

City University o f Hong Kon g
Mike Murph y Lecturer in English

Dick Tibbett s Lecturer in English

The University o f Maca o
Jenny Tyrrel l Lecturer in English

Acknowledgments
The editors are grateful t o the following fo r permission to reproduce copyright

material in this book :
Reed Books for Lobel, A. A List ' from Frog and Toad Together published by
William Heineman n Ltd . Approximatel y 18 0 word s fro m The Very Hungry
Caterpillarby Eri c Carle, Hamish Hamilton Children's Books, 1970, copyright
© 196 9 by Eric Carle; reproduced by permission of Penguin Books Ltd .
The editors also wish to thank the many student s whose work both in and out
of the language and literature classroom has contributed to the ideas presented
by the authors.
Introduction
This book is about using literary texts (with a small T) for language teaching.
Although some writers would argue that there is an important distinction to be
drawn between 'language ' an d 'literature', we maintain it is something of an
artificial one. As Widdowson (1983) and Carter (1991) have pointed out, there
are 'literary ' element s i n non-literar y texts . There is metapho r i n everyda y
language, the patterns of soun d in poetry ar e also present in songs, nursery
rhymes and adverts. (Some) jokes have the 'semantic density' of literary texts,
while 'literary' vocabulary and syntax can be found elsewhere too.
For Stanley Fish, the American critic, a literary text is simply one we choose
to call literary. It is an arbitrary classification for what gets taught in 'literature'
classes. I t ma y b e mor e helpful the n t o thin k i n terms o f a continuum o f
literariness. Some texts have more 'literary' features, others far fewer.
Until the 1980s, it was received wisdom that literature had no place in the
teaching of English as a foreign language. Now, in textbooks and on language
syllabuses worldwide, literary text s are beginning to appear alongside other
texts. The change is finding its way into public examinations as well. There are
signs that Hong Kong language syllabuses are also reflecting thi s change. In
the new Target Oriented Curriculu m just being introduced int o Hong Kong
primary schools , an d i n th e revised Advanced Supplementar y syllabus , the
importance o f th e aestheti c dimensio n i s acknowledge d an d give n greate r
prominence. Language Arts i s no longer marginalize d t o 'Frida y afternoo n
activities'. Th e ol d distinction s betwee n th e languag e an d th e literatur e
syllabuses are beginning to break down.
2 Introductio n^ ========^=====^=====^
WHY US E LITERAR Y TEXT S AS A RESOURC E I N TH E HON G KON G

LANGUAGE CLASSROOM ?
Text Content
The 1980 s saw a preoccupation with technique i n English Language Teaching

(ELT) in methods suc h as the 'communicative ' method, and the 'Silen t Way'.
More recently, the importance of content has come to be recognized. Selectin g
interesting texts to be read for disinterested pleasure may arouse suspicion in a
wealth-producing economy , bu t suc h text s hav e a n essentia l rol e t o pla y i n
effective languag e learning .
Hemingway remarke d tha t 'th e dignity of movement o f an iceberg is due
to only one-eighth of it being above water'. This holds true for texts that have
greater depth and are worth reading for their own sake. Unfortunately, w e don't
often fin d original , subtle or memorable texts in ELT textbooks.
In Chapter 3, Tyrrell recalls a moment many teachers will recognize, when
' . . . tha t lesso n wen t wel l becaus e th e subjec t reall y caught the students'
imaginations'. Text s tha t ar e mor e likely t o catc h students ' imaginations ar e
those that evoke familiar experience s but 're-present ' the m in a new light and
with greater clarity ('what oft was thought but ne'er so well express'd'). Tyrrell
gives a n example o f suc h a text and shows how i t might be used in the Hong
Kong primary classroom .
Unmodified texts such as business letters, tax forms etc. are often include d
in English language coursebooks on the grounds that they are 'authentic ' text s
students ma y encounte r late r o n i n 'rea l life' . Suc h shallo w notion s o f
authenticity hav e bee n calle d int o question . Texts use d fo r Englis h languag e
teaching and not for their original purpose can only have a spurious authenticity.
A mor e fruitfu l approac h i s t o selec t text s consonan t wit h th e interest s an d
experiences o f th e learners . T o catc h th e imaginatio n a tex t need s t o b e
'authentic' in another sense — it should be writing that rings true, that connects
directly wit h the students' ow n lives. Harris and Leung, in Chapter 5, present
an argument for using authentic stories on educational television because they
are worthy of such presentation in their own right — because of their intrinsic
motivational interes t to young students .
Tibbetts shows, in Chapter 7, how classroom writing tasks are transformed
when students are allowed to produce 'authentic ' texts. When learners are given
a chance to put 'their personality and personal feelings into words', what ensues
is a powerful sens e of ownership and a deep engagement i n the writing task .
Velda Harris argues that, to become literate, a student needs to 'ge t inside'
a text. In Chapter 11 , she shows tha t a n involvement wit h the text as process
(as well as product) help s lift th e words off the page and leads to an enhanced
understanding an d appreciation o f the text.
Teachers may have misgivings about using literary texts because they fee l
the grammatica l structure s wil l b e to o complicate d an d th e vocabular y to o
Introduction 3
difficult. Murph y demonstrates in Chapter 6 that this need not be the case. He
shows there how textbook exercises ma y be adapted s o that students move in
easy stage s from literal t o literary texts .
Another perceived proble m wit h literary texts is their 'cultura l distance' .
The events, values, settings, people, names and historical references are thought
to b e culturall y alien . O f course , cultur e i s embedde d i n al l EL T materials ,
even at beginners' level (take, for instance, the rules of behaviour when greeting
people). Thi s proble m ca n b e minimize d i f w e ar e carefu l t o selec t moder n
texts which dea l with universal themes , for exampl e childhoo d o r friendship .
Anyway, the difficulty o f 'culturall y alien ' texts can be exaggerated. After all ,
many of us read science-fiction an d enter worlds we cannot possibly be familiar
with.
Language Stud y
In literary texts, language is often ther e to be looked at as well as through (i t is

like stained glass in churches rather than plate glass in offices). I n Chapter 10 ,
Kennedy shows how stories can be used to get students to think about grammar
and so extend their understanding of the meanings of 'familiar ' structures . In a
story, lexical and grammatical choices are closely allied to the development of
character an d motive . Gramma r teachin g ca n b e linke d t o th e 'grammar ' o f
stories. Chan, in Chapter 8 , shows how a n understanding o f meaning in text s
can be develope d b y usin g th e connotative meanin g i n the lyrics o f song s t o
assist student s i n thei r effort s t o extrac t meanin g fro m textua l inferences , a
task ofte n neglecte d i n the highly explici t text s commonl y use d in secondar y
English language textbooks .
Classroom Task s and Activitie s
All to o often , student s ar e aske d t o engag e i n 'languag e learning ' task s tha t
can have little meaning for them. They may be called upon to mouth views that
are no t thei r own , t o as k question s whe n the y alread y kno w th e answer , t o
feign surpris e at something unsurprising an d so on. The usual justification fo r
getting student s t o perform thes e language routines i s to help the m acquir e a
knowledge of the language system .
As Mahoney points out in Chapter 9, real communication i s spontaneou s
and unrehearsed. If students are to acquire more than just a few stock responses
or ritualize d languag e routines , ther e ha s t o b e greate r scop e fo r individua l
input. He shows how drama techniques and strategies can be used to adapt the
grammar exercise s an d dialogue s i n som e commonly-use d Hon g Kon g
textbooks. The tasks student s ar e given then approximat e muc h more closel y
to purposeful, rea l life communication .
Tibbetts show s ho w eve n that mundane classroo m activity , th e languag e
drill, ca n b e transforme d i f th e pattern s o f repetitio n inheren t i n poetr y ar e
4 Introductio n -=^=^= = = = = = = = = = ^
harnessed. He demonstrates that creativity need not be achieved at the expense

of accuracy . Laine , i n Chapte r 4 , als o advocate s utilizin g th e pattern s o f
repetition in stories to help primary pupils develop a greater sensitivity to how
language is used.
It i s sometime s argue d tha t literar y text s hav e n o plac e i n th e languag e
classroom becaus e student s won' t nee d t o read literatur e i n their futur e jobs ,
nor will reading suc h texts help them ge t through thei r exams. As to the firs t
point, the primary reason for using literature in the language class is as a stimulus
for language learning not as a model to emulate. Narrow notions of 'usefulness' ,
of literatur e a s 'non-pragmatic' , confus e th e goals o f languag e learnin g wit h
the means. As t o the secon d point , literar y text s ca n indee d b e used t o fulfil l
the goals of the Hong Kong syllabu s and to equip students for exams .
For instance, the HKCEE (Hong Kong Certificate of Education in English)
syllabus stresse s th e importanc e o f inferenc e skills , o f gettin g student s t o
recognize tha t al l writte n text s requir e interpretatio n whethe r the y b e lega l
contracts, business document s o r newspaper reports . Standard EF L texts an d
tasks ten d t o b e over-explicit , t o spel l everythin g out . Literar y texts , o n th e
other hand, come with 'holes ' in them. The reader has to fill in the gaps. What
is not sai d i s ofte n a s important a s what is . Literary text s len d themselve s t o
more open-ended , informatio n an d opinio n ga p tasks . Exploiting th e fruitfu l
ambiguity o f literar y text s ca n hel p student s develo p interpretiv e procedure s
that are transferable t o the reading of other types of text. As Harris and Mahon
amply illustrate in Chapter 1 , such tasks need not be complex or reserved only
for advanced level students. Their chapter presents a wealth of ideas for helping
primary school pupils develop a deeper awareness of the writing process. Chan
too, in Chapter 8 , shows the value of using the lyrics of songs as a vehicle fo r
increasing students ' abilit y to infer meanin g from a text.
If task s ar e properl y graded , i t i s possibl e t o us e wit h literar y text s th e
techniques an d activitie s whic h ar e alread y ver y familia r i n th e languag e
classroom — cloze , multiple-choice, matching activities an d so on.
Affective Factors
Learning a languag e entail s mor e tha n jus t makin g gramma r deposit s i n a

language bank account. It is not only an intellectual process but is tied up with
values and emotions. All the contributors t o this book concur in the view tha t
the forgotten emotiona l conten t must be put back into language learning .
As Margare t Falve y point s ou t in Chapte r 2 , learning th e language fo r a
job o r t o pas s a n exa m ma y b e effectiv e a s a motivating forc e fo r adult s o r
senior secondary learner s but it is unlikely to motivate primary schoo l pupils.
Instead, ther e mus t b e 'immediat e an d constan t reward' . Th e chapte r offer s
many lively and refreshing example s of children's games and rhymes that can
help ensur e th e languag e learnin g proces s i s a n enjoyabl e an d rewardin g
experience.
Introduction 5
At al l levels , th e 'affectiv e response ' t o literar y text s lead s t o greate r

personal engagement . Student s ca n individualiz e thei r languag e learnin g b y
bringing thei r own ideas , opinions, an d value s int o th e classroom. Thi s boo k
grew out of a shared conviction that literary texts (small T ) hav e an important
role to play i n motivating learner s an d i n making languag e learnin g i n Hon g
Kong more meaningful an d memorable. Although there are a number of books
which deal with the general issues of using literary texts in language teaching,
there i s n o boo k designe d specificall y fo r Hon g Kon g teachers . Al l th e
contributors hav e extensiv e experienc e eithe r a s teacher s i n th e Hon g Kon g
primary, secondary and tertiary sectors or as teacher trainers. Their observations
and the examples the y give are grounded i n that experience.
A crucia l facto r determinin g th e succes s o r failur e o f th e approache s
advocated here , i s th e teacher' s abilit y t o communicat e he r ow n enthusias m
for reading literary texts. As Peter Falvey points out in Chapter 12 , if teachers
are als o willin g t o engag e i n th e kind s o f creativ e activitie s the y requir e o f
their students, they will not only increase their own credibility in the classroom
but als o encourag e thei r student s t o 'hav e a go'. We hope tha t thi s book wil l
encourage the readers to use literary texts with their students and that the ideas
presented here will help enrich and enhance their language learning .
Note
Readers wil l not e th e regular us e o f th e terms LI , L2 , ESL, EFL , TEFL an d

TESL: LI — the mother tongue of students, L2 — Second Language, ESL —
English as a Second Language, EFL — English as a Foreign Language, TEFL
— th e Teaching o f English a s a Foreign Language , TESL — th e Teaching o f
English as a Second Language. All refer to the same phenomenon: the learning
and teachin g o f Englis h t o Hon g Kon g students . As th e statu s o f Englis h i n
Hong Kon g ha s no t ye t bee n satisfactoril y resolved , thes e term s ar e use d
synonymously throughou t the book.
I
Introduction to the Primary Section
The firs t sectio n contain s fiv e chapters , al l focusin g o n th e issu e o f ho w

'literature', i n it s broades t sense , ca n b e embedde d i n th e EL T primar y
classroom.
Although the first two chapters, by Harris and Mahon, and Margaret Falvey,
deal with different topic s (writing, in the first instance, and rhymes and riddles
in the second), they have been placed first in order to provide the reader with a
sound theoretica l applie d linguisti c an d educational foundatio n t o th e use o f
literature in the language classroom which helps to underpin the chapters tha t
follow.
In Chapter 1 , Harris and Mahon discuss the need for a process approach to
creative writing . The y demonstrat e th e benefit s tha t a creativ e approac h t o
writing ca n bring . Margare t Falvey , i n Chapte r 2 , provide s a n analytica l
description o f th e benefits tha t can b e brought t o the language classroo m b y
the us e o f rhyme s an d riddles , demonstratin g som e o f th e majo r element s
involved in motivating youn g students .
In Chapter 3, Tyrrell's account of 'bi g book' work and Laine's description,
in Chapter 4 , of story-tellin g i n the primary classroom , provide rich resourc e
material for the teacher who wants to attempt such approaches, both of which
have been use d successfull y b y thes e teachers an d others i n Hong Kon g an d
Asian settings .
In Chapte r 5 , Harri s an d Leun g describ e th e reason s wh y Hon g Kong' s
Educational Television Unit chose to make a series involving the presentation
of authentic stories for use in the primary classroom. This chapter contrasts the
major difference s betwee n the rather arid readers which are often presente d to
8 Introductio n t o th e Primar y Sectio n
children and the richness of the language used in genuine stories written to be
told to children. One of the stories chosen for the series is 'Th e Very Hungry
Caterpillar' which Laine presents in Chapter 4.
Chapters 4 and 5 should be read together because they demonstrate how
one useful an d necessary activit y ca n be approached in two complementary
ways: eithe r i n th e classroom, wit h th e teache r readin g o r with th e teacher
using the stories from the television as a valuable and exploitable resource.
CHAPTER
1 1
Writing and the Us e of Literatur e

in the English Classroom
John Harris and Tony Mahon
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, modern approaches to the teaching and development of writing

in the English primary clas s are discussed an d exemplified .
PRE-READING QUESTION S
Before readin g thi s chapter , as k yoursel f th e followin g question s an d tr y t o

answer them :
1. Wha t is the purpose of teaching writing in the primary English classroom ?
2. Wha t type of writing shoul d we teach?
3. Shoul d grammatica l accurac y be the main objective o f teaching writing ?
Writing i s th e creatio n o f meanin g i n visua l language . A t bes t i t i s a

fulfilling, excitin g and motivating activity; at worst, it can be boring, anxiety -
ridden an d futile . Educatio n system s acros s th e world hav e traditionall y no t
used writin g i n ways that emphasize its positive, meaning-creating potential .
In classrooms where writing in a second language is being taught and practised,
there i s a n adde d dange r tha t th e negativ e aspect s wil l dominat e practice ,
particularly wit h young learners at primary level .
One of the most obvious problems with writing is that its very permanence
means tha t error s ar e ther e fo r al l t o see . Teachers, therefore , fee l boun d t o
correct, otherwis e the y believ e the y ma y b e criticize d b y other s i n highe r
10 Joh n Harri s an d Ton y Maho n ^ = ^ ^ = = ^ ^ = = = = = = ^ = ^ = =
positions fo r failin g t o d o wha t i s perceive d a s thei r duty ; an d pupil s fee l

ashamed an d lose their motivation whe n they se e how many error s they hav e
made — often the only reaction that they get to a piece of writing. This leads to
the argumen t tha t i f yo u reduc e expectaton s — a s d o man y o f th e approve d
coursebooks for English in Hong Kong — the chances of errors will be reduced
and everyone should then be happy! But this is emphatically not what happens.
Pupils come to see writing in English as the least acceptable aspect of learning
English — whic h is , in an y case , for many , a part o f th e primary curriculu m
that has no immediate sense of purpose and is certainly one that gives no sense
of enjoyment .
It i s necessary , therefore , t o establis h a n alternativ e perspectiv e o n ho w
writing ca n b e mad e t o becom e a fulfilling , enjoyabl e an d motivatin g
experience, eve n in a second or foreign language , and in which literature ca n
play a centra l role . However , w e need , first , t o sketc h i n som e point s abou t
language learning, in general, and the experience of writing, in particular.
• Languag e input is vital to language learning and this is achieved throug h
listening an d reading;
• Ther e is not a n automati c relationship betwee n teachin g an d learning —
in other words, what is taught may well not be what is learned;
• Learner s learn best when they are able to develop their own strategies fo r
learning — this suggests that an important long-term goal is to encourage
independence i n learnin g rathe r tha n exercis e insisten t contro l o f th e
processes o f learning ;
• Explici t instructio n i s onl y likel y t o be helpful whe n i t is relevant t o th e
current needs o f the learner — otherwis e it will be dismissed o r ignored ,
at least at a subconscious level .
These challenging points ar e based on an excellent paper by Williams (1991 )

and provid e a framework fo r reconsiderin g th e strategie s fo r th e practic e o f
writing in a second language context. However, first they need to be related to
the act of writing — usually referred t o as the process of writing.
WRITING A S A PROCESS
It is commonplace currently in discussions of writing to say that it is a process.

This misses the important question a s to what sort of process it is. It is crucial
to stress that writing is a cognitive process involving the creation o f meanin g
in visual or written language. It is, of course, also important to recognize tha t
this cognitive process is complex and that it is usually helpful fo r writers to be
able to approach a writing task in stages. There is a broad consensus about the
stages that writers normally find helpful i n creating a text. The most commo n
way of characterizing thes e stages is as follows :
• pre-writin g
=====—==- Writin g and the Use of Literature in the English Classroom 1 1
• draftin g
• revisin g an d editin g
• publishin g
These stages, however, should never be seen as an inflexible se t of procedures.

In practice, the actual cognitive processing is never tidy — stage s overlap an d
tend t o be recursive , tha t is , they ca n occu r withi n anothe r stag e o f th e tota l
process. The termpre-writing i s also open to misinterpretation, since it suggests
that writin g i n whateve r for m ha s n o part t o play i n this initia l stage . This i s
manifestly no t true. It will help to make the stages of the process more tangible
if w e sugges t som e of the typical classroo m activitie s tha t may occu r a t eac h
stage.
Stage 1 Pre-writin g o r Assembling Idea s
This stage might include:

• brainstorming ;
• listin g ideas;
• drawin g or sketching (particularl y helpfu l fo r youn g primary learners) ;
• readin g and listening;
• talking ;
• usin g planning sheet s such as a story planner ;
• usin g simpl e charts, tables or diagrams.
These types of activities should be related to the writing task and to the learners'
needs — as will be illustrated in the next two sections of this chapter. They can
be undertaken by individuals, but, at least initially, it will be found more effectiv e
to make them class or group activities directed by the teacher.
Stage 2 Draftin g
During this stage the writer will make a first attemp t to realize his or her ideas
developed during stage 1. This is always a difficult task , particularly for pupils
writing i n a secon d o r foreig n language . Suppor t ca n b e give n b y makin g
available i n th e classroo m usefu l vocabular y items , phrase s an d sentenc e
patterns; or by means of materials suc h as Breakthrough to Literacy (Macka y
et al. , 1970) . A fuller accoun t o f ho w suppor t ca n be give n i s to be foun d i n
Harris (1993 : 45-63) an d Mahon (1992) .
Stage 3 Revisin g and Editin g
One of the most useful mean s of providing suppor t for young writers is to get
them to share their draft writing with each other — working in pairs is always
possible no matter how severe the physical constraints of the classroom are. In
12 Joh n Harri s an d Ton y Maho n
this wa y student s ca n receiv e usefu l an d individua l feedback . Teacher s ar e

often worrie d tha t student s wil l b e over-critica l o f eac h other' s writing . I n
practice, i t i s mor e commo n t o fin d tha t the y ar e over-generou s an d d o no t
make specific criticisms . A practical way of setting up this sort of activity is to
ask students to identify tw o aspects of the piece of writing that they liked an d
two aspect s tha t the y fee l nee d development . Whil e revisio n o f a draf t wil l
normally focu s upo n improvin g th e content , editin g involve s improvin g th e
language o f th e tex t an d focuse s o n convention s o f grammar , spellin g an d
punctuation. Editing , too , ca n b e a collaborativ e activit y involvin g pair s o r
small groups of students working together to improve the language of a student's
writing. This ca n b e facilitate d quit e easily throug h th e provision o f 'editin g
guidelines' for student s to refer to. These may be no more than a simple list of
questions such as 'Look at the verbs. Is the correct tense used?'; 'Is the spelling
correct? D o th e sentence s begi n wit h a capital letter?' . Engaging student s i n
such collaborative activities provides a means of developing their understanding
of an d contro l ove r th e proces s o f writing . Thi s i s als o likel y t o hel p mak e
writing a more enjoyable task .
Stage 4 Publishing
This is an important part of developing positive attitudes to writing. The end-

products o f so much effort shoul d no t be lost, buried in an exercise-book tha t
has no visual appea l an d is usually see n only by the teacher and , possibly, by
parents. Student s wil l com e t o fee l tha t thei r writin g i s worthwhil e i f i t i s
presented a s a n attractiv e fina l produc t (wit h illustrations , fo r example ) tha t
can be enjoyed b y others.
All thi s ha s implication s fo r classroo m managemen t an d fo r th e
management of learning, particularly in Hong Kong classrooms. Here are some
of the more important points.
The activitie s tha t ca n b e use d t o suppor t writin g a s a proces s requir e
much mor e time tha n doe s th e traditional practic e of writing , whether thi s i s
carried on as sentence completion exercises or the production of a more extended
text but without an y preliminary suppor t through , fo r instance , the gatherin g
of ideas . Th e proces s o f writin g canno t meaningfull y b e don e a s a one-of f
activity. In the course of a month or a term, less writing will be done but every
experience o f writin g wil l be mor e powerfu l an d meaningful . Thi s ha s t o b e
taken into account in thinking about the management of learning and covering
the syllabus — though coverage is not a useful concep t if it indicates quantit y
rather tha n quality ! I n th e description s o f writin g activitie s tha t follow , th e
tasks ar e broken dow n int o stage s tha t wil l offe r th e best possible suppor t t o
young learner s — i t i s thi s stage-by-stag e approac h tha t take s tim e bu t als o
gives a muc h bette r chanc e o f eventua l succes s i n writin g i n English . On e
particularly appropriat e strateg y i s calle d modelling an d thi s i s describe d i n
detail in the next section .
= = = = — Writin g and the Use of Literature in the English Classroom 1 3
1. Man y o f th e suggeste d activitie s ar e bette r don e b y group s o r pair s o f

students. It may no t be realistic i n som e classrooms t o organize student s
into groups because of the crowded conditions, but pair work is a perfectly
reasonable alternativ e an d shoul d be actively pursued. The teacher's rol e
in thi s sor t o f activit y i s not t o direc t bu t t o initiate an d t o support . Thi s
requires a revaluation o f the teacher's role and needs prior consideration .
2. I f writin g i s see n a s a proces s o f discover y an d o f problem-solving , i t
follows tha t the teacher should not be interested only in the final product ,
but also in the stage s by which the final product ha s been achieved . Thi s
requires a re-thinkin g o f th e traditiona l approac h t o th e assessmen t o f
students' writing . It means, among othe r things, that we may be as much
interested in draft piece s of writing an d in the willingness of our student s
to respond positively t o comments a s in the accuracy o f the final text .
In the next section, then, we illustrate how these considerations can be put into
practice using a teaching strateg y referred t o as modelling.
MODELLING
Modelling i s a teaching strateg y that can be used t o introduce childre n t o th e

purposes, structure and function of different writin g forms as well as the process
of writin g them . Win g Ja n (1991 ) propose s tha t ther e ar e fou r aspect s t o
modelling. Modelling can involve both planned and unplanned exploitation of
opportunities to write, and explicit and implicit approaches to helping children
develop knowledge of written language (se e Figure 1) .
planned
^ MODELLIN G^
explicit proces s an d form implici t
\.o f writing ^
incidental
Figure 1 Th e modelling process

Planned Modellin g
Planned modelling involves the teacher in selecting a text with the purpose of
reading and analysing it with pupils. A shared reading approach is suitable for
this purpose. Share d reading involve s th e teacher in reading a text, such as a
story to or with pupils. The use of 'bi g books' which can be seen by the whole
class facilitate s thi s process . Analysis ca n b e conducte d throug h th e us e o f
questions to draw pupils' attentio n to the structure and use of language within
the text . Fo r example , th e teache r ma y rea d t o o r wit h pupil s a selectio n o f
texts which include instructions on how to make something. This provides the
opportunity t o introduce th e step s involved , th e use o f imperativ e verb s an d
the absence of pronouns in the texts. The reading and planned analysis provide
an implici t mode l o f th e organizationa l an d linguisti c structure s o f differen t
forms o f writing .
Explicit modelling involves demonstrating how to write a particular writing
form. Th e purpos e i s t o mak e explici t t o pupil s strategie s tha t the y ca n us e
when constructin g a text. This may be achieved by the teacher writin g a text
together wit h pupils . Th e teache r may , fo r example , demonstrat e th e
organizational structur e and language features o f a narrative by engaging th e
pupils in a shared writing task. The teacher's role is that of guide, who in this
capacity, draws pupils' attention to particular features tha t can be included in
the text . Th e teache r ma y d o thi s b y directin g pupils ' responses throug h th e
use of questions. Pupils' response s may be listed on the board, discussed an d
the most appropriat e ones incorporated int o the text.
Incidental Modellin g
Sometimes classroom activities will naturally lead to the construction of written

texts. For example, while pupils are engaged in producing a written draft, th e
teacher ma y becom e awar e tha t pupil s ar e havin g difficult y wit h a certai n
language pattern. One way of dealing with this is to write in front o f pupils a
range o f example s o f tha t patter n an d discus s them . Thi s provide s explici t
modelling o f a writing for m althoug h i t is a n unplanne d respons e t o a nee d
that arose incidentally in normal teaching. When a text is selected for reading
by the teacher or pupils, without considering how it may be used for analysis,
written language is implicitly modelled .
SHARED WRITIN G
One o f th e mos t effectiv e mean s o f providing explici t modellin g i s throug h

shared writing. This approach provides a means of modelling the organizational
structure and language forms used in varieties of written texts and the process
of writin g thos e texts . A share d writin g approac h incorporate s a numbe r o f
notable features .
Writing and the Use of Literature in the English Classroom 1 5
Features
1. A written tex t is produced b y both teacher s an d pupils. All pupils ca n

participate i n th e proces s o f constructin g a text an d contribut e t o it s
emerging development. This encourages pupils to feel a sense of ownership
and achievement in what they have produced.
2. Th e text is constructed jointly under low risk conditions. Pupils do not
need to fear makin g mistake s a s they ar e actively encourage d t o make
suggestions an d comment s durin g th e developmen t o f th e text . Thes e
responses are valued and pupils can decide which should be incorporated
into the text.
3. A s shared writing provides an explicit model, pupils will be clearer about
what they are required to do and, more importantly, be able to draw on
strategies to use during the process of constructing a text either jointly or
independently. The y wil l b e consciou s o f th e nee d t o conside r
organizational structure and language in the process of writing a text.
4. Share d writing supports pupils in developing a problem-solving approach
so that eventually they may become more independent writers.
5. Share d writing is an approach which does not require any special resources;
it simply requires the teacher to demonstrate how writing takes place and
provide the opportunity for pupils to participate in the joint construction
of texts. It is therefore easy to employ. It is also flexible to the extent that
it can be used at all levels from primary to tertiary.
6. Pupil s are encouraged to make decisions about what to write. This fosters
the development of creativity and independence in writing.
Procedures
Shared writing has three distinct stages , modelling, drafting an d redrafting ,

and development/application. These stages will be described with referenc e
to the construction of a narrative text.
Stage One — Modelling Planning
1. Th e teacher displays a planning sheet or story map that shows the structure
or framework of a narrative text (see Figure 2). This provides the explicit
structure for the development of the story. The teacher explains each aspect
of the structure.
Figure 2 Stor y map
2. Th e teache r select s a n interestin g pictur e o r object . Th e teache r playin g

the rol e o f leade r an d guide , help s pupils t o develop th e stor y b y askin g
questions. Thes e question s provid e a 'scaffold ' o r fram e fo r pupils '
suggestions. If the teacher wante d pupils t o suggest the setting of a story
based o n the picture below, sh e might as k questions suc h as:
Is it morning or afternoon?
Where are they?
Who is this? What's his/her name?
What do you think is in the box?
What did they do with it?
(From 'The Big Box' b y Roderick Hunt, 1993 )
These questions provide both a framework and an explicit model of the elements
that are required to write the setting of a story.
3. Pupils ' response s ca n b e liste d o n th e board i n categorie s tha t represen t

each element of the setting, e.g .
When Where Who What di d What was

they find? in the box?
one morning garden Mum big box robot
afternoon park Tow giant box babif giraffe
after lunch etc, football field Jane tallbox monster
mysterious Dad
box refrigerator
Figure 3 Categorizatio n of pupils' suggestions

Writing and the Use of Literature i n the English Classroom 1 7
4. Pupil s ca n the n b e aske d t o selec t fro m thi s gri d thos e response s the y
would like to write about. As the pupils make their suggestions, the teacher
writes the m o n th e board o r o n a large planning shee t o r stor y ma p (se e
Figure 2).
Stage Two — Modelling Drafting and Redrafting
1. Th e teacher asks pupils to suggest sentences for each aspect on the planning
sheet by askin g questions suc h as:
What can we put in the first sentence?
Can we add anything ?
2. Th e teache r write s th e agree d sentence s o n th e board unti l th e settin g i s
complete. The same procedure may be followed for the remaining section s
of the story such as events and the ending. At each stage the teacher guides
the development throug h th e use of supportiv e questions, e.g .
What did they do then?
What did they say?
3. Whe n the story is complete, the teacher can model strategies for re-draftin g
and editin g th e text . Thes e ca n includ e way s t o develo p an d enric h th e
content, to achieve greater cohesion an d coherence or to re-read focusin g
on grammar, spellin g an d punctuation, e.g .
(a) Content :
The teache r ca n dra w pupils ' attentio n t o a particula r sentenc e an d as k
them question s t o elici t a mor e detaile d descriptio n o f character s an d
events, e.g.
What kind of box was it?
Was it a big box? How big?
What colour was it?
The agreed suggestion s ca n then be inserted int o the sentence.
(b) Cohesio n an d Coherence :
If there are parts of the story where the cohesion can be improved, questions
that can be considered b y the teacher include :
referencing—Are reference s to characters, things, places and events made
consistently? For instance, if a paragraph contain s reference t o a number
of mal e characters , an d th e wor d 'he ' appear s severa l times , conside r
whether it is clear which character is referred to .
conjunctions — Are the links between paragraphs, sentences an d clause s
sufficient an d appropriate? Or would the coherence be improved by adding
temporal (and then, after that, the next thing he .. . ), causa l (because, as
a result), additiv e (and), o r adversative (but, however) conjunctions ?
18 Joh n Harris and Tony Mahon
sequence — Are the different section s arrange d i n the most effective an d

logical order ?
vocabulary — I s the most suitabl e vocabular y used ? For example, i f th e
story takes place in a haunted house, does the text contain reference t o the
kinds of things one might encounter (e.g. skeletons, ghosts, strange noises,
strange music etc.)? Would it be more effective t o substitute other words ?
If the text needs improvement in any of these areas, the teacher can provide
guidance for pupils by eliciting their suggestions an d incorporating the m
into the text.
Stage 3 — Application
The above procedures shoul d be carried out frequently s o that pupils becom e
increasingly familia r wit h the process and forms o f writing. When the teacher
feels ready to work independently o r in small groups, pupils can be given their
own writing tasks. They should be encouraged to use strategies they have learned
through share d writin g an d appl y the m to writing their own texts. To provide
support during this process, they can be given planning sheets, drafting sheets ,
re-writing guideline s o r checklists. As they ar e writing thei r texts the teache r
can meet individuals or small groups and discuss their plans, drafts and finished
products. Pupils can als o read each other's wor k and comment upon it .
In this second section we have tried to show how modelling can be a useful
means o f makin g explici t t o young learner s th e purposes, structure , functio n
and strategie s o f writing narratives .
WRITING NON-NARRATIV E TEXT S
In this third sectio n we shall take a story as the stimulus and sho w how it can
be used for a range of writing that is non-narrative — that is, writing in form s
other than stor y form. First , we need to outline som e of the forms o r types o f
writing that are available and can be used to good purpose in primary classrooms.
It is common to refer t o these forms o f writing as genres.
There is a range o f text types tha t is frequently encountere d i n the worl d
around u s tha t d o not really hav e a generic name , but ar e characterized b y a
tendency to use a minimal amount of language, with or without the addition of
graphic or visual support. We have chosen to call these text types simple texts
and they include the following :
Writing and the Use of Literature in the English Classroom 1 9
Without graphic s With graphic s
labels tables
forms charts
lists diagrams
menus signs
notices posters
posters
signs
The typica l languag e feature s o f suc h text s ar e th e us e o f singl e word s o r

phrases; sometime s simpl e sentences , command s o r exclamations ; an d a
predominance o f the verbs to be and to have — technically , these are termed
stative verbs . These types are not used very much in school writing, probably
because there is a feeling tha t they do not constitute 'proper ' writing. Yet they
are commonly used . They can be exploited t o great effect i n the classroom .
Many text s tha t w e encounte r ever y da y tel l u s ho w t o mak e o r d o
something. These texts are grouped together and referred to as the procedural
genre. The common wa y of organizing thes e texts is as follows :
•a statement of the goal or aim of the activity ;
• th e items required to achieve the aim;
• th e steps required to achieve the aim;
• th e expected outcome .
The sectio n that describes th e steps will follow a time sequence and the ver b
forms wil l usually be imperatives or the simple present. The sequential natur e
of th e tex t i s ofte n highlighte d b y th e us e o f sequenc e adjunct s suc h a s
first. . . next. . . then. I t wil l be obviou s b y no w tha t i n thi s genr e w e ca n
include texts suc h as instructions, recipes and directions.
CONVEYING INFORMATIO N TW O GENRE S CONTRASTE D
The othe r tw o genre s tha t w e nee d t o conside r ar e bot h concerne d wit h

conveying information , bu t of a very differen t sort . The two types o f writin g
are sometimes not sufficiently distinguishe d in school writing which can lead
to confusio n i n th e mind s o f th e writer s an d en d wit h th e productio n o f
unsatisfactory text s — a source of frustration fo r learners an d teachers alike!
First, there is the recount genre which includes texts in which writers tell
others about events that happened to them. This genre may take the form of a
letter o r a postcard; i t could als o tak e the form o f a diary entr y o r a piece of
personal reminiscence — rather like the written equivalent of a piece of gossip.

The wa y suc h text s ar e organize d i s ver y simila r t o a story . Ther e wil l b e a
setting, a description of events in time sequence and a conclusion. The language
features wil l includ e th e us e o f th e simpl e pas t tense , referenc e t o specifi c
people, things and actions. As in stories, time adjuncts may be used to highlight
the sequence of events — not e that we have already see n these adjuncts use d
in this way in the procedural genre .
The othe r genr e als o involve s conveyin g information , bu t i t is o f a very
different natur e becaus e i t consist s o f tellin g other s wha t somethin g i s like .
The something could be a class of things, or a group of things. But here we are
dealing with things that are always true — no t things that happened onc e and
to one person. There is no really satisfactory nam e for this genre, but it is ofte n
called the descriptive or general repor t genre. As well as descriptions it can
include comparison s an d classifications , thoug h i t shoul d b e noted tha t thes e
are difficult bot h conceptually an d linguistically an d need to be handled wit h
great care in primary contexts . An example is provided late r in this section .
One of th e difficult thing s abou t this genre is that the organization i s not
related to a time sequence, but relies on the writer constructing his or her own
order and making a significant selectio n and grouping of facts and/o r features .
This genre is also characterized by the use of the present tense to describe what
is always true — and this is a different us e of the tense to the one that primary
students ar e first introduce d t o in P1/P2.
With the brief outline of types of writing provided above, we are now in a
position t o show how a piece of literature can be used to stimulat e a range of
non-narrative writing tasks that will, at the same time, provide a varied writing
diet for student s a t upper primary levels .
The piec e o f literatur e chosen , A List, (reproduce d below ) i s a favourit e
from th e series of Frog an d Toad storie s written by Arnold Lobel. The storie s
are designed fo r student s wh o hav e just gaine d th e stag e o f independenc e i n
reading a t whic h the y nee d text s tha t ar e simpl e i n structur e an d rang e o f
vocabulary, bu t ar e intrinsically motivating . Th e Frog an d Toad storie s serv e
these purpose s admirabl y an d ar e suitabl e fo r us e wit h P4-P 6 students . The
List als o provide s a good exampl e o f how a story ca n b e used t o approach a
range of writing tasks.
Writing and the Use of Literature i n the English Classroom 2 1
A LIS T
One mornin g Toad sat in bed.
'I hav e many things to d o/ h e said. Al
'I wil l writ e the m al l dow n o n a lis t s o f8tofWngs
that I can remembe r them / todotodau
Toad wrote on a piece of paper :
A lis t of things to do today
Then h e wrote: &ttbreakfast
Wake u p <jet dressed
1 hav e done that/ sai d Toad, 5o to Frog's fiovse
Ta
&m/t;w/MFro,
and h e crossed out:
Wake u p
~te& trap
Then Toad wrote other things on the paper.
There/ sai d Toad. ^%'games vrtt/, fro ,
'Now m y day i s all written down / £*t supper
He got out of be d an d ha d something to fy to s/eep
eat.
Then Toad crossed out:
Eat breakfast
Toad took his clothes out of the cupboard
and put them on.
Then h e crossed out:
Get dressed
Toad put the list in his pocket.
He opened the door and walked out int o
the morning.
Soon Toad was at Frog's front door .
He too k th e lis t fro m hi s pocke t an d
crossed out:
Go to Trog' s house
Toad knocke d a t the door.
'Hello/ sai d Frog.
'Look at my list of things to do/ said Toad.
'Oh,' sai d Frog, 'that i s very nice. '
Toad said, 'My lis t tells me that we will go
for a walk/
'All right / sai d Frog.
'I am ready /
Frog and Toad went for a long walk.
Then Toa d too k th e lis t fro m hi s pocke t
again.
He crossed out :
Take walk wit h fro g
22 Joh n Harris and Tony Mahon
The nex t par t o f th e stor y recount s ho w a stron g win d ble w th e lis t ou t o f

Toad's hand . Fro g trie d t o catch th e list bu t coul d not . Without hi s lis t Toa d
could not remember what else he planned to do that day, so he sat down at the
side of the road an d did nothing. Finally Frog came up with a solution:
Frog sat with him .

After a long time Fro g said,
'Toad, it i s getting dark.
We should b e going to sleep now /
'Go to sleep! ' shouted Toad.
'That was the las t thing on my list! '
Toad wrote o n the ground with a stick: Go to sleep
Then h e crossed out:
Go to sleep
'There/ sai d Toad.
'Now m y day i s all crosse d out! '
'I a m glad/ sai d Frog.
Then Fro g and Toad went to sleep.
Any story offers student s and teachers two broad possibilities which should
be taken together. One is to engage in the imaginative experiences of the story
through linking these to the experiences of the students; the other is to explore
the inherent experience of the story itself. In reality, these two aspects interrelate
and affec t on e another . Fo r instance, the centra l relationshi p i n th e Frog an d
Toad stories is the dynamic that provides the humour and humanity. We relate
to Frog a s the long-suffering, bu t totally loya l an d stead y friend ; a t the sam e
time w e als o recogniz e th e necessit y fo r th e relationshi p o f th e impetuosit y
and enthusias m o f Toad. Toad is the initiator; Fro g pick s u p the pieces, a s it
were, whe n thing s g o wrong . W e relate , then , t o suc h a relationshi p b y
recognizing these personalities and their mutual dependence. It is not a matter
of taking sides but of understanding the dynamic. And we do this through ou r
own understanding of friendships an d relationships — even from a young age,
though the way in which we can articulate our understanding ma y differ .
In this way, although writing in English about the complexities of friendship
is not realistic for uppe r primary students , we can, nevertheless, plan writin g
activities usin g thi s potentia l o f linkin g th e stor y t o th e experience s o f ou r
students.
WRITING TASK S BASE D O N TH E STUDENTS ' EXPERIENC E
Much o f the humour in the story stems from th e way in which Toad's 'Lis t of
Things t o D o Today ' start s a s a praiseworth y effor t t o organiz e himsel f bu t
==^^=^=- Writin g and the Use of Literature in the English Classroom 2 3
ends up being an inflexible barrier to action. We have already suggested that

lists ar e a n importan t exampl e o f th e simpl e tex t genr e tha t need s t o b e
exploited more fruitfully wit h students. A list will usually require word level
writing only and the organizing principle is likely to be comparatively simple.
The following table suggests some types of lists that could be developed in the
classroom and their organizing principle:
List Organization Language Feature s
My Da y chronological words/phrases/sentences
A shoppin g lis t grouping — b y words

shops or types
of produc t
A list of friend s alphabetic or names

(to invite to a party random
or a picnic)
A list of present s priority (e.g . mother, names and presents —

(to buy o r make fo r father, sibling s an d word leve l
family an d friend s then, wider circle of
at Christmas o r friends an d relatives)
New Year)
Activities an d game s chronological names of games, with a

for a party o r (sequence in whic h short description o f the
barbecue you wish to play the activities an d material s
games) or random required
Things t o do priority words/phrases

(these might includ e
homework, musi c
practice, jobs suc h
as tidying one' s
room etc. )
Toad's list, however, is a directed list of instructions to himself — he tells

himself what to do. As such, it takes on the linguistic features of the procedural
genre. It will creat e a natural progression t o move from th e simple type of
lists already suggested to the type of list that also describes a procedure. Models
should be offered an d discussed, as suggested earlier, with careful attention to
verb forms an d sentence structures. Examples of actual writing tasks using the
procedural genr e are:
Directions — ho w to get somewher e
Recipes — ho w to make somethin g
Instructions — ho w to make or do somethin g
Procedural genr e tasks that have an intrinsic motivation an d sense of purpos e

might includ e providin g instruction s fo r visitor s t o find th e Principal's roo m
or Staffroo m afte r arrivin g a t schoo l (i n Chines e an d English) ; o r providin g
instructions fo r a friend t o find his/her wa y to your apartment . Later , w e als o
suggest the creation of a simple board game as an example of procedural genre
writing.
Before w e move on, it may be useful t o comment briefly o n how writin g
as a process fits with the examples so far suggested. As we stated earlier, there
is n o poin t i n requirin g student s t o produc e draft s fo r th e sak e o f drafting .
Creating a lis t i s essentiall y a simpl e writin g tas k tha t require s though t
beforehand an d whil e writing , bu t doe s no t requir e anythin g particularl y
elaborate by way of planning. A list is, after all, a means of planning. Revision
may be necessary, if only to provide the opportunity for discussing sequencin g
and/or grouping and for checking on surface language features such as spelling.
Anything more than this is unnecessary and likely to detract from the enjoyment
of the task and the perception o f the purpose of the task.
The followin g descriptio n o f a writing tas k uses th e stor y o f The List t o
trigger students ' memorie s o f occasions whe n the y have gone for walk s o n a
windy day , particularl y i n th e build-up t o a typhoon o r it s aftermath . I n thi s
task, which is suitable for olde r students (P5 and P6), students are required t o
write a lively account in the recount genre. This genre requires a more extensive
vision of the writing process than described above under the simple text genre
and require s carefu l support . A teachin g sequenc e tha t support s student s i n
recounting thei r ow n experience s o f walkin g outsid e o n a wind y da y migh t
take the following form :
1. Readin g and discussion of two or three short extracts from The List wit h
consideration of key features such as sequence, language features, creation
of atmosphere an d excitement, conclusio n an d expression o f feelings ;
2. Modellin g the creation of a new text with the whole class using the visual
prompts of a picture sequence. This provides opportunities for the students
to collaborat e i n th e joint creatio n o f a text an d fo r th e teache r t o dra w
attention to language and organizational features .
3. Discussio n i n pair s (i n Cantonese , i f deeme d appropriate ) o f students '
experiences a s a 'rehearsal ' o f what they are intending to write.
4. Plannin g a n outline sequence in note form, o r by sketching .
5. Draftin g th e initia l versio n o f thei r accoun t — suppor t shoul d b e mad e
available i n th e for m o f stor y planner s o r wor d an d phras e banks , a s
suggested earlier .
= = = = = ^ Writin g and the Use of Literature in the English Classroom 2 5
6. Sharin g with their partner the initial draft so that their partner can suggest
good points and points for further developmen t ( 2 or 3 points each).
7. Fina l draf t incorporatin g suggestion s fro m th e partner an d ow n secon d
thoughts. Th e final draf t shoul d b e presente d i n a n excitin g wa y wit h
illustrations, graphic borders or whatever else the students want to use to
enhance the presentation .
8. Feedbac k i n which students have a chance to share the accounts writte n
by others in the class.
WRITING BASE D O N TH E INTRINSI C EXPERIENC E O F TH E STOR Y
It is sometimes argued that with primary student s it is not appropriate to base

activities on the experience of the story itself as opposed to using the story as
a bridge to the students' own experiences. This argument is based on the notion
that dealing with the story itself is a form of 'literar y criticism' an d is teaching
literature rathe r tha n language . This seem s t o us a n artificia l an d misplace d
distinction tha t arise s fro m a deificatio n o f literar y studie s an d denie s th e
potential for languag e work that comes from a n engagement wit h stories .
It is a natural par t of enjoyin g storie s tha t w e enter into th e imaginativ e
world of the story; we take sides; we share vicariously the pleasures and pains
of the participants; we empathize with their circumstances and predicaments;
we are impelled onwards to discover the outcome of events. All this is a natural,
even inevitable, part of the experience of being immersed in stories. It follows,
then, that there is a range of writing activities that can arise naturally from th e
experience of the story itself. These activities will not link so directly with the
students' ow n experiences , bu t ar e valuabl e nonetheles s an d provid e
opportunities tha t shoul d b e exploite d i n th e languag e classroom . W e shall ,
for th e sak e of brevity, sugges t two comparatively simpl e tasks an d two tha t
are more demanding — this is not an exhaustive list of possibilities.
There i s valu e i n invitin g student s t o expres s thei r reaction s t o a story .
However, in written form this tends to become an imposed task such as 'writ e
a book/story review/report ' tha t detracts from th e enjoyment an d motivatio n
of sharing the story. A more motivating and enjoyable way to approach this is
to as k student s t o creat e a poster t o recommend th e book t o friends , mayb e
another class in the school. The other class could judge the posters and provide
feedback o n their effectiveness. Thi s type of work has been carrie d ou t wit h
great success by students participating in the Education Department's Extensive
Reading Scheme for English. The poster is, of course, an example of a simple
text genre. One of its particular merits for primary students is that the amount
of languag e ca n b e controlle d accordin g t o th e abilit y o f th e students . Fo r
lower ability student s the use of key words, matched with graphics, will lead
to the creation of a satisfying product. More able students should be challenged
to produce longer pieces of text, but still integrated with graphics.
26 Joh n Harri s an d Tony Maho n
For younger and/or less able students another task could be the writing of
a 'Than k You' car d fro m Toa d t o Frog afte r th e adventur e i s over . A 'Than k
You' lette r woul d b e a more challengin g alternativ e fo r olde r an d mor e abl e
students. Either task should be approached through a sequence of activities as
detailed earlier for th e recount genre example.
A mor e comple x writin g tas k suitabl e fo r mor e abl e P 5 o r P 6 student s
would b e to create a board gam e based o n Frog's attemp t t o retrieve th e list .
An appropriat e outlin e fo r th e gam e shoul d b e create d an d photocopie s
distributed to groups of students. The groups would need to decide the purpose
of th e game , th e numbe r o f players , th e procedure s fo r playin g includin g
penalties an d bonuses, and how the winner is determined. Each group shoul d
create a draft o f their game with a list of rules. These draft games should, then,
be exchanged wit h another group to try out and give feedback befor e makin g
any necessary changes .
The final writin g tas k provides a n opportunity t o introduce student s to a
difficult genr e — the descriptive or general report genre that incorporates a
set of comparisons. This is conceptually an d linguistically complex. However,
with carefu l preparatio n abl e student s ca n begi n t o develo p contro l o f thi s
genre which forms a n increasingly importan t part of the writing curriculum at
secondary level .
Let us take as an example the task of creating a comparison between Frog
and Toad in terms of their characteristics, attitudes and behaviour. As with all
forms o f comparison a three-fold relationshi p is involved — what X and Y are
like in relation to A, B or C. To map this as the crucial part of the initial draftin g
stage a gri d wil l b e foun d helpfu l a s a n ai d t o thinkin g an d buildin g u p th e
required vocabular y (se e Figure 4).
Quality Frog Toad
Skin colour green brown
Character * is calm * gets excited

* knows what to do * become confused
* is positive * is not flexible
* solves problems * has lots of ideas
Friendship is loyal to Toad despite relies on Frog

all the problems
Figure 4 A comparison grid

^ ^ ^ ^ ^ = = - Writin g and the Use of Literature in the English Classroom 2 7
Using this grid as the first stage in creating a text opens up several possibilities
for takin g thing s further . Th e mos t obviou s wa y i s t o creat e a description i n
which the two characters are compared. However, it may be more appropriat e
for this to be framed i n more personal terms, such as T like Frog/Toad because
he is . . . '. I t would also be possible for the points assembled on the grid to be
used t o creat e a simpl e tex t format , suc h a s a poste r showin g Fro g an d hi s
characteristics alongside Toad and his. The choice of final product can be varied
to sui t th e abilit y leve l o f th e clas s o r differentiate d fo r group s o f student s
within the class.
This section has explored ways in which the narrative form can be used as
initial input for creating writing tasks that require pupils to respond to literature
to produce a range of different writte n genres .
CONCLUSION
In this chapter we have shown how literature can provide a dynamic stimulu s
for writin g a t uppe r primar y level . We have als o show n ho w writin g ca n b e
made a more meaningful an d constructive activity by using the teaching strategy
of modelling ; b y encouragin g th e stage-by-stag e creatio n o f text s throug h a
Shared Writing approach; an d by creating a balanced curriculu m based on an
understanding o f the range of written genres that can and should be practised
at primary level .
REFERENCES
Harris, J. 1993. Introducing Writing. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Hunt, R. 1993. The Big Box. (Oxford Reading Tree, Stage 1). Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Lobel, A. 1972. Frog and Toad Together. Harmondsworth: Puffin Books , Penguin.
Mackay, D., B. Thompson, and P. Schaub, 1979. Breakthrough to Literacy: Teacher's
Manual. Harlow: Longman for the Schools Council.
Mahon, J. A. 1992. From sentence to story: a process approach to the development of
composition skill s in the primary school . In Developing Writing: Purposes and
Practices, ed. M. Lau and M. J. Murphy. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Government
Printer.
Williams, M. 1991. A framework for teaching English to young learners. In Teaching
English to Children: From Practice to Principle, ed. C. Brumfit, J. Moon and R.
Tongue. London: Collins ELT.
Wing Jan , L . 1991 . Write Ways: Modelling Writing Forms. Melbourne: Oxfor d
University Press.
CHAPTER
1
Verse and Worse —
Poetry and Rhyme in the EFL
Primary School Classroom
Margaret Falvey
INTRODUCTION
This chapte r i s abou t th e rol e o f poetr y an d rhym e i n th e languag e learnin g

process a t primary level .
The term poetry is often understoo d in the restricted sense of the classical
canon of literature; this is not the case here. The chapter discusses how rhymes,
riddles, jingle s an d song s a s wel l a s poem s ca n b e use d t o arous e primar y
pupils' interes t an d mak e th e languag e learnin g proces s a n enjoyabl e an d
rewarding experience. The emphasis throughout is on using poetry and rhyme
to foste r th e meaningfu l us e o f language , i.e . o n helpin g pupil s t o becom e
Language-Users, rathe r tha n o n providin g pupil s wit h Knowledg e Abou t
Language (KAL ) (va n Lier , 1995 : 9) . Thi s involve s a 'whole-language '
approach i n whic h pupil s ar e expose d t o meaningfu l 'chunks ' o f language .
This mean s firstl y tha t th e chunk s o f languag e ar e muc h large r tha n thos e
traditionally presente d i n th e EF L classroo m an d secondl y tha t thes e large r
chunks o f languag e ar e integrated withi n a clear socia l contex t whic h pupil s
can relate to and employ i n their own day-to-day lives .
The chapter begins with a discussion o f the EFL primary curriculu m an d
the issue o f motivatio n a t primary level , leading o n to a consideration o f th e
role poetry can play in motivation and successful language learning. The chapter
includes example s o f materials an d suggestions for classroom use.
30 Margare t Falvey •
Here are three questions for yo u to think about as you read the chapter:
1. Ho w can we motivate primary pupils to practise using English ?
2. Ca n w e affor d t o spen d tim e o n fu n activitie s whe n ther e i s s o muc h t o
cover in the official syllabus ?
3. I f these ideas are useful wh y aren' t they in the official syllabus ?
THE EF L PRIMARY CURRICULU M
Nowadays primar y schoo l EF L curricul a worldwid e stres s pupi l interes t an d

enjoyment as major factors in successful foreign language learning. The current
Hong Kong Primary English Language Syllabus (CDC, 1981:18), for example,
argues that the main emphasis in EFL lessons should be on having pupils 'do '
interesting an d enjoyable thing s 'through ' Englis h s o that they ar e constantl y
motivated t o mak e th e enormou s effor t necessar y fo r successfu l languag e
learning. The syllabus recommends th e emphasis given to pupils' interest an d
enjoyment shoul d be six-sevenths in Primary Years 1-3 , with a slight decrease
to two-thirds in Years 4-6, on the grounds that immediate and constant reward
is an essential factor in ensuring continued effort on the part of the pupil. Th e
following condition s ar e cited a s being associate d wit h suc h reward:
1. tha t the activity o r learning tasks which the learner undertakes ar e within
his capacity t o carry out with som e degree of success ;
2. tha t each learning task can immediately be applied to do something whic h
could not have been previously done ;
3. tha t each learning task is real for the learner (an d not part of a long-range
process understood onl y by the teacher).
(Curriculum Development Committee , Hong Kong, 1981 : 19)
The above conditions should, of course, apply to any language learning task or
activity a t an y level . Thes e condition s d o not , however , directl y addres s th e
main proble m face d b y teachers , i.e . ho w t o promote pupi l interes t an d
enjoyment. Thi s brings us to the issue of motivation a t primary schoo l level.
MOTIVATION AN D PRIMAR Y SCHOO L PUPIL S
In th e contex t o f primar y EF L pupil s i t i s questionabl e whethe r th e term s

'integrative motivation' and 'instrumenta l motivation' are useful. The concepts
they represent were identified amongst adult EFL learners, the majority of whom
study voluntarily. These two terms are discussed below and then an alternative
view, based on the concepts of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, is suggeste d
for EFL primary learners .
= = = = = = ^ = = = = = = = = = = = = ^ Vers e and Worse 3 1
Integrative Motivatio n
When EFL learners wish to identify with , become part of, or join an English-
speaking cultur e the n motivatio n i s describe d a s integrative . Integrativ e
motivation can be observed in the second language context amongst immigrant
pupils, in the United States and the United Kingdom for example, who rapidly
acquire playground languag e i n English i n orde r to join i n game s o r to be
accepted by their peer group. This occurs very rarely in the foreign languag e
context, however. In Hong Kong, Cantonese is the language of the playground
(except in some of the international schools) and it is also the language of the
home and almost all spoken social interactions. Few Hong Kong primary pupils
have any contact with native speakers of English and they are therefore unlikely
to become integratively motivated to learn English.
Instrumental Motivatio n
When EFL learners study English in order to achieve an external goal such as
passing a n examination, obtainin g a n entry qualificatio n t o university o r to
ensure promotion in the workplace, their motivation is described as instrumental.
These are long-term goals, however, and, while they may be effective a s a
motivating forc e fo r adul t or senior secondary learners , they ar e unlikely to
sustain motivation in primary pupils over the six years of primary education.
After all, a five-year-old at the dentist's is hardly likely to keep still as requested
in response to the promise of a bag of sweets in six years' time, let alone the
promise of strong, healthy teeth!
At primary level reward must be constant and, preferably, immediate, in
order to create an d sustai n th e necessary leve l of motivation. Bu t precisely
what are we as educators referring to when we talk about rewards at primary
level?
Extrinsic Motivation
Giving praise, awarding gol d stars , showing the best pieces of work on the
classroom notice-board or getting a child to perform in front of the whole class
are all typical rewards in the primary school classroom. They are all designed
to foster motivation and they are all effective provided that 'all' the children in
the class receive them from tim e to time, i.e. that every child has his or her
moment of glory and that the rewards are not restricted to the more able children
only. While effective, these rewards have their limitations. They all come from
external sources, usually the teacher. They tend to be short-term in their effect
and, since their provision is dependent on external sources, tend to make the
learner dependen t o n th e teache r fo r motivation . Th e valu e o f extrinsi c
motivation is that it may help the teacher to introduce new or more challenging
activities in a positive way and to bolster pupils' confidence or effort if a task
32 Margare t Falvey
is proving demanding. Exclusive dependency on extrinsic motivation, however,

would sugges t tha t th e teacher lack s awarenes s o f th e nature o f learnin g an d
the fact that learning takes place within the learner, during the process of doing
a task rather than when a n outcome has been achieved .
Intrinsic Motivatio n
Successful an d sustaine d learnin g i s mor e likel y t o occu r i f motivatio n i s

intrinsic, i.e . th e chil d perform s a tas k o r activit y fo r its own sake, simpl y
because i t i s s o enjoyable , o r s o challenging , tha t th e chil d become s totall y
absorbed i n doin g th e task . Unde r thes e conditions , th e chil d i s completel y
self-motivated and , afte r suc h a n experienc e i s likel y t o undertak e simila r
tasks voluntarily. Furthermore a child who is intrinsically motivated to undertake
a task will persist for some time in efforts t o complete the task even if it proves
difficult o r unpleasant i n some way.
Very young children are intrinsically motivated to undertake quite difficul t
tasks. The y experimen t wit h learnin g t o walk , fo r example , an d continu e t o
practise even though they may appear to be having little success and in spite of
failing over and hurting themselves (Biggs and Telfer, 1987:113-114) . Primary
pupils in the playground pla y games suc h as skipping or ball-bouncing, ofte n
accompanied b y a chant or rhyme. They not only play games such as footbal l
and basketball , bu t als o spen d tim e practising skill s suc h a s shootin g a t th e
goal again and again. These are ideal conditions for learning to take place, i.e.
total absorptio n i n th e task , purel y fo r it s ow n sake , undertake n voluntaril y
because of self-motivation. When the task proves challenging, more effort an d
concentration i s expende d o n it . Thi s typ e o f motivation , positiv e intrinsi c
motivation, is clearly what we should be aiming for in the language learnin g
classroom sinc e successfu l languag e learning require s exactl y th e sam e typ e
of effort an d the same degree of practice.
If a child has performed a task voluntarily because of self-motivation, an d
subsequently receives an unanticipated reward in the form o f praise, then this
will b e immediatel y reinforcing.Th e motivatio n t o undertak e th e tas k agai n
voluntarily, wil l b e intrinsic . If , however , teacher s o r parent s offe r externa l
rewards on condition tha t the child performs the activity again they may create
negative intrinsic motivation, i.e. the child may think that he is doing the activity
purely for the reward. He may therefore calculate the minimum effort require d
to obtai n th e rewar d an d the n reduc e eithe r th e numbe r o f time s h e does th e
activity or the amount of effort h e devotes to it. Rewards that seek to 'control '
children mak e them think it was the reward tha t caused thei r effort. Reward s
that 'inform ' childre n o f thei r achievement s mak e the m fee l goo d abou t
themselves an d ar e thus likel y t o promote further effor t o r voluntary practic e
(Biggs an d Telfer, 1987 : 114-119) .
Effective learnin g is not, therefore, dependent on extrinsic motivation, the
provision o f externa l rewards . Learning will , in fact, b e more effectiv e whe n
positive intrinsic motivation exist s or if it can be fostered .
—• Vers e and Worse 3 3
The next question is how can teachers foster positive intrinsic motivation?
In othe r words , wha t sor t o f Englis h language-usin g activitie s wil l absor b
primary pupil s i n th e wa y tha t younge r childre n ar e absorbe d i n learnin g t o
walk?
FINDING OU T WHA T AROUSE S INTRINSI C MOTIVATIO N I N PRIMAR Y

PUPILS
Since we are talking about self-motivation, a logical starting point is to observe

the differen t type s o f activitie s tha t primary pupil s undertak e voluntaril y an d
persist wit h eve n whe n difficult y o r challeng e occurs . We ca n observ e suc h
activities in the school playground during recess when pupils are free to entertain
or occup y themselve s a s the y wish , subjec t t o constraint s relatin g t o safety ,
etc. The playground activitie s of particular interest for us are, of course, those
which either directly involve, or are accompanied by, the use of language. Are
the playground activitie s o f English-speaking childre n the same as, or simila r
to, those of primary EFL learners in different part s of the world? In fact, studie s
of children' s game s an d languag e throughou t th e worl d revea l a numbe r o f
similarities.
GAMES CHILDRE N PLA Y
Throughout th e world, and even across the centuries, children's activitie s an d

games, together wit h accompanying rhyme s an d chants displa y a remarkabl e
similarity. 'Traps' , rhyme s or chants in which a n innocent victim is asked t o
participate an d i s the n tricke d int o makin g a foo l o f himself , illustrat e thi s
well. The victi m i s aske d t o keep repeating either exactl y th e sam e words a s
those used by his tormentor or the same set phrase or sentence in response t o
every statemen t his or her tormentor makes .
Trap
T went up one pair of stairs'.
A
'Just like me'.
'I went up two pairs of stairs'
'Just lik e me'.
T opened th e door' .
'Just like me'.
T crossed the room' .
'Just like me*.
'1 looked ou t of the window'.
'Just like me'.
'And saw a monkey'.
'Just like me'.
JJ
J.O. Halliwell, 1844. 'The Nursery Rhymes of England.'
(Opie and Opie, 1959: 66)
34 Margare t Falvey
Virtually identica l example s ca n b e foun d i n Frenc h an d German . Som e o f

these date back to the thirteenth century .
Traps are ideal entertainment during recess on wet days when pupils have
to stay indoors. They ar e also excellent gap-fillers, fo r the odd five minutes at
the end of a lesson, and for use as treats or rewards. Traps cannot be introduced
to th e whol e clas s a t once , however , sinc e ther e woul d b e n o victim s lef t t o
trick. They ar e best introduced t o individual childre n wh o are then set free t o
identify thei r ow n victims . Those wh o hav e alread y bee n victim s liste n wit h
great amusement a s new victims ar e tricked!
Some parodie s appea r t o b e timeless . I n 'Th e Lor e an d Languag e o f
Schoolchildren', Opie and Opie (1959: 88-89) give some examples of children's
parodies of well-known Christma s carols .
Good Kin g Wencesla s

Good King Wenceslas looked ou t
On the Feast of Stephen ;
Frost and sno w lay roundabout
Neat and crisp and even .
Good Kin g Wenceslas looked ou t

In his pink pyjama s
What d'you thin k he shouted out ?
'Lovely ripe bananas!'
\\
While Shepherd s Watche d Thei r Flocks b y Nigh t
While shepherds watched their flocks by night

All seated o n the ground,
An angel of the Lord came down
And glory shone around !
While shepherds washed their socks by night

All seated roun d the tub,
A bar of Sunlight soap came down
And they began to scrub.
For the children who chant them, parodies make more sense and are far mor e
fun tha n th e origina l versions . Thi s i s partl y becaus e o f thei r qualit y o f
'illicitness'. In a sense they are the 'property ' o f the children who chant them,
designed t o b e sun g whe n adult s ar e absent . Becaus e par t o f th e fu n i s thi s
Verse and Worse 3 5
quality of illicitness, it is therefore difficult for the teacher to introduce parodies,

since to do so would make the parodies the property of an adult and thus destroy
half the fun.
Counting-out games (Opie and Opie, 1969: 17-57) feature extensivel y
throughout the world and across the centuries. The well-known English versions,
'Paper, Scissors, Stone' or 'Rock, Paper, Scissors' are remarkably simila r to
the versio n 'Bread , Scissors , Hammer' , whic h i s an example o f a Chinese
counting-out game still played in Hong Kong. Even more remarkable is the
similarity of the hand and finger gestures which accompany it.
Almost identical versions of chasing games (Opie and Opie, 1969: 102) ,
in which one child is the predator and the rest are potential victims, such as
'What's the time, Mr Wolf?', can be traced back to the early 1800s but are still
popular in UK, France, Germany, Italy, Spain and South America. The children
creep up behind the 'wolf, chantin g the question and the wolf replies, 'One
o'clock', o r whatever tim e he chooses. Suddenl y h e shouts, 'Dinner-time! '
and chases the others. If a child i s caught, that chil d becomes th e wolf. In
Cairo, in the Arabic version, the children for m a circle around the wolf and
ask, 'Wha t ar e you doing, Mr Wolf?'. The wolf give s replies suc h as, 'I'm
washing my face' or T m combing my hair' until he shouts, T m chasing you!'.
EXPLORING TH E NONSENSE ELEMEN T
The nonsense element which features in many rhymes does not seem to represent
a problem for the children who chant them and a slight touch of disrespect or
ribaldry seem s to add to their attraction . Although th e nonsense elemen t is
acceptable in playground chants, which can be described as the 'property' of
children, childre n nevertheles s see k to 'mak e sens e out of nonsense' whe n
they encounter it in other contexts. When it was their turn to choose the hymn
for school assembly, for example, one class of five-year-oldssaid they wanted
the hymn about 'the teddy-bear'. When they sang the first line of the hymn to
their teacher their words were 'Gladly, my cross-eyed bear', which was sung
to the tune of 'Gladly, my cross I'd bear'. Another class was overheard reciting
the line 'And lead us not into temptation' from the prayer 'Ou r Father'. Their
version was 'And lead us not into ten stations'.
Nonsense rhymes may offer a series of pictorial images which are quite
clear to a child and can even be acted out. Once known, such rhymes can be
mimed by a few children while the rest of the class guess which rhyme they are
miming. Once the correct guess has been made, the whole class will perform
the rhyme with gusto! Alternatively, children can be asked to draw a series of
pictures to illustrate the rhyme and then to perform it showing their pictures
one at a time. Drawing pictures to illustrate a text demonstrates, of course, not
only what a child understands but also what he does not understand.
36 Margare t Falvey
NURSERY RHYME S
The two nursery rhyme s below ar e also good fun t o mime and the mimes can
be entertaining to watch. In addition, both rhymes offer plent y of scope for the
imaginative young artist. The expressions 'tuffet ' an d 'curd s an d whey' in the
second rhyme can be quickly explaine d a s 'stool ' an d 'congee' .
Humpty Dumpt y
Humpty Dumpt y
Sat o n a wall.
Humpty Dumpt y
Had a great fall .
Little Mis s Muffe t
All the King' s horse s
And all the King's me n Little Miss Muffe t
Couldn't pu t Humpt y Sat o n he r tuffe t
Together again ! Eating her curds and whey.
Along came a spider

And sat down beside her
And frightened Mis s Muffet away !
^r
LANGUAGE AN D TH E NONSENS E ELEMEN T I N TH E EF L CONTEXT
Despite the attraction o f nonsense rhymes, it is important that rhymes used in

the EF L contex t shoul d mak e sens e t o pupils , a t leas t i n th e wa y describe d
above, since one of the reasons for using the rhymes is to foster understandin g
and mastery o f a foreign language .
For th e sam e reason mos t o f th e vocabular y an d expression s introduce d
through rhyme s shoul d b e representativ e o f curren t Englis h us e s o tha t th e
vocabulary an d expression s tha t th e pupils lear n an d practis e fo r fu n wil l b e
recognized and easily understood by other speakers of English. The vocabulary
and expression s shoul d als o b e o f 'hig h frequency' , i.e . (1 ) word s tha t ar e
often use d in English, (2 ) and used wit h the same meaning a s in the chant, s o
that pupils can use them often an d in a wide variety of contexts. In the rhyme
beginning, 'One , two , Buckl e m y shoe, ' fo r example , th e word , 'buckle ' i s
clearly not on e o f hig h frequenc y o r current moder n use . It is not , therefore ,
appropriate for our purposes since we want pupils to be able to use the language
they acquir e throug h rhyme s i n othe r contexts . I n a cas e suc h a s thi s som e
Verse and Worse 3 7
change or modification i s needed. Fortunately, many traditional rhymes need

only slight modifications to achieve both of the above requirements.
ADAPTING ORIGINA L RHYME S FO R TH E EF L CONTEXT
When making changes it is important, however, to retain the general purpose

or function o f the chant, i.e. the game that accompanied it in the first place,
since it is usually the game that supplies the motivation to chant the rhyme.
When introducing such rhymes to pupils, the teacher should therefore begin
by introducing the accompanying activity first. During recess the teacher might,
for example , get some children to start a skipping competition. Once this is
going well, the teacher can begin the chant solo. If the chant involves counting,
the children will get the message and will be able to join in the counting part of
the chant straight away. They will then be motivated to listen to the rest of the
words so that they can chant the whole rhyme. They will also want to practise
with the teacher until they know the words well enough to chant the rhyme on
their own when they organiz e their ow n skipping competitions . Once these
competitions becom e popular th e children wil l be getting plenty o f healthy
exercise and enjoying themselve s whil e they also use English meaningfull y
and voluntarily.
The rhythm of many chants also provides an appropriate accompaniment
to a variety o f ball-bouncing activities . These are best introduced first with
ball-bouncing activitie s tha t th e pupil s hav e bee n observe d doin g i n th e
playground. A word of caution here, however. In order to ensure that the rhythms
of eac h chan t an d ball-bouncin g activit y actuall y match , I hav e foun d i t
necessary to try out different ball-bouncing activities with a number of different
chants before suggesting them to pupils!
Many chants have a dual function. Thos e which accompany skippin g or
ball-bouncing, for example, provide both the rhythm for the activity itself and
also a means of keeping scor e so that the winner of the competition ca n be
identified. Keeping score involves counting so the accompanying chant offers
a 'meaningfu l drill' , a drill with a built-in purpose. The children voluntaril y
practise saying English numbers, in numerical order, while they are absorbed
in the competition and , therefore , i n seein g how high th e numbers wil l go.
Since, however, this sort of competition may be carried out over a period of
days, the children are also involved in recalling and comparing scores in order
to determine the relative positions of the competitors. The concept of number
is thu s applie d an d re-applied i n a purposeful way . The original versio n of
'One, two, Buckle my shoe!' is used to accompany skipping and also to keep
score. The original and an amended version are given on the following pag e
and the criteria for the amendments to the latter are then discussed.
38 Margare t Falvey
Original Versio n
One, Two,
Buckle my shoe!
Three, Four ,
Knock at the door !
Five, Six,
Pick up sticks!
Seven, Eight ,
Shut the gate!
Nine, Ten, Amended Versio n
A big fat hen! |
One, Two, Now it's you!
Three, Four , Do some mor e
Five, Six, A clock ticks
Seven, Eight , What's the date ?
Nine, Ten, Tell us when
Eleven, Twelve, You're up to twelve!
Thirteen, Fourteen , We'r e not yawnin g
Fifteen, Sixteen , Kee p on skippin g
Seventeen, Eighteen , We'r e still waiting
Nineteen, Twenty , G o for a century !
Twenty-one {rhythm changes, speeds up)
Twenty-two etc. (Continuing up to one hundred).
Because man y o f th e word s an d expression s i n th e amende d versio n carr y

meaning an d message s relate d t o the skipping, e.g. 'D o som e more', 'You'r e
up t o twelve' , 'Kee p o n skipping' , 'We'r e stil l waiting' , 'G o fo r a century' ,
their meanin g i s constantl y reinforce d fo r th e childre n wh o chan t th e rhym e
and also for the few who may be watching and listening. 'We', the two children
turning the skipping rope and singing the chant, are encouraging the skipper to
keep going . Onc e th e numbe r twent y i s reached , th e chan t speed s up . Th e
change in pace, together with the increased volume of the chant, attracts mor e
children to gather round and join in the chant to encourage the skipper to keep
on trying . Th e pronunciatio n o f th e numbers , whic h ar e usuall y familiar ,
indicates the pronunciation fo r th e first part of the last word in each line. The
way the numbers are stressed also indicates the stress for the last word in each
line.
The imperative form, used throughout the original rhyme, is retained only
when used as a direct encouragement to the skipper since other uses are usually
impolite o r a mean s o f givin g orders . This i s a point tha t languag e teacher s
should be very sensitive to. Ideally teachers should restrict their own use of the
Verse and Worse 3 9
imperative form, to emergency situations only, in order to avoid unintentionally

teaching their pupils to be rude in English! This is because much of the language
primary pupils actually acquire or internalize is the English they hear repeatedly
used by their teachers. In the amended version, the imperative is replaced with
a variety of everyday expression s which contain, with one or two exceptions ,
high frequency word s and exhibit important features o f spoken English which
are frequently neglecte d in English language textbooks. For example, many of
the word s ar e 'elided' , i.e . ru n togethe r an d shortene d i n som e way , a s the y
usually ar e i n speech , e.g . 'We're ' instea d o f 'W e are' , 'What's ' instea d o f
'What is' , 'You're ' instead o f 'Yo u are' .
It is clearly preferabl e tha t the language used in rhymes shoul d be of th e
type that pupils can use extensively in a wide variety of contexts. The language
forms an d vocabular y use d shoul d therefor e b e o f hig h frequenc y an d
representative of current English usage. The rhymes should also be 'meaning -
bearing' sinc e practic e wil l the n reinforc e meaning s i n th e child' s memory .
The meanings should, however, be easily accessible to the pupils without much,
if any, help from the teacher so that pupils can learn and remember the rhymes
easily.This is essential if we want pupils to practise the rhymes voluntarily o n
other occasion s an d als o t o b e motivate d t o lear n mor e rhymes . Thes e
requirements d o not, however, rule out the nonsense element completely .
PURELY FO R FU N
Much adul t humou r i s base d o n ou r sens e o f th e ridiculous an d children' s

humour is no different. Nonsens e has a large part to play in this. Inappropriacy,
inconsistency, where consistency is expected, and loss of dignity on very formal
occasions are all part of our sense of the ridiculous. The sight and sound of an
old ma n soundl y aslee p an d occasionall y snorin g i s no t inherentl y funn y i n
itself, but during a formal churc h service it is likely to provoke uncontrollabl e
giggling amongs t the congregation, both adults an d children, especially i f th e
snores appear to punctuate, or sound like comments on, the sermon. For children
the mor e obviou s th e nonsense , th e mor e attractiv e th e rhym e an d th e mor e
likely the y ar e to want to repeat it. In som e cases the nonsense is more like a
comment o n th e shee r pointlessnes s o f somethin g o r som e activit y a s i n th e
first example below which children love to repeat again and again either because
of th e futility o f th e spider' s effort s o r because o f th e stupidit y o f th e spider .
The examples which follow ar e of a more modern vintage. Hopefully the y will
prove fun fo r today' s Hon g Kon g primary pupils .
40 Margare t Falvey
The Spide r
A silly little spider
Climbed up the spout .
Down cam e the rain
f The Di m Su m
And washed th e spider ou t The dim sum is a funny bir d
Out came the sunshin e But if always tastes superb!
Dried up all the rai n
Then th e silly little spider
Climbed u p the spout again !
\\
The Fir e Engin e
The fire engin e is large and re d
Partly because it's so well fed
Not on rice and meat an d veg.
But Big Macs with French Frie s instead!
T.V.
T.V'.s just like a magic carpe t
Except you sit in front o f it
Instead o f sitting on it!
The Di m Su m
The dim sum is a funny fis h
It doesn't travel in a dish
Inside a bamboo box it lies
And while it gently steams, it sighs.
The slightly macabre, ghoulish or even disgusting are also enjoyed by children,
perhaps as a way of dealing with fear. The first rhyme below is one that many
children have written above their names on the inside cover of a new textbook.
The followin g tw o examples , slightl y amende d fo r Hon g Kong , ar e abou t
something tha t children al l ove r th e world see m t o find disgustin g — schoo l
lunches! The fourth example has been consistently popular since the early 1900s
(Opie an d Opie , 1959 : 38) . Despit e this , mos t o f th e vocabular y i s o f hig h
Verse and Worse 4 1
frequency. There are some useful expressions , i.e. T wonder how?' and T don't
know why' . It also repeatedly illustrate s the use of the indefinite an d definit e
articles, offering pupil s who often sin g or chant it the opportunity to internalize
their own rules for articles .
When I am dead and i n m y grave, and all m y bones are rotten

This littl e book will tel l m y name , when I am quite forgotten.
School lunche s (1 )
Say what you will
School lunches make you ill.
Beef, pork or chicken n ' ric e
Not one of them i s nice.
All school lunches
Should stay inside their boxes!
School Lunche s (2 )
If you have school lunches
Better throw them asid e
A lot of kids didn't
A lot of kids died!
The meat is like iron
The Ol d Woma n The rice makes you ill
If that doesn't ge t you
There was an old woman wh o The sandwiches will!
swallowed a fly; Sung to the tune 'Sixteen Tons'.
I don't kno w why
She swallowed a fly
She's bound to die!
There was an old woman wh o

swallowed a spider ,
That wriggled and jiggled an d
wriggled insid e her;
She swallowed the spider to catc h
the fly
I don't kno w why
She swallowed the fly
She's bound to die! (etc.)
^mêw^^ssg*- r . any-v**" ««» sfxtyzm***?*

42 Margare t Falvey
CHILDREN'S VERS E AND A 'WHOLE LANGUAGE ' APPROAC H
The structuralis t vie w o f languag e whic h stil l underpin s man y o f th e

'implemented' primar y EF L curricula , suc h a s thos e presente d i n EF L
coursebooks, encourage s th e breaking dow n o f languag e int o ver y smal l so -
called 'learning ' unit s such as vocabulary item s and verb forms. In classroo m
practice, an d als o i n mos t publishe d coursebooks , thes e 'learning ' unit s ar e
frequently presente d to pupils devoid of both social and linguistic context and,
therefore, devoi d o f meaning . Thes e isolate d languag e forms , an d th e rule s
which are presented with them, are too abstract for young children to understand.
It is not surprising the n that they frequently fai l t o utilize them when they ar e
trying to use English t o communicate .
Nowhere is this s o clearly illustrate d a s in the teaching o f minimal pairs .
During th e lesso n pupil s successfull y aurall y discriminat e between , an d
reproduce, th e differen t sound s i n th e minima l pairs . Afterwards , however ,
they continue to talk about 'Sheep s in the sea' and 'Ship s in the field'. Tongue -
twisters offe r a n alternative , mor e meaningful , approac h t o thi s typ e o f
pronunciation problem . Fo r instance , 'Th e Ragge d Rascal' , ' A Night-light '
and 'Luc y Locket ' offe r practic e in sound s tha t ar e a discrimination proble m
for many EFL learners, i.e. the 'r' sound and the T sound . 'Th e Ragged Rascal'
is particularly goo d fu n becaus e o f th e 'race ' betwee n th e ragged rasca l an d
the pupil to see who runs out of breath first !
A Night-ligh t
There's no need to light a night-light
The Ragge d Rasca l On a light night like tonight
For a night-light's a slight light
Round and roun d the rugged roc k On a light night like tonight.
The ragged rasca l ra n
Running roun d the rugge d roc k
V
Running fro m hi s raging Gra n
Running, racing , reall y rushing,
The ragge d rasca l ran
Round an d roun d the rugge d roc k Lucy Locke t
Running faste r a s he ran .
Little Lucy Locket's
Lost her lovely locket
Lucy's looked both high and low
She loves her lucky locket so.
Since unlucky Lucy's locketless

She feels her life is in a mess.
There's little left no w that she's lost it
Except look for a locket like it!
y
= = = = = = = = = = = ^ = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^ ^ = = = ^ = ^ Vers e and Worse 4 3
USING TONGUE-TWISTER S I N TH E CLASSROOM
When childre n voluntaril y pla y Tongue-twisters, th e driving force s ar e thos e

of challenge and competition, with each competitor repeating the tongue-twister
as many times as possible and with increasing speed in order to get the highest
score. The fun elemen t onl y enters into things whe n the competitor begin s t o
get tongue-tied . T o pla y successfully , however , a tremendou s amoun t o f
concentration i s required, no t only fro m th e current competitor but also fro m
the other children wh o are listening fo r th e first sig n of a mistake so that they
can challeng e th e competitor , hav e thei r challeng e recognize d b y th e othe r
children an d the n hav e th e nex t turn . Tongue-twister s thu s clearl y stimulat e
positive intrinsic motivation .
With on e o r two mino r differences , tongue-twister s ca n be played i n th e
classroom in the same way as in the playground. Since they must be performed
individually, i t is important tha t the competitive element i s emphasized sinc e
this wil l ensur e tha t everyon e listen s carefull y t o eac h competitor , read y t o
raise their hands as soon as a mistake is heard. In the playground the successfu l
challenger automatically become s the next competitor but this can restrict th e
activity to only a few of the more able pupils. It is probably better, therefore, if
the teache r eithe r select s eac h competito r i n turn , startin g wit h th e les s abl e
whose turn s ar e likel y t o be shorter , o r divides th e class int o two team s wh o
compete alternately. The teacher's role in the scoring process should be handed
over to the pupils as soon as possible, since they can then challenge each other's
scoring, a s they inevitabl y will , whic h lead s t o purposeful us e o f Englis h t o
argue with each other! The competitive element, reduced because the teache r
selects th e competitors , ca n be reinforced b y awardin g extr a points t o pupil s
who first spo t a mistake. Despite the competitive element , concentratio n wil l
wane afte r a numbe r o f competitor s hav e ha d thei r turn , s o th e competitio n
needs t o be conducte d i n shor t bursts, at the beginnings an d end s o f lessons ,
for example. For the same reason it is advisable to introduce the shorter tongue-
twisters first so that pupils can master them quickly without a long delay before
they experience the fun of trying to repeat them faster and faster without getting
tongue-tied. Shorte r tongue-twister s can , of course , be used fo r countin g ou t
as well.
Peter Piper, probably one of the most well-known tongue-twisters, involves
discriminating betwee n a numbe r o f differen t vowe l sound s i n conjunctio n
with the repetition of an appropriately sounde d letter 'p ' which is like a puff of
wind and is not vocalized. The word 'peck ' can be explained by reference t o a
bird peckin g a t seed s o n th e groun d an d th e wor d 'pickled ' b y referenc e t o
local pickle d food s wit h which pupils ar e familiar, e.g . pickle d vegetable s i n
Chiu-Chow cuisine .
44 Margare t Falvey
Peter Pipe r
Peter Pipe r picked a peck of pickle d peppe r
A peck of pickle d pepper Pete r Pipe r picke d
If Peter Pipe r picked a peck of pickled peppe r
Where's the peck of pickle d pepper Pete r Pipe r picked ?
;
^ S ^ ^ ^ ^ g ^ ? ^ # ^ W : ^ ^ r»y . SKKi... »,..:>^^%y
The three tongue-twisters below all involve discrimination between consonants

and/or consonan t cluster s an d vowe l cluster s whic h ar e ofte n a proble m fo r
EFL learners and, provided the meaning is clear to the pupils, they offer excellen t
pronunciation an d aura l discrimination practice . A further strengt h i n the las t
two is the use of the same word as a noun and as a verb, i.e. 'cook' an d 'can/s' .
Sea-shells
She sells sea-shells on the sea-shore .
Cookies
How many cookies could a good coo k cook,
if a good coo k could cook cookies ?
A Canniba l
How many cans can a cannibal nibble,
if a cannibal can nibble cans?
, « ; S - ^ . . « s . ?. .
New vocabular y ca n b e introduce d informally . Fo r th e tongue-twister s

above, for example, 'cookies', 'sea-shells' and 'cans' can be introduced through
realia, ' a good cook' ca n be discussed with reference to which members of the
family d o th e cooking , 'nibble ' wit h referenc e t o the wa y a mous e eat s an d
'cannibal' wit h reference t o popular comics or social studies textbooks. Onc e
pupils are familiar with tongue-twisters, there will be a high level of motivation
to learn the vocabulary neede d for a new one.
Verse and Worse 4 5
The rhymes shown below are not tongue-twisters. They are included her e
because they illustrate oral/aural discrimination linked to meaning and presented
through memorabl e chunk s o f languag e instea d o f bein g deal t wit h throug h
isolated word s an d sounds . I hope they wil l be helpful t o teachers wh o hav e
despaired over the teaching of 'Shi p and Sheep' !
Ships an d Shee p (1 )
Ships and shee p
Hardly ever mee t
Because ships sail the sea
While sheep en d up in a very poor stat e
In soup for you and me!
Ships an d S h e e p (2 )
Ships sail from th e shor e
They sail across the se a
Sheep on the other han d A Shi p
Have to stay on dry land. m Yo u can take a shi p
To go on a trip
You can take a long trip
On a big ship.
There's room to skip

On the deck of a big ship
And you can take a dip
In the pool on a big ship.
•?
ACTION RHYME S
Previous sections have illustrated how children's rhymes, if carefully selecte d

or adapted, can provide pupils with both meaningful exposur e to and frequent ,
but naturally occurring, practice in using everyday English. The language items
which become available to pupils in this way should not, however, usually b e
mentioned o r made explicit t o the pupils. Pupils can an d will internalize th e
language items , a s a resul t o f frequen t exposure , throug h th e processe s o f
acquisition an d assimilation . The y wil l ge t th e necessary exposur e provide d
firstly tha t the y ar e intrinsicall y motivate d t o repea t th e rhyme s ofte n an d
secondly, and more importantly, that the rhymes ar e meaning-bearing. If thi s
46 Margare t Falve y
is th e cas e the n th e rhyme s themselve s becom e th e teacher , i.e . th e rhyme s

provide the pupils with the sort of knowledge about language that they need in
order t o becom e effectiv e language-users . Nevertheles s rhyme s shoul d no t
involve suc h a hug e burde n o f ne w vocabular y tha t the y almos t hav e t o b e
translated before th e pupils ca n understand them .
In addition , teacher s nee d t o think carefull y abou t whethe r i t i s actuall y
necessary t o pre-teach ever y ne w vocabular y item . Inferrin g th e meanin g o f
new words from socia l and linguistic context is a very important skill not only
for language-learner s bu t als o for language-users . I t is a skill whic h require s
self-confidence base d o n frequent experience s of perceiving the meaning of a
new wor d withou t th e teacher' s explanatio n an d withou t th e benefi t o f a
dictionary.
The actio n rhym e o n th e nex t page , fo r example , contain s a numbe r o f
verbs, e.g. 'flutter' , 'waggle' , 'flap ' an d 'move' , which may be new to pupils.
It is not, however, necessary to pre-teach these verbs or to revise the meanings
ofitemssuchas 'fingers' , 'wrists' , 'head',etc. since their meanings will become
clear during the process of mastering the actions which are an essential part of
the rhyme. Indeed, since the only sensible way to explain the meanings of the
first three verbs is to demonstrate them, there is not much point in doing this in
isolation from th e rhyme! The teacher will need to practise reciting the rhyme,
together wit h th e actions , wel l i n advanc e o f classroo m performanc e sinc e
each action , once introduced, mus t be continued throughou t th e rhyme and it
becomes increasingl y difficul t t o keep doing al l the actions at the same time.
Unlike tongue-twister s whic h mus t b e recite d b y individua l pupils , thi s
rhyme can be recited by the whole class, with the actions of course. It can b e
used fo r counting-out . Anyon e wh o forget s t o d o on e o f th e action s o r get s
them mixe d u p i s 'out' . Lik e th e other counting-ou t game s discusse d earlie r
there is no loss of face in being 'out ' becaus e other pupils will be 'out ' a t the
same time. 'Bein g out ' i s not, furthermore , th e result o f a mistake in Englis h
but purel y a matte r o f co-ordination . Becaus e masterin g th e rhym e an d th e
actions has been so challenging, pupils will want to practise it more, especially
the words, to make sur e that they hav e got them absolutely righ t s o that the y
can try the rhyme out on family an d friends .
The approach described abov e is a 'whol e language' approac h which no t
only deals simultaneously with the acquisition of vocabulary but also develops
important strategie s suc h as inferring th e meanings o f new words from socia l
and linguistic contexts , i.e. through source s other than language itself.
Verse and Worse 4 7
Can Yo u D o This ?
Flutter your finger s
And waggle 1 your wrists
Then fla p your arm s
So you look like this.
Is your head still

Or is it moving?
Nod your hea d
And keep it moving.
Now move your legs.

Don't mov e around .
Just up and dow n
Without a sound.
Can you do all of it?

At the same time?
You can't? Don't worry,
It's only a rhyme.
^Z
POEMS
Sadly, man y teacher s hav e ba d memories , fro m thei r ow n schooldays , o f

learning borin g poem s b y heart , sometime s a s a punishment . I f poem s ar e
selected carefully, an d presented as entertainment through mime, pictures etc.,
primary pupil s will enjoy them , particularly i f they have already had fun wit h
short rhyme s an d chants . When selectin g poem s I thin k th e mos t importan t
criterion is that the teacher should find them enjoyable, entertaining and amusing
because these feelings ar e infectious i n a classroom. Apart from that , criteri a
for selectio n shoul d be the same as suggested throughout thi s chapter .
'My Little Sister' is suitable for more able upper primary pupils who have
experience o f riddles. I t coul d b e introduce d throug h pupils ' drawing s o r
discussion o f 'Strang e things my little sister/brother does' .
48 Margare t Falvey
My Littl e Siste r
My little sister eats oranges.
She eats greens as well.
And if I take them from he r
You should hear he r yell!
She eats reds and browns and yellows

And not just one or two.
And when she' s finished al l of them
She'll even eat a blue.
Most people use crayons

To colour or draw.
My little sister eats them
And then sh e asks for more !
'The wobbling race' by Clive Riche is published in 'Tasty Poems'(OUP, 1992) ,

which is an attractively-illustrated collection . I have made minor alterations to
this poem which is really fun t o mime.
The Wobblin g Rac e

Two jellies had a wobbling race
To see who was the wobbliest .
Then the sun came out and melted the m
And made them both the dribbliest.
'^fW&§%m^^m^m^^£,:
CONCLUSION
Children's rhymes are generally thought of as spoken, rather than written, texts.
Young children can be introduced to poems and rhymes long before they learn
to read. This is partly because of the role played by rhythm, stress and rhyme.
Since children's verse is usually spoken, it is easy to recognize that it can play
a rol e i n th e developmen t o f listenin g an d speakin g skill s an d als o th e sub -
skills that contribute to successful listenin g and speaking. This means, in effect ,
Verse and Wors e 4 9
going back to real language and complete texts , which already exist to fulfill a
social an d communicativ e purpose , an d lettin g tha t language b e used b y th e
pupils themselves for self-evident social and communicative purposes. In other
words, letting the language itself do the language teaching while the pupils do
the language learning .
I hope you have been able to answers to questions 1 and 2 in this chapter.
The answe r t o questio n 3 is , 'Thi s typ e o f activit y i s recommende d i n th e
official syllabu s in the section "Pre-Language Arts Activities" ', (CDC , Hong
Kong, 1981:54-57) .
REFERENCES
Biggs, John B. and Ross Telfer, 1987 . The Process of Learning. Australia: Prentice-
Hall.
The Curriculum Development Committee, Hong Kong. 1981. Syllabuses for Primary
Schools; English (Primary 1-6). Hong Kong.
Earl, Amanda and Danielle Sensier, eds., 1994. Poems about Colours. Hove Wayland:
(Publishers) Ltd.
Opie, Iona and Peter Opie, 1959. The Lore and Language of Schoolchildren. London:
Oxford University Press.
Opie, Iona and Peter Opie, 1969. Children's Games in Street and Playground. London:
van Lier, Leo. 1995. Introducing Language Awareness. London: Penguin.
CHAPTER
1
Picture Books and Fantasy Texts
Jenny Tyrrell
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter the importance of developing the imaginative powers of children

will be discussed. Muc h i s written abou t the need for ou r school s t o produc e
children wh o ca n thin k creatively , bu t littl e i s sai d abou t ho w thi s i s t o b e
achieved. One way to do this is to use powerful book s in the classroom. Where
the Wild Things Are, by Maurice Sendak will be studied and suggestions made
to utilize the potential of suc h a text.
Think about the following question s before readin g the chapter :

1. Wh y shoul d creativity b e encouraged i n Hong Kong schoo l children ?
2. Ho w can books be used to encourage the development of creative thinking
in young learners ?
3. Wha t tasks are best suited to bringing out the full potential of a 'powerful '
storybook in the primary classroom ?
DO OU R CHILDRE N HAV E TIM E FO R IMAGINATIV E PLAY ?
Fantasy and the development of the imagination are an integral part of growing
up. As teachers we often say , 'tha t lesson went well because the subject reall y
52 Jenn y Tyrrell
caught thei r imaginations' , bu t ho w ca n w e harnes s thi s forc e t o creat e a

sustained imaginative environment in which literacy skills can flourish? Man y
Hong Kon g teacher s hav e tol d m e tha t thei r pupil s ar e ver y goo d a t factua l
writing, but when they are asked to write an imaginative story a lot of children
seem t o struggle . Perhap s the y don' t reall y kno w wha t i s require d becaus e
they hav e no t ha d th e opportunit y t o experienc e enoug h storie s whic h hav e
fired thei r imaginations .
It seems to me that as we approach the twenty-first centur y an d celebrat e
the progres s o f man' s inventiv e powers , som e vita l aspect s o f lif e hav e bee n
pushed aside. It is possible that childhood is shrinking in that children seem to
have less opportunity for imaginative play. Toys are often s o realistic that they
leave little room for interpretation . Gon e ar e the days of the faceless woode n
doll who could take on any character. Now the y are mass produced an d see m
to impose the way a child will respond. A doll beautifully dresse d as a bride, a
nurse, a spaceman o r a soldier restrict s a child i n th e situationa l rol e that th e
character ca n play . Imaginatio n thu s become s a second-han d experience .
Original response is limited. TV an d film producers impos e their imaginativ e
interpretations o n us. Well-known storie s ar e given the Hollywood treatment .
There is little room for pictures to form i n the mind, for fantasies t o develop.
Living in an urban environment means that for safety's sak e children have
to be supervised closely. Life is rushed and regulated from a very early age and
it is possible tha t som e children d o not have the space to daydream, to invent
imaginary friends, to indulge in creative play. They enter formal schoolin g at a
very earl y ag e an d ar e encourage d t o conform , t o perform , t o functio n a s
members of a large group, and to respond with the correct answer, but are they
ever aske d t o imagine, an d thin k beyond th e immediate situation , o r to thin k
for themselves ? Books can be a way into such thought extension .
Some childre n ma y hav e bee n luck y enoug h t o hav e ha d th e chanc e t o
share picture books in their pre-school days. They will have begun to experience
the pleasur e tha t a boo k ca n bring . The y wil l hav e bee n excite d b y
characterization, predicted outcomes and savoured particular sections of a text.
When the y ente r schoo l th e books the y mee t ar e often different . Stor y book s
are superseded by sets of texts for teaching reading. If that is the only material
they se e i n class , the n readin g ca n b e reduce d t o just anothe r schoo l task ,
especially i f tha t readin g i s not i n th e mothe r tongu e bu t a secon d language .
The pleasure may soo n disappear .
Ask addictiv e reader s wh y the y spen d s o muc h tim e wit h thei r nose s i n
books and you are likely to get the same answers. Pleasure, escapism, relaxation.
Some might go on to say that a book gives one the ability to lose oneself, take
on differen t personalities , visi t differen t tim e zones , develo p an d exten d th e
power of their own imagination. They give us the opportunity to become totally
lost in the world of fantasy .
Much is said about the magical world of the imagination and literature but
few teachers use this powerful forc e in their teaching. Neither do they think of
= = ^ = = = = = = = = = = ^ = ^ = ^ - Pictur e Books and Fantasy Texts 5 3
helping childre n fo r who m thinkin g imaginativel y i s a struggle . Holdawa y

(1979) maintains that without the ability to get inside a text, half the motivation
for becoming literate is paralyzed and so 'learning to read must be like learning
to wal k wit h on e leg' . Th e real m o f fantas y i s a t th e ver y hear t o f ou r
development in our search to find ourselves and discover meaning in our lives.
Bettelheim (1976 ) i n hi s boo k The Uses of Enchantment, suggest s tha t ou r
positive feelings an d exaggerated hope s an d fantasies o f future achievement s
help u s t o thin k beyon d th e norma l setback s o f life , t o striv e fo r somethin g
better and to overcome our problems. Children need to have their imaginations
stimulated i n order to encourage suc h depth of thinking. I very much feel tha t
this shoul d b e a n integra l par t o f th e schoo l curriculum . I t woul d see m tha t
there is a need for such experiences when one sees the popularity of the 'fantas y
comics' that our Hong Kong children and adolescents buy. Cartoon character s
that have exaggerated personalities and superhuman heroes who vanquish evil
are the influences that control our children's fantasies. How can we incorporate
this powerful motivato r int o our teaching ?
THE POWE R O F STORIE S
Perhaps the major power of stories and poems is the way they connect with our
own lives. We do not just rea d th e words o n the page, we respond t o them i n
terms of our experiences, personalities, opinions, beliefs an d interests. This is
true of all readers whatever their age. We must always remember that while, as
teachers, our attention may be on how the child is reading, the child should be
responding to the power of the story. Powerful storie s pull children under their
spell an d deman d t o be rea d agai n an d again . Thus learnin g i s reinforced. I t
becomes permanen t becaus e i t i s embedde d i n enjoyment . Pleasur e i s a ke y
factor fo r reading succes s in any language. We must take measures to prevent
it from becomin g a gruelling struggle .
Nowadays many children become readers with the help of delightful pictur e
books which are written by authors with real stories to tell. They use meaningfu l
language and incorporate rhythm, rhyme and repetition to produce books with
child appeal . I n m y wor k i n Hon g Kon g school s I hav e see n goo d pictur e
books transcen d al l barriers b e the y o f languag e o r culture . Children ar e th e
same th e world ove r i n thei r desir e to laugh an d be amused , t o tremble wit h
controlled fear , t o want t o know wha t i s going t o happen next . Every cultur e
has a similar network of folk an d fairy storie s and parallels are soon picked up
by story hungry children. A picture book will tell the story through the medium
of words and pictures. Thus the child who has a limited knowledge of English
can follo w th e story throug h th e illustrations an d the n absor b a s many o f th e
words a s possible. I t isn' t a coincidenc e tha t th e very bes t children' s pictur e
books ar e produced b y autho r illustrator s whos e skill s merg e th e word s an d
the pictures int o a whole tha t make s reading an d languag e acquisitio n easie r
54 Jenn y Tyrrell
for th e learner. We should, afte r all , be lookin g fo r text s tha t mak e readin g a
successful experience .
Adults too love picture books. They fill their coffee table s with them; they
treat themselves to glossy magazines an d flick through the pictures. They lik e
nothing better tha n t o browse through a text, looking a t the illustrations first ,
reading th e captions an d the n finall y concentratin g o n th e ful l text . Childre n
behave in just the same way if they are encouraged to handle interesting material.
Some teachers have said to me that they can't use picture books because older
children think that they are babyish. All one needs to do is read som e of these
texts t o th e clas s a t th e en d o f a lesson. Le t th e childre n rela x an d enjo y th e
stories and illustrations and then point out that picture books don't necessaril y
have easy texts but they do make reading a difficult tex t a lot easier, especiall y
for secon d language users. Such a book can be enjoyed man y many times an d
the child gets a feel for the way that English words work and hopefully a desire
to read an d enjo y more . So much goo d language teaching ca n com e betwee n
the covers of one reasonably price d picture book.
DEVELOPING TH E POTENTIA L O F A POWERFU L BOO K
Where The Wild Things Are by Maurice Sendak is one such book. Published in
1963, the initial reaction of many critics and parents was not favourable. Man y
people felt tha t it was too frightening. Children , however, do not seem to fin d
it disturbing at all. They immediately equate The Wild Things with the fear and
fantasy o f th e fair y storie s whic h hav e thrille d an d delighte d childre n fo r
generations. I n 196 4 Senda k wa s awarde d th e Caldecot t Meda l fo r th e mos t
distinguished pictur e boo k o f th e yea r an d The Wild Things ha s bee n i n th e
bookshops eve r since , having bee n translate d int o man y language s wit h fe w
alterations.
Sendak believe s tha t childre n liv e i n bot h realit y an d fantas y an d mov e
backwards an d forwards i n ways that we have long sinc e forgotten. Hi s boo k
addresses issue s tha t ar e important t o children. Fo r example , eatin g play s a n
integral par t in the text, fo r th e business o f eating i s an immensely importan t
part of the life of a child and it is often associate d with love or the lack of it. He
has vivi d memorie s o f elderl y relative s loomin g ove r hi m a s a child saying ,
'Oh com e her e I coul d ea t yo u up' . H e coul d remembe r thinkin g tha t the y
probably could . Let us now loo k closely a t the powerful learnin g potential i n
Sendak's text. The story should be read through first with great expression but
without comment. O n further reading s there will be many discussion points .
The story structure goes into action and the scene is set when Max puts on
his wol f sui t an d make s s o muc h mischie f tha t hi s mothe r call s hi m a Wild
Thing and sends him to bed without his supper .
At this point th e teacher coul d tal k about mischief. What d o the childre n
sometimes do that makes their parents angry? What punishments are imposed?
Picture Book s an d Fantas y Text s 5 5
The stor y i s writte n i n th e pas t tense , perhaps th e childre n coul d sa y ' I wa s

naughty yesterday I s o I was '
In the next sectio n a forest grow s i n Max's room . The wall s o f hi s roo m
become the world. Then an ocean appears and Max sails off i n as private boat
'through night and day and in and out of weeks and almost over a y e a r . . .' H e
ends up where the Wild Things are.
Here th e invitatio n i n th e tex t i s surel y t o produc e som e ar t wor k o f a
forest whic h 'gre w an d gre w an d grew' . Comparison s coul d b e taugh t 'big ,
bigger, biggest ' o r 'tall , taller , tallest' . I t woul d b e lovel y t o le t th e childre n
make vine s t o han g fro m th e ceilin g o f th e classroo m s o tha t th e learnin g
environment became a part of the story.
Sendak is manipulating time to transport the reader into the fantasy worl d
he is creating. The reader's imagination is caught, held and guided by the skilled
writer who will take us deeper into the realms of our own imaginations .
There i s n o reaso n wh y th e childre n couldn' t d o som e wor k abou t tim e
and clocks at this point (see Figure 1) .
Figure 1
56 Jenn y Tyrrell -—=-—=======—-—==
Next comes the 'Fee, Fi, Fo Fum-ness' of the text. Here we have the regular
chunk o f repetition whic h give s the story it s stable and memorable shape . As
in 'Jack and the Beanstalk' it preludes some noteworthy action by the monstrous
characters in the plot. Repetition is very important in reinforcing learning. Here
the vita l ingredien t seem s almos t incidental . I t isn' t laboure d a s i n tex t
specifically writte n to 'teac h English' .
And when he came to the place where the wild things are they roared their
terrible roars and gnashed their terrible teeth and rolled their terrible eyes and
showed their terrible claws till Max said 'B E STILL' and tamed them with
the magic trick of staring into all their yellow eyes without blinking once and
they were frightened and called him the most wild thing of all and made him
king of all the wild things.
Taming wild animals is a feature of many fairy tales. The reward for taming
such wil d beast s i n fable s wa s ofte n elevatio n t o the rank s o f royalty . Ever y
child likes to play at being a king or queen, where one is the accepted focus o f
eveyone's attentio n rather than having to struggle to attain it .
What a wonderful tim e to do some drama. The children can remain seate d
but as the words 'roare d thei r terrible roars' are spoken, the children can roar,
and gnash and claw. You could get the children to imagine what the Wild Things
are saying. The children could draw the monsters with bubbles coming out of
their mouths .
The grammar of the story has given us the setting, the theme, the plot and
now al l that is required is the resolution.
It is important tha t children understan d th e structure o f stories . The nee d
for scene setting, a series of events and then a resolution. To do this a storyboard
with key headings can be made (Figur e 2).
'And now, ' crie d Max , 'le t th e wil d rumpu s start! ' Ther e no w follow s
three pages of illustration wit h no text at all. A rumpus o f delight !
If the children a t this point could be taken into a large space , perhaps th e
hall o r th e playground , the y coul d preten d t o be th e Wild Thing s an d pla y a
game of 'follo w th e leader' .
In th e text , Ma x tell s th e Wild Things t o sto p an d send s the m of f t o be d
without an y supper . Ma x feel s lonel y an d hungr y s o h e decide s t o giv e u p
being king. This upsets the Wild Things who cry out, 'O h pleas e don' t g o —
we'll ea t yo u u p w e lov e yo u so ' bu t Ma x refuse s an d sail s awa y unti l h e
returns home where his supper, stil l warm, is waiting.
The conflic t i s resolved, hi s mothe r stil l loves him , sh e has proved i t b y
giving him food, s o everyone lives happily eve r after .
This story about a very angry little boy in conflict with his mother is a way
of helpin g on e untangl e th e feeling s o f intens e emotio n tha t everyone , bot h
young and old, experiences. Sendak is very clever in that the story asks no real
cultural backgroun d knowledg e o f th e reader . Childre n ge t int o troubl e th e
world over for similar offences. They too probably fantasize about escape routes.
Picture Books and Fantas y Texts 5 7
Max saile d i n an d ou t of weeks .

Write th e name s o f th e day s of th e week .
How man y day s ar e ther e i n I wee k ? D

How man y day s i n a wee k ar e .— _
school day s ? I I
Which i s th e firs t da u o f th e wee k ?
Which i s t h e thir d doA j o f th e week ?
Figure 2
Sendak mad e a point of emphasizing tha t he writes an d illustrates book s

for readers. He doesn't have a particular age group in mind when he begins. A
good children's book can give delight at any age. It was C.S. Lewis who wrote,
'No boo k i s reall y wort h readin g a t the ag e of te n which i s not equall y [an d
often fa r more ] worth reading a t the age of fifty an d beyond' .
Here i s a text that delight s al l ages . I think tha t w e shoul d b e promotin g
texts like this in our schools.
58 Jenn y Tyrrell
CHILDREN RESPONDIN G T O TH E TEXT
The scope for language learning after a high quality text has been share d wit h
a group of children is enormous. However, it is important to save some of th e
potential of the text until the children are mature enough to handle the concepts.
Young childre n migh t concentrat e o n writin g conversation s wit h th e Wil d
Things. Slightl y olde r childre n migh t b e encourage d t o writ e a simila r stor y
but wit h themselve s a s th e mai n character . Olde r childre n migh t b e abl e t o
identify wit h Max' s feeling s a t differen t stage s o f th e stor y an d writ e abou t
times when the y have felt lik e that. There ar e endless possibilities an d al l the
way through, whatever yo u decide to do, you can feel confiden t tha t here is a
text that will keep the children's interest .
In Figure 3, Ami writes about times when she experienced frustration lik e
Max. Charlotte wrote a version of the story and turned her bedroom into Water
World (se e Figures 4-12). I particularly lik e the idea of the waterchute takin g
her home. The story was written in a little book. This made the process of story
writing more real and implied a n audience other than just the teacher.
There ar e hundred s o f excellen t text s tha t wil l fir e th e imaginatio n o f
children and many of them can be found in public libraries in Hong Kong. You
can go along, borrow the books and then perhaps order copies for your school.
It is not necessary fo r each child in the class to have a copy, work can be done
in small groups.
If w e want childre n t o walk into literacy, whethe r in their first o r secon d
language, the n w e hav e t o giv e the m th e stimulatio n t o us e 'bot h legs' , t o
stride out , t o tak e bold steps , not t o hop alon g o n on e le g a s Don Holdawa y
suggested. W e nee d text s t o inspire , t o stimulat e th e imagination , t o giv e u s
literary athletes .
REFERENCES
Bettelheim, B. 1976. The Uses of Enchantment. London: Thomas and Hudson.

Holdaway, D. 1979. The Foundations of Literacy. London: Ashton Scholastic.
Sendak, M. 1963. Where The Wild Things Are. USA: Harper and Row.
Picture Book s an d Fantas y Texts 5 9
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60 Jenn y Tyrrell
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Picture Book s and Fantas y Texts 6 1
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62 Jenn y Tyrrell
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Picture Book s an d Fantas y Texts 6 3
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64 Jenn y Tyrrell
Figure 1 2
CHAPTER
n
A
The Place of Story-telling in
Language Teaching
Erica Laine
INTRODUCTION
Story-telling occurs in all cultures and in all languages. In this chapter, reasons
will be given, with examples, for the use of story-telling in the English as a
second language classroom.
Before reading this chapter think about the following questions:

1. Wh y do children like hearing stories time and time again?
2. Ho w can story-telling be used in the second language classroom?
3. Ho w can story-telling create 'constan t and immediate' motivatio n in the
second language primary classroom?
4
Once upon a time' is one of the most evocative phrases that a child can
hear. It means that someone is going to tell a story. Few teachers would disagree
that story-tellin g i s on e of th e most compelling an d attractiv e activitie s fo r
children. It digs deep into our universal and early, even primitive, memory of
listening to stories around a fire; stories that explained the inexplicable, that
taught the taboos of the tribe, that captured the events of the day and season —
that began to make our history.
Story-telling in the primary English classroom may seem a long way from
the primitive life of early man but it has the ability to captivate children with
66 Eric a Lain e - r==============^^
its elements of imagination, suspense and fantasy. The creative uses of language
need to be encouraged and within the framework o f a shared story-telling there
are entertaining an d pleasurable ways to do this. Not only does a story alway s
present language in context it also provides a 'mediu m of delight' .
Story-telling is language which goes beyond its use in practical action, in
rational thought and in behaviour. It is what Meek (1985) has called the language
of the 'alternativ e universe' .
Story-telling belong s t o th e plac e wher e w e lear n abou t ou r capacit y t o
have fun , t o kno w tha t 'thi s i s play' . Par t o f languag e learnin g i s concerne d
with being able to control feelings an d it is important for children to find thei r
own voice, to get their feelings int o words an d see that their words have thei r
own feel abou t them .
Children wh o listen to stories (o r who are read to) are able to understand
the distinctiv e narrative . Thi s i n tur n help s the m t o create narrativ e form . A
story-teller ca n lea d childre n t o wan t t o rea d th e stor y fo r themselves , t o
incorporate vocabular y an d ideas int o their own writing an d to develop mor e
and more their own voice .
It would see m t o be accepte d tha t childre n lear n t o read faste r an d mor e
easily if a story is a familiar story . Although they may not know and recognize
every singl e word , the y will , i f th e boo k i s wel l illustrated , begi n t o mak e
word/picture associations . If the story has been well exploited initially befor e
reading take s place an d the meaning o f th e whole stor y has been mad e clear ,
the meaning an d graphic representation o f unfamiliar word s will begin to fal l
into place.
The surprise element in story-telling is one of the factors whic h makes the
activity s o appealin g t o childre n an d wherea s on e migh t thin k tha t onc e th e
story is told, there is no more to be done, experience shows that children lov e
to be retold and to reread storie s time and again. They love the expectation o f
surprise, the predictable but pleasurable memory, the comfort o f knowing that
the stor y i s 'onl y a story' . Thi s i s wh y th e ritual opening s tha t introduc e th e
narrative are as important a s are the stylized endings .
Children seem to like the story to be either the same each time or, if changed,
to be retold with help from themselves. They prefer the change to be something
they invest in, something that they are involved with. In these personalized re-
tells the story can become really valuable .
Story-telling bot h generate s an d control s emotions . Th e realit y an d th e
make-believe are both dealt with. Later, in their reading of imaginative literature,
children can revisit these places, these people who will help them develop the
capacity fo r reading an d writing.
Story-telling i n th e classroom shoul d no t be see n a s a reward activit y o r
only for 'leisure ' periods . It should not be confined t o use as an extra after th e
more forma l wor k ha s bee n completed . Ther e i s potential fo r regula r us e o f
story-telling a t all levels of primary school .
In classes wher e there ar e children wh o ar e not motivated b y the foreig n
The Plac e o f Story-tellin g i n Languag e Teachin g 6 7
language, wh o hav e n o rea l nee d fo r th e languag e an d wh o ma y b e poo r

achievers, a well-chose n an d well-tol d stor y ca n d o somethin g important . I t
can help to change attitudes to the language; it can make the language enjoyabl e
and comprehensible ; i t offer s a holisti c comprehensibl e input ; i t revise s o r
introduces vocabulary in a given context or natural setting and finally, languag e
forms als o occur in a natural context . This means that awareness o f languag e
in all its shapes and sizes is being realized. The sturcture and the systems, the
narrative discourse , communicatio n abou t experience , though t an d feeling ,
register, function , concept s — al l o f thes e ar e wove n togethe r i n storie s an d
their telling.
Many languag e point s ca n b e reinforce d o r revise d wit h a story . Th e
language i s ofte n repetitiv e an d thi s i s goo d fo r languag e learners . Concept s
such a s siz e are either introduced o r consolidated wit h stories ; topics suc h a s
food, fit with stories; project work can benefit from stories and all the language
skills ca n b e used, dependin g o n the level o f th e class. The TOC initiativ e i n
education in Hong Kong embraces story-tellin g a s if they were made for eac h
other. Storie s ca n lin k wit h othe r area s o f th e curriculum : science , history ,
music and maths.
Story-telling for the teacher is a very real communicative act. As humans,
we tell stories to people we like. Why? Because to do so invites eye contact, a
tremendous sharin g o f experience , feelin g an d empathy . This mean s tha t th e
teacher an d th e clas s i n a story-tellin g sessio n wil l becom e boun d togethe r
within the framework o f the story. This helps to build rapport in the classroom.
The children will identify wit h characters an d their voices, mood and attitud e
and all of these are given to them by the story-teller.
This last phrase is very important for it must be a telling. This means tha t
the story is liked and known by the teller. If the teller needs the book, then this
is use d a s a promp t bu t th e stor y i s NO T read . (However , learnin g t o rea d
upside down is important! There are times when sharing the book can be usefu l
and important but it must be shared).
Stories whic h wor k well in secon d languag e primary classroom s includ e
the following :
'The Very Hungry Caterpillar' , Eri c Carle , Picture Puffin 197 0
'The Great Big Enormous Turnip', Traditional, Ladybird 197 0
'Bears i n the Night', Sta n and Jan Berenstain, Collins 197 1
'We're Goin g on a Bear Hunt', Michae l Rosen, Walker Books 198 9
• 'Ho w D o I Put It On?' Shigeo Watanabe, Picture Puffin 198 1
• 'Funn y Bones' , Janet and Allan Ahlberg, Picture Lions 198 0
'My Ca t Likes to Hide in Boxes', Eve Sutton, Picture Puffin 198 2
• 'Th e Fat Cat', Jac k Kent, Picture Puffin 198 0
A teacher needs to build up a bank of stories. This can be done graduall y

and share d wit h other s bu t it must b e done s o that the teacher ha s a range o f
stories an d a rang e o f way s o f usin g them . Goo d storie s contai n a natura l
68 Eric a Laine
repetition, a theme whic h relate s t o the ag e of th e children bot h i n cognitiv e

and affective term s (the knowledge and experience dimensions which occur in
the TOC syllabus ) an d vocabulary whic h appeals , which i s child-centred. D o
not worry abou t complex structures ; the story is not about teaching o r indeed
learning suc h structures , it is about a more global type of learning .
A teache r ca n adap t th e stor y t o mee t th e leve l o f th e clas s bu t i t mus t
remain motivating. The bonus of using story-telling rather than reading is that
this adaptatio n ca n tak e plac e man y times , workin g wit h differen t level s o f
language an d ca n b e expande d a s necessary . Teacher s d o no t nee d t o b e
constrained as they are with what has been written down. This adaptation needs
special care so that the concepts an d language which make up the story really
do provide comprehensible input so that the children can anticipate and predict
what i s abou t t o b e tol d t o them . Ther e need s t o be a stron g stor y lin e wit h
repetition o f structur e an d narrative shape . These ac t as 'pointers ' or 'stagin g
posts' an d invite listening children to participate.
The use of a story allows the teacher to be both a forward planne r and an
opportunist; to seize the needs of the moment if necessary .
Here i s th e stor y o f 'Th e Ver y Hungr y Caterpillar ' a s adapte d fo r a P 3
class. The lesson wa s taught entirely i n English.
In the ligh t of the moon a little egg lay on a leaf.
One Sunda y mornin g the warm su n came u p an d — pop !

— ou t of the egg came a tiny an d very hungry caterpillar .
He started to loo k for som e food.
On Tuesday he ate through two pears but he was still hungry.

On Wednesda y h e ate through thre e plums bu t h e was still
hungry.
On Thursda y h e at e through fou r strawberrie s bu t h e was
still hungry .
On Friday he ate through five oranges but he was still hungry.
On Saturda y h e ate through a piece o f chocolat e cake , an
ice-cream, a piece o f cheese , a lollipop, a cupcake an d a
slice of watermelon.
That nigh t h e had a stomach-ache!

The next day was Saturday. The caterpillar at e through a big
green lea f and h e felt much better .
Now h e wasn' t hungr y anymor e — an d h e wasn' t a littl e
caterpillar anymore . H e was a big fat caterpillar .
He mad e a cocoon. H e staye d insid e th e cocoo n fo r tw o
weeks. Then h e came out and . . .
. . . h e was a beautiful butterfly .
The Place of Story-telling i n Language Teaching 6 9
1. Th e original story has a wealth of food vocabulary but some of it is difficul t

for P3 children to conceptualize and not really necessary to the story. The
following vocabulary items were discarded for Hong Kong children; pickle,
cherry pie , salami , an d sausage . Th e foo d vocabular y tha t wa s kep t a s
being bot h usefu l an d motivatin g was ; ice-cream , (ice-crea m con e wa s
simplified) apple, pear, plum, strawberry, watermelon, chocolate-cake, cup-
cake and lollipop.
2. Th e stor y lin e take s th e life-cycl e o f th e butterfl y a s a concep t bu t th e
caterpillar eat s a range of food whic h is a fantasy fo r a caterpillar but not
for a young child ! This i s part o f th e appea l o f th e stor y an d i t has bee n
noticed that young children enjoy food theme stories very much — perhaps
because food is so close to their sensual experiences at this age when other
feelings ar e no t s o highl y developed . The y ar e als o abl e t o enjo y th e
caterpillar's hunger and indeed greed for what it is. It could be their greed
but th e gree d i s distance d b y i t bein g th e tin y caterpilla r wh o eat s an d
grows.
3. Th e story-teller starte d with a very simple and realistic diagram of the life
cycle o f th e butterfly, checkin g tha t th e concept wa s know n an d tha t th e
essential vocabular y o f egg , cocoon , caterpilla r an d butterfl y wa s
introduced. Thi s stag e was no t drille d bu t elicite d an d simpl y repeate d a
few times . The story-teller then moved from thi s general knowledge bas e
into th e story . The stor y wa s tol d wit h th e ai d o f som e A4 siz e coloure d
pictures which were built up on the board as the story progressed. A phrase
that repeats throughout the story is 'bu t he was still hungry'. This became
a pointe r fo r th e listenin g childre n tha t anothe r foo d ite m woul d b e
introduced an d they began to anticipate.
4. Th e story was repeated several times with some attention being paid to the
pronunciation o f certai n word s (lollipo p an d cup-cak e wer e single d out )
and the class began to join in more and more. There was obvious pleasur e
in being abl e to join in and different childre n were observed contributin g
at different stages . There was no emphasis on everyone telling in lockstep.
This i s importan t a s th e experienc e i s individual . N o doub t wit h som e
stories ther e will be phases wher e everyone get s caugh t u p i n th e fun o r
drama of it all and the whole class will be together at that point but this is
not the aim.
5. Th e teacher/telle r stoppe d th e retel l s o tha t a littl e wor k coul d b e don e
with vocabulary/pictur e matchin g an d a word search . This wa s followe d
by a complete retell and then an acting out of the story with various differen t
real items of food plus food from th e story being given to the class for th e
caterpillar t o find. A goo d energetic acting ou t seemed to re-motivate th e
class and make the story more their own .
6. I n the fina l stag e a very simpl e outline o f th e stor y wa s give n ou t whic h
encouraged th e childre n t o imagin e tha t the y wer e th e caterpilla r an d t o
write about what they at e on each day o f the week. There was an eviden t
70 Eric a Lam e - ^ = ^ ^ = = ^ = ^ = = = = = = ^ ^ ^ = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^ ^
desire t o d o thi s an d th e childre n responde d wit h imaginatio n an d

enthusiasm.
This story-tell was rich in experience and accomplishment. The story-tell

had a good 'aftermath' . The idea of an aftermath i s similar to an extension or
consolidation phase of a lesson but it is something more. Aftermath can mean,
'the second harvest' and, in a way, the phase of the lesson where the children
work on their own, with support, but in a creative way is like a second harvest.
The first phase was where they were involved with the story in all the ways
outlined earlier. These experiences now allow them to move on — to consolidate
or extend the experience and their knowledge.
The aftermath can be entirely oral with the teacher checking understanding
and encouraging expansion, perhaps concentrating on accuracy before moving
onto the freer work . The lesson being reported on here did not do this as the
teacher judged that the class was ready for something else. The young listeners
went from a passive understanding of some general knowledge through to a
creative us e o f language , bot h ora l an d written . All o f thi s wa s don e wit h
enjoyment and appreciation.
The aftermath i n this lesson allowed the children to write their own story
and illustrat e it . Som e rea d thei r stor y alou d t o the clas s wh o could easil y
understand and enjoy the reading. The written stories were similar in that they
all followe d th e sam e framewor k bu t th e detail s wer e differen t becaus e
individuals added their own touches.
Other stories, such as 'The Great Big Enormous Turnip' lend themselves
to the acting out of all the characters on an individual basis, acting out the story
as a group, or retelling the story to the teacher/teller wh o then becomes the
secretary writin g ou t the class's versio n o n the board for the m to copy and
keep as their own piece of writing/reading. This last activity can also be shared
between classes.
The teacher needs to make use of all available narrative skills. A teacher/
teller cannot be inhibited! She needs a voice with a good expressive range and
use of pauses, an expressive face, th e ability to use gesture and a degree of
confidence in holding the audience, the class. This audience can be observed
very easily an d the teacher/teller ca n respond to its mood and needs. Young
children are not inhibited and they will give back to the teacher/teller the best
responses of all.
The use of stories in the language classroom is multi-purpose. Stories can
entertain, instruct and inform. Stories are not told in a vacuum. They are related
to th e cultur e o f th e languag e an d t o th e childhoo d cultur e o f immediat e
emotional response. The recognition of characters, of the sequence of events,
the idea of the narrative and the language that exists to carry all these, makes
storytelling an accessible but enriching language experience.
The Plac e o f Story-tellin g i n Languag e Teachin g 7 1
Storytelling relate s th e oral tradition t o the more sophisticated skill s of

reading and writing but should not be considered inferior to these. It is an all-
important part of the language experience and the language classroom.
The uses of stories and story-telling can be expanded further int o project
work that embraces language, maths, natural science, art and craft and music.
Here is a project plan for 'Th e Very Hungry Caterpillar'.
Suggestions for the use of a STORY — develope d through a project

— develope d across the curriculum
Listening Th e whol e story ; proble m phoneme s o f Englis h (fina l plosiv e a s i n

lollipop/cupcake); sound s tha t ad d t o th e meanin g (groan s fo r
stomachache); rhyme s
Speaking Retel l the story; act out the story; rhymes: information ga p activities;
describe and draw; describe and guess
Reading Picture/wor d matching; word search; story outline
Writing Expandin g a guided story outline
ART and CRAFT MATHS

- makin g a caterpillar Addition: add up
- colourin g and sticking all the fruit tha t
- makin g a collage butterfl y was eaten
Ordinals and
Cardinals
MUSIC and MOVEMENT STORY NATURAL SCIENCE

- musi c about insects The Very Hungry - Lif e cycl e o f a
(Flight of the Bumble Bee) Caterpillar butterfly
- craw l like a caterpillar - Wha t d o rea l cater -
- float/fl y lik e a butterfly pillars eat?
- Wher e do caterpillars
live?
- Wha t butterflie s ca n
you se e i n th e play -
ground?
- Wha t butterflie s ca n
you se e nea r th e
school?
HEALTH and NUTRITION RHYME

- Wha t are the good things 'Who's that tickling my
we can eat to make us back?', said th e wall.
grow? 'Me,' said the caterpillar.
I ' m learnin g how to
crawl.'
72 Eric a Lain e ^ = = = ^ = ^ = = = = - = = = = = ^ = = = = = = = = = = = - = —
REFERENCE
Meeks, M. 1985 . Play and paradoxes: some considerations of imagination and language.
In Language Learning: An Interactional Perspective, ed . Wells, G. and J. Nicholls.
The Falmer Press.
CHAPTER
The Use of Children's Literature i n the

English Primary Classroom
John Harris and Madeleine Leung
INTRODUCTION
This chapte r discusse s a specia l serie s entitle d 'Children' s Literatur e i n th e

English Primar y Classroom ' recentl y produce d fo r classroo m us e b y th e
Educational Television . Wha t make s thi s serie s differen t fro m th e regula r
English ET V programmes i s that every programme is devoted t o reading an d
telling stories to children presented in a range of techniques. All the stories are
authentic storybook s writte n fo r Englis h speakin g childre n whic h hav e bee n
selected a s bein g suitabl e fo r thos e learnin g Englis h a s a secon d o r foreig n
language. The overall aim is to motivate pupils to leam English through reading
and telling stories .
The objectives o f this 'Children' s Literature ' serie s ar e as follows :
1. t o promote th e use o f authenti c stor y text s fo r a wide variet y o f Englis h
language an d learning activities ;
2. t o provide a n opportunity fo r youn g learners to shar e the joy o f listenin g
to and telling stories ;
3. t o introduce teachers and young learners to a range of techniques for telling
stories;
4. t o help develop children's imagination an d creativity through a sharing of
experiences in different storie s in which they identify wit h the characters,
try t o interpre t th e narrativ e an d illustration s an d respon d t o individua l
circumstances o r events.
74 Joh n Harris and Madeleine Leung
It might be helpful fo r the reader to think about the following three questions
before reading the chapter:
1. Wha t arguments have been presented in previous chapters for the use of
stories in the primary English language classroom?
2. I n what ways can stories on television assist the teacher?
3. Shoul d storie s o n televisio n replac e th e teache r tellin g storie s i n th e
classroom?
CHILDREN'S LITERATUR E
The title of this special series is 'Children's Literature in the English Primary
Classroom'. We would like to offer a brief definition of children's literature in
this context. It certainly does not mean everything that local booksellers classify
on their shelves as books for children. Rather, we take it to include texts written
for a readership of children that are narratives, poems or rhymes; that is, texts
written by authors whose primary ai m is to shape and share experiences, to
entertain an d to create vital patterns of language without an y prior intent to
control vocabulary or grammatical structures. We take it also to include those
folk and fairy tales and traditional rhymes that were not necessarily created in
the first place for children but that have become, through their use in societies,
part of the heritage of delight available to children. Suc h tales are a part of
every culture. In them, many of the cultural values of a society are to be found
and throug h them , thos e cultura l value s ar e transmitted t o generation afte r
generation.
THE VALU E O F STORIE S
Authentic Tex t
How can children's literature assist language development? To make it very

clear and simple, authentic storybooks for children contain authentic language
we all want to teach in an English curriculum.
'Authentic' is a word much in vogue in discussions of language teaching.
We would lik e t o defin e wha t w e mea n b y th e wor d 'authentic' . Fo r us ,
'authentic' means the written and spoken language used every day in a language
community. This encompasses language use on a broad spectrum of formality
to informality dependen t o n subjec t an d context. I t will als o mean tha t the
language used is not, in an arbitrary way, homogenized or made suitable for
children according to some preconceived notions of what constitutes ease of
access.
The Use of Children's Literatur e in the English Primary Classroom 7 5
As an example, let us look at the following text which is from the beginning
of Panda 1A, a series of English language readers fo r Hong Kon g schools .
1 Thi s is Tom. This is Linda.

Good morning , Tom.
Good morning , Linda.
I a m Tom.
I a m Linda.
5 Thi s i s Linda.
What i s your name ?
Peter.
Hello, Peter.
I am Tom. I am a boy.
10 Thi s is Linda. She is a girl.
He is Peter. He i s a boy.
She is May. She is a girl.
This i s a school.
Here comes Tom.
15 Her e comes Linda.

Here comes the teacher.
Good morning, children.
Good morning , teacher.
This i s my book .
20 Tha t i s your book , Tom.
This is, in fact, a quite extraordinary text though not untypical of early readers.
If we assume, generously, that it is concerned with children greeting each other
at th e star t o f thei r schoo l caree r — whic h w e must , otherwis e ho w ca n w e
explain lin e 1 3 'Thi s i s a school'? — ther e ar e stil l man y point s tha t requir e
explanation. Who is speaking in line 1 ? Is it Peter or is it the author? Why, in
line 4 , doe s To m nee d t o identif y himsel f whe n h e ha s alread y bee n name d
twice? Ha s h e a n identit y crisis ? We suspec t he ha s because i n line 9 he no t
only needs to identify himsel f agai n as Tom but needs also to assert his gender
identity T am a boy'. Poor Tom seems to be in a bad way! In line 10 he is again
introduced t o Linda fo r th e second tim e but this time it is pointed ou t to hi m
that Linda is a girl. It would seem that it is not only his own identity that he is
in doubt about. At line 1 4 Tom makes a second entrance — where has he been
in the meantime ?
The point is not only that the text is not authentic in the sense that it is not
true to normal language use, it is also extremely confusing an d creates a quite
inaccurate model of language use.
76 Joh n Harris and Madeleine Leun g ^ _ _ _ _ _ _ = = = = = = = = = =
If w e analys e th e languag e us e fro m a linguistic perspectiv e w e ca n se e

that the confusions aris e from th e following points :
1. Ther e i s n o distinctio n betwee n narration (th e voic e o f th e author ) an d
dialogue (th e voices of the characters).
2. Ther e is an uneasy and ill-defined relationship between words and pictures.
It is difficult fro m a linguistic point of view to know whether the pictures
along with the words should be regarded as the text or whether the pictures
merely accompan y th e text an d th e text is, therefore, intende d a s a free -
standing construct. Technically, a n analysis of the use of the deictics (this
and that) highlight s this confusion .
3. Ther e is also the use of the present tense which puts into doubt what sor t
of text this is. It cannot in any sense be classified a s a narrative since it has
none of the characteristics o f a narrative — notably it is not written in the
typical tense of narration — th e past.
Of course defenders o f 'readers ' wil l point out that there is a need for th e
vocabulary to be controlled and , particularly in second-language contexts, fo r
the syntactic structures to be kept simple. We would not wish to take issue with
either point . However , th e questio n o f vocabular y i s particularl y interestin g
and raises the question o f how it is to be controlled. All too frequently i n both
LI an d L2 contexts, the control would appear to be a restriction that is without
principle, based on notions suc h as the assertion tha t shorter words ar e easie r
to leaf n tha n longe r words . Suc h measure s are , o f course , predicate d o n th e
simplistic notion that short words and short sentences make for ease of reading.
What is missing is any sense that vocabulary is not a thing in itself but needs to
be relate d t o th e creatio n o f meanin g i n a meaningful text . Ther e i s nothin g
wrong with short words and short sentences as long as these are used to create
meaning. Meaning must be the start and finish o f any linguistic act or piece of
language use . What possibl e motivatio n ca n ther e b e for childre n t o learn t o
read — tha t is , to ge t meaning fro m writte n text s whe n thos e text s d o no t i n
themselves have any meaning ?
Let us , by wa y o f contrast , loo k a t a well-known picture-stor y boo k fo r
young children, Rosie's Walk by Pat Hutchins.
| Rosi e the hen went for a walk

across the yard
I aroun d the pon d
over the haycoc k
past the mil l
I throug h the fence
under the beehive s
i an d got back in time for dinner.
The Use of Children's Literature in the English Primary Classroom 77
From a linguistic perspective we can see immediately that this is a narrative.

It is i n th e pas t tense an d th e long sentenc e is , in fact , a simple co-ordinate d
structure (Rosi e went for a walk an d go t back in time for dinner) . This i s th e
type of sentence that is recognizable as the sort that people use when recounting
a journey. Here there is no ambiguity abou t the authorial stance — it is a third
person narration . Yet, Rosie's Walk offers a muc h fulle r experienc e tha n th e
words alone might suggest since the pictures are fully integrated with the words
on th e page. The pictures d o no t just provid e illustration s o f th e words , the y
add a n additional dimensio n t o the narrative line , extending eac h episode , a s
marked b y th e prepositional phrases , int o a drama o f ho w Rosi e unwittingl y
escapes from th e predatory fox .
It is difficult t o illustrate here without the book, but we hope something of
the flavour of the original will come over, especially after it has been dramatized
in a TV programme .
On th e screen , th e childre n ca n watc h thi s sequenc e o f events : a s Rosi e
sets off, th e fox i s lurking under the hen-house. His first attemp t to pounce on
her end s wit h him landing o n the rake an d knocking himsel f out . His secon d
attempt by the pond ends with an early bath and so on, until he lands up in the
cart and runs out of control into the beehives. While he rushes off to escape the
angry bees, Rosie proceeds serenely back to her hen-house and arrives 'i n time
for dinner' .
Each episode of the story gives children the chance to predict the outcome
and this is carried through the visual line of the narrative, not in the words. For
second-language learners this is significant. Th e ability to predict, which is so
important a n aspect of reading, is being developed irrespectiv e o f vocabular y
or grammatical knowledge .
There is also a clear relationship between the author and her readers. The
author is , i n effect , sharin g a joke wit h he r reader s — sh e i s saying , loo k a t
what happens to the naughty fox while my heroine struts on her way regardless
of th e danger . There i s also , of course , th e stron g implicatio n tha t the autho r
will protec t he r heroin e fro m eac h danger , thu s providin g a sens e o f dange r
viewed from a base of securit y for her young readers.
We hav e alread y suggeste d tha t th e synta x o f th e narrativ e sentenc e i s
'authentic' becaus e it is recognizable as the type of structure that native users
would employ when recounting a series of events. What about the vocabulary?
Some word s take n ou t o f contex t coul d wel l b e considere d difficul t fo r
young learner s — haycock an d mill, fo r instance . However , withi n th e tota l
experience of the story it is hardly reasonable to suggest that their use impairs
understanding. These are not words that need to be leamt a s part of a genera l
speaking o r writing vocabular y — tha t i s a separat e issu e whic h need s t o b e
developed elsewhere .
We suggeste d earlie r tha t Rosie's Walk is a text tha t develop s children' s
abilities t o predict. We emphasize this since prediction i s one of th e range of
abilities needed for successful reading . At this point in time, there should be no
78 Joh n Harris and Madeleine Leung
need t o argu e fo r readin g a s being mor e tha n th e decodin g o f words . As Jil l

Bennett (1979) puts it in the foreword to Learning to Read with Picture Books:
The books we offer t o children transmit the message about what reading is.
Their first view is crucial because it tends to be the one that stays with them.
If the books seem to imply that reading is simply word-by-word decoding, or
a progressio n fro m on e boring non-stor y t o anothe r throug h a controlle d
vocabulary scheme , then we should not be surprised that so many children
abandon the activity as soon as they can.
Our aim, then, is to establish in beginning readers the sense of enjoyment
and pleasure in the activity that will provide the motivation for them to continue
as life-long readers. With second-language learners the same aim holds good
and it will be all the more powerful if the enjoyment of reading in one's first
language is transferred t o reading in the second language also.
SELECTION O F STORIE S
The storie s i n th e 'Children' s Literature ' serie s hav e bee n selecte d bot h t o
meet the interests and needs of young beginner learners and to appeal to them.
Firstly, let us take a look at their relevance to the syllabus. Children's storybooks
contain languag e whic h i s include d i n mos t primar y syllabuse s a s wel l a s
language central to the world of the child.
The tabl e belo w list s th e title s o f storybook s selecte d fo r thi s series . I t
illustrates that storybooks for children often contai n authentic language we all
want to teach in an English curriculum .
Titles and Authors Examples
Meg and Mog Describing clothes , colours and size:

by Helen Nicoll an d 'She (Meg) got out of bed to dress
Jan Pienkowsk i for th e party. She put on
her black stocking s
her big black shoe s
her long black cloak
and her tall black hat. '
Describing food :
'She took out of the cupboar d
3 eggs
bread
cocoa
a kipper
milk
jam
She put it all in her cauldron. '
The Use of Children's Literatur e in the English Primary Classroom 7 9
The Very Hungry Caterpillar Days of the week, number, name s

by Eric Carl e of food/fruit :
'He (The very hungry caterpillar )
started to look for som e food .
On Monday he ate through on e
apple. But he was still hungry.
On Tuesday he ate through tw o
pears, but he was stil l hungry. '
Funny Bones Learning natural repetition s

by Janet and Allan Ahlberg and rhymes:
'This is how the story begins.
On a dark dark hill
there was a dark dark town .
In the dark dark town
there was a dark dark street .
In the dark dark stree t
there was a dark dark . . .
And in the dark dark cellar . . .
. . . some skeletons lived. '
RosiefsWalk Location:
by Pat Hutchin s 'Rosie the hen went for a walk
across the yard
around the pond
over the haycock
Jack and the Beanstalk Natural repetition :

by Fran Huni a 'Fee, fi, fo, fum, littl e children, her e
I come.'
The Magic Seed Describing everfts i n the past tense

by Iren e Yim
Daniel's Dinosaurs Describing hobbies:

by Mary Carmin e 'Daniel loved Dinosaurs.
(illustrated by He loved big dinosaurs )
Martin Baynton ) and he loved little dinosaurs.
At the library,
he read books about dinosaurs .
When he drew pictures,
he drew pictures of dinosaurs . . . '
80 Joh n Harri s an d Madeleine Leun g

Describing a character:
'Daniel's teache r was a nice,
friendly plant-eatin g Diplodocus ,
but sometimes . . . she turned int o
a big, fierce Tyrannosaurus! '
Frog and Toad Together Writing a list:

- A List by Arnold Lobe l 'A list of things to do today:
Eat Breakfas t
Get dresse d
Go to Frog's Hous e
Take walk with Fro g
Eat lunc h
Castle Adventure Using colours to describe things:

by Roderick Hun t 'Three witches lived in the castle.
They wer e nasty witches .
One was a black witch .
One was a red witch.
One was a green witch. '
Describing action :
'Gran pushed the witch.'
'Gran put a net over the witch. '
'Gran thre w the witch on the floor.'
The Three Billy-Goats Gruff Describing size s and what peopl e

by Fran Huni a like to do:
(illustrated Little Billy Goat Gruff like s to
by John Dyke ) jump'.
'Middle-sized Bill y Goa t Gruf f
likes to have fun.'
'Big Billy Goat Gruff like s
to eat grass.'
Secondly le t us look at some of the topics of the storybooks. Children lov e

stories about witches, skeletons and the world of dinosaurs, and things they
can imagine but may not be able to see every day. For example, we have included
in this series Daniel's Dinosaurs. The story is about a boy called Daniel who
loved dinosaurs very much. In this story the children will share Daniel's world
— Th e Use of Children's Literature in the English Primary Classroom 8 1
of dinosaurs which perform everyday tasks like playing badminton and working
in the supermarket. We have also included in this series Meg andMog whic h is
about a witch called Meg whose spells always go wrong. Funny Bones i s about
two skeletons who want to play in the park in the middle of the night. The dog
skeleton bump s int o a tree an d hi s bones scatte r al l ove r th e floo r s o the bi g
skeleton and the small skeleton have to put the bones together again. The humour
and fun i n this story appeal strongly to the children. These storybooks includ e
language i n th e syllabu s an d the y als o includ e word s lik e 'broomstick' ,
'cauldron', 'castle ' an d th e name s o f funn y ingredient s fo r a witch' s spells .
Although thes e word s ma y no t b e immediat e t o th e everyda y need s o f th e
children, the y ar e eas y t o understan d i n thei r contex t an d th e visual s an d
animations o n TV als o help. To sum up, storybooks provide variety an d extra
language practice by supplementin g o r complementing th e textbook .
The last point w e would lik e to make (a s does Laine in Chapter 4) is th e
need for natural repetitions or recycling of the language. Children enjoy listening
to stories over and over again. This repetition allow s children t o learn a great
deal i n a n incidenta l way . Most stor y books contai n natura l repetitio n o f ke y
vocabulary an d structures . As they enjoy hearin g storie s over and over again ,
the children are able to develop comprehension skill s and build up confidenc e
gradually. As pupils become more and more familiar wit h the story , they wil l
find it easier and become more confident usin g key vocabulary and structures.
Very often, childre n surprise adults by being able to memorize almost all of the
story.
CONCLUSION
It i s hope d tha t thes e ET V storie s wil l provid e teacher s wit h a n additiona l

resource i n the classroom. The television storie s wil l be abl e to complement ,
not replace the teacher because there is no substitute for the intimate atmosphere
of th e story-tellin g classroo m wit h th e pupil s groupe d aroun d th e teacher ,
breathless wit h suspens e and enjoyable anticipation .
REFERENCES
Bennet, J . 1979 . Learning to Read with Picture Books. London : Signa l Publications .
Curriculum Development Institute. 1995. Children's Literature in the English Classroom,
Teachers' Book. Hon g Kong : Government Printer .
Wright, A. 1993 . Making Stories Understandable. London : JET magazine .
II
Introduction to the Secondary Section
Whilst the first five chapters focused o n the primary classroom and the role of
'literature' o r literar y technique s i n languag e wor k wit h primar y pupils , thi s
section focuse s o n th e secondar y schoo l language/literature/languag e art s
classroom. I n Chapte r 6 , Murph y discusse s th e nee d fo r les s boring , mor e
interesting texts in the secondary classroom, echoing a theme raised earlier by
Laine and Harris and Leung in Chapters 4 and 5.
In Chapter 7, Tibbetts treats the topic of poetry in the classroom. Reader s
should read Tibbetts in association with Peter Falvey's chapter in the third and
final section . In Chapter 7, Tibbetts shows his own and his students' poems. In
the third section, Falvey shows his own and his student-teachers' poems . Both
chapters demonstrate what and how much can be achieved with encouragement
and example in typical studen t or student teacher classrooms.
In Chapte r 8 , Cha n wh o ofte n demonstrate d t o th e publi c wha t ca n b e
achieved by using 'literature ' in a typical Hong Kong language classroom when
he was the Panel Chair (Head of English) at Tuen Mun Government Secondar y
School, shows how songs have qualities which can be exploited with secondary
students o f English .
Mahoney, a practising playright, discusses the use of drama in the classroom
in Chapter 9. He shows how the use of role play, simulation, improvisation and
other techniques which are part of the repertoire of training strategie s used in
the theatre are now an integrated part of the typically active language classroom.
He demonstrate s ho w thes e technique s ca n b e use d t o enhanc e languag e
learning.
Kennedy, wh o ha s worke d wit h secondar y schoo l students , adult s an d
84 Introductio n t o the Secondar y Sectio n
teachers in training shows just how interactive the use of the short story can be
with active language practice. In Chapter 10, he provides examples of language
work based on the use of the short story. This demonstrates that stories can be
used t o fulfill th e goal s o f th e Englis h syllabuse s fo r Hon g Kon g secondar y
schools. They can be interesting and motivating and still provide opportunitie s
for vali d language activities .
All five writers demonstrate clearly that there need not be an artificial gul f
between literature and language. They show that language teaching can benefit
greatly fro m th e classroom technique s an d strategie s usuall y associate d wit h
good literature teaching and that the judicious use of 'literature' can strengthen
the typical language class and its activities.
It i s importan t t o not e tha t th e introductio n o f th e Targe t Oriente d
Curriculum wil l provid e teachers , material s writer s an d textboo k writer s fo r
secondary school s with a wonderful opportunit y t o exploit the use of literar y
texts an d literar y technique s becaus e o f th e experientia l dimensio n i n th e
language wor k provide d i n th e TO C syllabuse s an d Band s o f Performance .
Opportunities for students to react to life and literature will need to be provided.
CHAPTER
Making Textbook Languag e

More Literar y
Mike Murphy
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the nature of 'literary' or 'representational' language, as opposed

to 'literal ' o r 'referential ' language , wil l firs t b e examine d (se e Cho w e t al. ,
1995). I t wil l the n b e argue d tha t ther e i s a nee d fo r a greate r us e o f mor e
literary text s b y Hon g Kon g Englis h teacher s becaus e ther e i s a shortag e o f
such text s i n th e textbook s currentl y use d i n school s today . I t wil l the n b e
shown ho w on e textbook-typ e tex t ca n b e change d int o a more literar y tex t
relatively easily, and it will be suggested that if Hong Kong teachers try to do
this themselve s thei r student s wil l benefi t an d thei r teachin g wil l b e mor e
effective. Finally , a number of other literary texts created from th e language of
the textbook wil l be included .
Before readin g the rest of this chapter, consider the following questions :
1. Wha t ar e the differences betwee n non-literar y an d literary texts ?
2. Ca n you think of any examples of 'literary texts' that you have encountered
in the past month ?
3. D o you know o f any English language textbook which contains a literary
text?
It woul d appea r t o b e ver y difficult , i f no t impossible , t o distinguis h a
clear set of criteria for classifying text s as literature (Wellek and Warren, 1949 ;
86 Mik e Murphy
Eagleton, 1983 ; Lott, 1988) . What is not so difficult, however , is to distinguish

a certain kin d o f languag e which ha s been speciall y selecte d an d formed i n a
way that is different t o the kind of language which is normally used in everyday
real-life situation s (Moody , 1971) . Poetry i s the most clearl y distinguishabl e
kind o f languag e i n thi s regard . Poets , i n fact , d o violenc e t o 'everyday' , o r
'conventional' languag e (Widdowson , 1983 ) in a consciously organize d way .
However, many writers, not only poets, deliberately choose and manipulate,
transform an d intensify languag e and arrange it in a particular way not only to
communicate o r t o inform , bu t t o produc e a specia l effec t o n th e reade r o r
listener (Chapman , 1973) . In othe r words , the wa y th e language i s used an d
not just the language itself plays a very important role in conveying the meaning
or th e message . Thi s i s wh y w e ofte n canno t paraphras e literar y language ,
especially poetry, without a n essential part of the meaning being lost .
Another ver y recognizabl e characteristi c o f literar y languag e i s th e fac t
that i t i s 'highl y connotative' . Th e reade r i s expecte d t o attribut e furthe r
implications t o the meaning o f a word besides that which it primarily denote s
(Wellek and Warren, 1949) . That is why this kind of language is often referre d
to as 'non-pragmatic' discourse, in which what is said is not meant to be always
taken a s literally tru e and the way somethin g i s put is as important a s what i s
said. McRa e (1991 ) call s thi s kin d o f languag e 'representational ' language .
He calls more literal language, 'referential ' language , in which the words used
are rarel y mean t t o hav e a meanin g 'beyon d thei r limite d spher e o f litera l
reference'.
Yet anothe r characteristi c o f literar y languag e i s tha t i t i s no t a s eas y t o
predict what is likely to come next. When reading literal or referential language,
understanding i s helped b y knowledg e abou t th e topic, abou t th e lexical set s
into which words related to the topic fit, an d even about the layout. That is to
say knowledg e o f th e 'schemat a o f contextua l meaning ' (Firth , 1934) . Th e
'schemata' of literary texts however, are embedded within the texts themselves
and ar e waitin g t o b e discovere d b y th e reader b y employin g 'interpretativ e
procedures in a way which isn't required of you in the normal reading process'
(Widdowson, 1983) .
Therefore, whe n readin g a tex t i n whic h ther e i s mor e literar y o r
representational language, we at least need to be aware that the writer might be
deliberately 'dislocatin g ou r expected frame s o f reference' i n order to enabl e
us to view the world in a new light, to create an unreal world which, because it
is in some way related t o the real world 'offer s u s a perspective on it which i s
original, excitin g an d thought-provoking ' (Brumfi t an d Carter , 1986) .
Obviously therefore , a certain kin d o f readin g abilit y i s required t o rea d
this kin d o f languag e wit h understandin g an d wit h enjoyment , an d i t i s a n
ability whic h i s differen t t o th e abilit y require d t o read mor e litera l kind s o f
texts. Moreover, it is an ability which should form a very important part of our
overall reading ability .
Unfortunately however , Hon g Kon g student s o f Englis h ge t ver y littl e
= = = = = = = = ^ = = = = ^ ^ Makin g Textboo k Languag e Mor e Literar y 8 7
practice in developin g thi s kind o f reading ability . The majority o f text s the y
read contai n languag e whic h i s litera l o r referentia l rathe r tha n literar y o r
representational. The reason for thi s is that the majority o f texts they read ar e
from the textbook and the type of language to be found in the English language
textbooks use d i n Hon g Kon g school s toda y i s almost , bu t no t exclusively ,
literal language .
In addition, textbook language 'communicate s o n only on e level, usuall y
in term s o f informatio n bein g sough t o r given , o r o f a socia l situatio n bein g
handled'. It is 'almost exclusively limited to everyday real-life situational use'.
As such it is 'the mainstay of basic language use and, is consequently, the basis
of all second language learning' (McRae , 1991). Hong Kong students therefore,
normally onl y rea d th e kin d o f languag e on e need s i n orde r t o carr y ou t a
whole range of utilitarian and communicative functions in English, from making
statements t o making a wish. I t woul d appea r o n th e surfac e therefore , t o b e
the ideal type of language for use in Hong Kong English language textbooks .
It woul d also , a t first glance , appea r t o be th e ideal typ e o f languag e fo r
helping Hon g Kon g Englis h teacher s t o achiev e th e mai n objectiv e o f th e
English Languag e Curriculum . Thi s i s 't o provid e ever y studen t wit h th e
opportunity t o develo p th e maximu m degre e o f functiona l competenc e i n
English o f whic h h e o r sh e i s capable , give n th e constraint s inheren t i n th e
situation, in particular competence in those domains of use which are specially
appropriate to the Hong Kong situation. By 'functiona l competence ' i s meant
the ability to carry out successfully certai n tasks and communicative transactions
through the medium of English' (Syllabu s for English, 1983) .
However, this kind of language on its own is not in fact suitable for helping
teachers t o fully achiev e th e abov e objective . Th e reaso n i s tha t i t i s totall y
inappropriate for one of the six domains of use listed in the syllabus. It may be
appropriate fo r th e workplace , th e worl d outsid e Hon g Kong , th e worl d o f
government an d officialdom , Hon g Kon g society , an d fo r study , but i t is no t
appropriate for the world of 'aesthetic experience, pleasure and entertainment'
as the syllabu s put s it , or to put i t another wa y th e world o f literatur e wit h a
small T . McRa e has defined this world as 'any text whose imaginative content
will stimulate reaction an d response in the receiver' and the language of thes e
texts i s no t litera l o r referentia l languag e bu t literar y o r representationa l
language.
In representational language words are made to play, to have representational
meaning beyond their limited spher e of literal reference. I t opens up, calls
upon, stimulates and uses areas of the mind, from imaginatio n to emotion,
from pleasur e t o pain, whic h referentia l languag e doe s no t reach . Where
referential languag e informs, representationa l languag e involves. It almost
automatically bring s abou t persona l interactio n betwee n tex t an d reader ,
between the readers themselves, between teacher and students, but above all
between the producer and the receiver of the message represented by the text.
(McRae, 1991)
88 Mik e Murphy ^ = = = = = = = = = ^==^^^=====^==================
Although, therefore , th e us e o f representationa l languag e wil l cal l upo n

Hong Kong students to exercise their imaginations, to approach language fro m
what they might perceive to be, or may have been conditioned to believe to be,
a les s syllabus-oriented , a les s utilitarian , poin t o f view , the y wil l com e t o
realize that language can be enjoyably usefu l i n its own right and not simply a
means to achieve something or get things done. They will come to realize that
there i s a kind o f languag e whic h invite s a reaction o r a response, a kind o f
language whic h stimulate s the m t o respond , an d stimulate s the m t o expres s
their ideas or feelings i n a similar kind of way. They wil l come to realize that
this is not only an enjoyable way of improving their language competence, but
also one of the most effective .
There are , o f course , additiona l advantage s t o usin g literar y o r
representational text s i n languag e teaching , bu t ther e i s n o nee d t o lis t the m
here for they are well-documented an d well-known. Suffice i t to say that Hong
Kong student s ar e missin g ou t o n a ver y importan t an d beneficia l aspec t o f
language learning . No t onl y i s ther e a disproportionate us e o f litera l text s i n
Hong Kong English classrooms today, there also appears to be a negative attitude
towards literatur e an d it s valu e i n languag e learnin g i n Hon g Kon g school s
(Chan, 1990 ; Mackay, 1990 ; Boyle and Hirvela, 1988 ; Kennedy, 1990) .
How then can one start to redress the balance? Advocating and encouraging
the us e o f literatur e i n languag e teachin g i s on e obviou s way . However , fo r
those teachers who , for on e reason o r another, find i t very difficul t t o do this,
perhaps they can be shown how relatively easy it is to add to or change textbook
texts s o tha t the y displa y som e o f th e characteristic s o f literar y o r
representational language. Here, for example, is a text which will be immediately
recognized a s a typica l textboo k text . Althoug h i t i s no t a n actua l textboo k
text, it has been closely modelle d upon one.
This is a picture of Peter Lim's family. The small fat man with I
the glasses is Peter's father, Mr John Lim. The tall lad y on his j j
left i s hi s wife , Jane, and Pete r i s sitting nex t to her . H e i s i
holding a book i n his hands. The girl i n the picture i s Peter's |
sister. He r nam e i s Mary . Sh e goes t o th e sam e schoo l a s j
Peter. Peter is in Form Two and Mary i s in Form Three. Peter j ;
likes to play football, but Mary likes to go swimming. Peter's f
father i s a tool-maker. H e work s i n a factory i n Kowloon . 1
Mrs Lim is a shop-assistant. She works i n a shop in Lam Tin. :
Both Mr and Mrs Lim have to take a bus and a train to get to j
work. I
The tex t i s a serie s o f similarl y structure d simpl e sentence s tha t describe th e

Lim famil y i n a rather unimaginativ e an d obviou s way . It is clearly litera l o r
referential languag e and 'communicate s a t only one level'.
Making Textbook Languag e More Literary 8 9
The following text however, although very similar in structure and content,
can be classified a s literary or representational language .
Siu Pin g i s a studen t a t Ying Wa Secondar y School . Sh e is

liked by all her classmates. They think she's 'cool'. She travels
far by MTR to get to school eac h day . Her bag is always full
of homework. It seems all work, no play! When the holidays
arrive sh e call s a frien d o r tw o an d the y migh t g o t o th e
countryside t o hav e a barbecue . O n Sunday s sh e like s t o
have a fling. Sometimes she goes with her friends to the ice-
rink a t Tai Ko o Shing. Siu Pin g i s a clever studen t an d sh e
knows tha t ther e i s mor e t o lif e tha n doin g homewor k o n
the sixteenth floor !
This text is similar to the first text in that it informs the reader. However, it also
does on e other very important thing. It involves th e reader. This immediatel y
puts it into the category of representational o r literary language. The reader is
involved right from th e very start . What kind of girl is this who is liked by all
her classmates ? Would I like her? Do I like 'cool' people ? There is also a play
on the word 'cool ' an d the reader may notice it. What exactly does cool mean
anyway? I thought it meant cold! The reader, a Hong Kong student, is involved
in other ways also . He or she can identify wit h Si u Ping's experiences . / also
travel by MTR. I also have lots of homework, go for barbecues and go to Tai
Koo Shing.
In other words, the text 'open s up, calls upon, stimulates and uses areas of
the mind, from imagination to emotion, from pleasure to pain' (McRae , 1991).
The language in the text also plays with the sounds of English: 'far ' - 'MTR' ,
'day' - 'play' , 'fling ' - 'Shing' . It also plays with the natural rhythmical stresses
of the English language: 'Sh e travels far by MTR.'; 'Whe n the holidays arrive
she calls a friend o r two'. Finally, th e text automatically invite s the reader t o
respond t o the ideas an d feelings expressed . When the text has been read th e
reader will either agree or disagree or be stimulated to discuss further, th e final
expression about there being more to life than doing homework on the sixteenth
floor. Fo r al l thes e reason s th e tex t ca n b e classifie d a s representationa l o r
literary language .
As was stated above, literal language is almost, but not exclusively, to be
found i n Hong Kon g English languag e textbooks. There are some texts, suc h
as simpl e stories , whic h ar e les s litera l tha n others . However , eve n thes e
textbook stories can, with a little imagination, be profitably mad e more literary.
For example, the story The Wind and the Sun whic h appear s i n several Hon g
Kong textbooks ca n be rewritten in the form o f a rhythmical conversation .
90 Mik e Murph y
The Win d an d Th e Su n
Tm sure, ' says the wind,
Tm stronge r tha n you. '
'You're not,' say s the sun ,
'It's just your point o f view.'
Til prove it,' say s the wind.

'See how hard I blow.'
'So what,' say s the sun,
T can make the plant s grow. '
'That man, ' say s the wind,

'I'll blow off hi s clothes.'
'Let's see you,' say s the sun .
And behind a cloud he goes.
Tm cold, ' say s the man ,

Til put o n my coat.'
'Told you,' say s the sun.
And then begin s to gloat.
'Your turn,' say s the wind.

'I've had mine. '
'O.K.,' say s the sun. Other rhyme s ca n als o b e writte n b y
Then begin s to shine. simply playin g wit h th e word s an d
structures of the textbook. For example:
Tm hot, ' say s the man .
Til have a swim.'
And takes off hi s clothes.
'See,' say s the sun, T win!' Who?
Who is playing in the park ?
Who is drinking tea?
Who is dancing in the dark?
Who is watching me ?
Who is fighting i n the street ?

Who is bringing Dad ?
Who is getting to his feet ?
Who is looking sad?
Who is swimming in the pool ?

Who is feeling cold ?
Who is studying in this school?
Who is eight years old?
^r
Making Textbook Language More Literary 9 1
My Puss y Ca t l\ Don't \\
I have a little pussy cat. Don't wake the baby!
Her coat i s black and white. Don't bang the door !
She sleeps inside her basket , Don't rin g the door-bell!
But goes outside at night . I've told you before !
No! I won't wake the baby .
She comes home i n the mornin g I won't bang the door .
To drink milk from a dish. I won't rin g the door-bel l
Then, afte r sh e has finished , Not any more!
She eats a plate of fish !
Don't b e so greedy!
She runs around i n circles, Don't ea t that cake !
To try to catch a ball. Don't ea t those chocolates !
Then, whe n I want to find her , For goodness sake!
She'll com e each time I call.
No! I won't b e so greedy.
She's happ y when I pet her , I won't ea t that cake .
And stroke her fluffy fur . I won't ea t those chocolates .
She smiles, and very softly , But, just for your sake!
Says, 'Pur r . . . purr . purr!
In conclusion, these are just some of the ways textbooks in Hong Kong can be
made more literary. This is one way of starting to redress the balance as regards
the language diet of Hong Kong student s of English. Using a greater numbe r
of texts which contain more literary language will not only increase the range
of the students ' reading skills , but also involve them activel y an d personally .
John McRae says that texts which contain representational language encourage
'dynamic' a s oppose d t o 'static ' learning . Tha t i s t o say , rathe r tha n ther e
being 'teache r input ' al l th e time , 't o b e assimilate d an d reproduced '
mechanically, learnin g become s mor e 'inductive ' wit h more 'interactio n an d
learner involvement' (McRae , 1991) .
REFERENCES
Boyle, J . an d A. Hirvela . 1988 . Literature course s an d studen t attitudes . English

Language Teaching Journal 42/3: 179-183.
Bramfit, C.J. and R.A. Carter, (eds.) 1986. Literature and Language Teaching. Oxford:
92 Mik e Murphy
Chan, P. 1990. Towards reinstating literature into the language curriculum. Institute of
Language in Education Journal Volum e 7: 108-127 .
Chapman, R . 1973 . Linguistics and Literature. London : Edward Arnold .
Chow, A., I. Lee and M. Murphy. 1995 . EFL reading in the primary classroom: teachers'
perspectives and practices. Pape r presented a t the Third International Conferenc e
on Teacher Education i n Second language Teaching. Hong Kong: City Universit y
of Hong Kong .
Curriculum Developmen t Council . 1983 . Syllabus for English (I-V). Hon g Kong :
Government Printer .
Eagleton, T. 1983 . Literary Theory. Oxford : Blackwell .
Firth, J.R. 1934 . Papers in Linguistics. London : Oxfor d Universit y Press .
Kennedy, P. 1990. The unwobbling pivot? The place of literature i n English languag e
teacher educatio n i n Hon g Kong . Institute of Language in Education Journal
Volume 7: 99-108.
Lott, B . 1988 . Stat e o f th e ar t article : languag e an d literature . Language Teaching
Abstracts'. 1-13 .
Mackay, R. 1990 . Barbarian an d immaculate: How (not ) to promote poetry in English
language classrooms . Institute of Language in Education Journal Volum e 7: 9 3-
99.
McRae, J. 1991 . Literature with a Small T. London : Macmillan .
Moody, H.L.B. 1971 . The Teaching of Literature. London : Longman .
Wellek, R. an d R. Warren. 1949 . Theory of Literature. London : Harmondsworth .
Widdowson, H.G . 1983 . Th e devian t languag e o f poetry . I n Teaching Literature
Overseas: Language-based Approaches, ed . C.J . Brumfit , EL T document s 115 .
Oxford: Pergamo n an d the British Council .
CHAPTER
Poetry Writing and Language Learning

Dick Tibbetts
INTRODUCTION
This chapter will examine the reasons for using poetry writing in the language
classroom. Example s o f poem s produce d b y student s wil l b e give n an d
guidelines o n choice of poems an d topics for poem s wil l be outlined. Finall y
the chapter will deal with ways in which poetry writing can be integrated int o
the Hong Kon g English Syllabus .
Consider the following question s before readin g this chapter :

1. I s it possible to get Hong Kon g students to write poetry in English ?
2. I f it is, how do we go about it?
3. Ho w does poetry writing fit into the TOC?
Poetry writing, for reasons outlined later in the chapter, is a profitable activit y
for Hong Kong students. For many of the Hong Kong students I have taught, it
was the first time they had written a poem in English or Chinese. I think students
should be encouraged to write poetry both in their first language and in English
as I believe poetry writin g to be part of students ' personal development. Thi s
chapter, however , concentrate s o n poetr y writin g i n Englis h an d th e wa y i n
which it can be used as a language teaching tool.
94 Dic k Tibbetts ^ =^======^=========^
REASONS FO R USIN G POETR Y WRITIN G I N LANGUAG E LEARNIN G
Although poetr y writin g i s no t a commo n activit y i n Hon g Kon g languag e

classrooms, there are some features o f poetry that make it particularly suitabl e
for languag e learning. Writing poetry is unlike writing essays, letters or other
tasks commonl y give n t o student s i n tha t i t ca n b e use d t o concentrat e o n a
particular language item. Students do not usually write essays or letters directly
in order to learn specific languag e points. It is more common for them to learn
essay writin g o r letter writin g a s a skill. Writing task s ten d t o be open-ende d
and student s hav e a free choic e o f vocabular y an d structure . Attempts t o us e
essays an d simila r task s t o practise a particular structur e ofte n resul t i n wor k
that is rather artificial. When I first started teaching, it was common to introduce
the present progressive tense by walking to the door whilst saying 'I'm walking
to the door'. Thi s wa s usin g languag e i n a n artificia l wa y i n order t o explai n
one use of the present progressive. There was no real communication sinc e the
teacher wa s statin g th e obvious . Teacher s were , an d i n som e case s stil l are ,
driven to artificiality i n order to present a structure. It is even more difficult fo r
students t o practise a structur e i n a natural wa y a s they ar e less awar e o f th e
circumstances in which it is used by native speakers. Poems, on the other hand,
can use repetition o f structure s an d vocabulary i n a natural way. Indeed, suc h
repetition may add strength to the poetry as in the extract below from ' A Minute
of Prayer' b y S t Francis o f Assisi.
i Wher e there is hatred, let me sow love;

i wher e there is injury, pardon;
1
wher e there is doubt, faith;
; wher e there is despair, hope;
i wher e there is darkness, light;
and where there is sadness, joy.
This repetition can be seen as a form of highly creative and meaningful languag e
drilling. It may seem strange to talk of drilling and creativity in the same breath
but any parent of a young native speaker child who has just discovered question
tags will be familiar with the way in which the child creatively and repetitively
uses the question tag structure to force responses from adults. Finding exercises
where student s practis e a structur e i s no t difficult . Findin g activitie s wher e
students nee d t o repeat a particular structur e i s mor e difficult . I f th e teache r
can create a situation wher e student s need and want to repeat a structure the n
there is a good chance that valuable language learning will take place. Poems
can b e use d t o teac h an d practis e particula r point s o r languag e area s i n th e
same way a s an exercise where a student practises a particular ite m ove r an d
over again. The great advantage of the poem over the exercise is that the student
Poetry Writin g an d Languag e Learnin g 9 5
writing the poem is saying something that is of importance to himself/hersel f

and thu s ha s mor e reason t o ge t the language correct . Th e activit y i s mor e
personal and the language item being practised is more likely to be retained.
This combination of meaningful writing with the practice of a particular language
item or structure is one of the great advantages of poetry writing for students.
Another advantag e o f poetr y writin g i s its economy o f expression . The
words o f a poem ca n carr y a heavier meanin g loa d tha n i s norma l i n othe r
forms of writing. Native speakers who write poetry usually have strong reasons
for doing so. They are making a comment on the world around them, often by
putting their personality and personal feelings into words. The intensity of this
process can be used to extremely good effect in the language classroom, giving
learners a chance to communicate real feelings and real ideas.
This realism makes poetry writing a very personal experience and a very
effective wa y of learning. Thus poetry writin g is an example of experientia l
learning and consequently involves three interrelated areas of knowledge and
awareness (Kohonen , 1992) . These areas can be roughly defined a s personal
growth, the learning process and the learning task. Kohonen sees these three as
the points of a triangle within which experiential learning takes place.
However, these three areas are not isolated. They are interlinked, and poetry
writing bounces the student's learning around the experiential learning triangle
(see Figure 1), each point of the triangle strengthening and adding to the learning.
PERSONAL GROWT H
Growth in
self-esteem an d
self-awareness
Peer interest Presentation

and praise of self
pride in 'polished'
task completion communication
Need for accurac y

and precision meaningful repetitio n genuine
in message communication
LEARNING PROCES S LEARNING TASK

Figure 1 Th e Experiential Learning Triangl e
96 Dic k Tibbetts
The learnin g tas k is a genuine task , wit h a purpose, that of communicatin g a

real message to the world. It involves the student in a process of serious language
study in order to send the desired message. This message is, of course, linke d
to the student's personal growth. This is the strength and reinforcement o f the
triangle.
Thus poetr y writin g allow s th e studen t t o communicat e genuin e an d
personal ideas and emotions, something that happens too rarely in the language
classroom, whil e a t the sam e tim e engaging th e student i n language learnin g
activities, using rhyme, rhythm an d repetition.
USEFUL AN D PURPOSEFU L LANGUAG E
Purpose
Writing poems allows students to repeat structures in a natural, interesting and

creative way . They ca n be repetitive enoug h t o work lik e a drill, but creativ e
enough to retain motivation. In the example below, the writer is a Secondary 2
student I taught when I first came to Hong Kong and the inspiration was Roger
McGough's 'Th e Writer of This Poem' (McGough , 1985) .
The Write r o f Thi s Poe m

The writer of this poe m
is stronger than a house
as clever as a teacher
as active as a mous e
as short as a child
as bent as a bow
as thin as paper
as ugly as a crow.
This Secondary 2 student is practising 'a s . . . as' , widening his vocabulary b y

searching fo r th e words that describe himself, an d creating similes . He is also
taking car e ove r pronunciatio n a s h e ha s chose n rhyme s fo r th e secon d an d
fourth line s of each verse . There is, in addition, a strong rhythm to this poe m
that helps th e writer produce appropriat e intonatio n an d stres s patterns whe n
he recites it.
Secondary 2 students ar e too old to recite nursery rhyme s but though th e
student's poem here is modelled on a poem written by an adult, it has echoes of
nursery rhyme. It was created by the student but it is serving some of the same
functions a s a nurser y rhym e fo r youn g nativ e speakers . I t provide s a n
opportunity fo r repeated practice of stress, intonation an d structure .
Poetry Writing an d Languag e Learnin g 9 7
Another exampl e o f a poem tha t addresse s a particular languag e point i s

the acrostic poem. This can be used in various ways and one way is to point the
students towards a particular structure by using a model that uses that structure.
The poem below is a model that uses my name as an acrostic involving question
forms.
r Do I like teaching ove r all this noise?

Is it what I want to do?
Can I find a quiet classroom ,
i Knowin g that 2 C are around an d they never sleep ? J j
The model here is not great poetry. It was composed by the teacher in front o f
the class, written up and redrafted i n a matter of minutes to show students that
the task is shared by them and the teacher and to bring out problems and language
possibilities in a natural way. The poem was designed to exploit the relationship
between teacher and class and to use as many question forms as possible. I was
able to get three questions into four lines and most Chinese names contain one
or more initia l letter s o f auxiliar y verbs . Cha n give s 'can' , 'could ' an d 'are' .
Wong give s 'will ' an d 'would' . Som e combinatio n o f students ' Chines e an d
English names will provide an opportunity fo r a questioning poem .
Students can write a poem asking the questions that are important to them
at the time or they could even question themselves, though suc h sophisticate d
self-doubt woul d be hard to write about without a good command o f English .
Acrostic poems can be used in many different way s and with all levels of
students. At lowe r levels , student s ca n mak e basi c bu t importan t statement s
about themselves. More advanced, more mature students can look at themselves
in a much deepe r way. Students can be asked to use question forms , gerunds ,
adjectives or , if you wish, they can be given complete freedom. Th e languag e
learning occur s i n tw o areas . Student s usuall y fin d themselve s repeatin g
structures an d i n th e proces s the y ar e force d int o searchin g fo r appropriat e
syntax that will allow them to fit their thoughts to the initial letters of each line.
SELF EXPRESSIO N
Defining the Worl d
When I started teaching in Hong Kong I was surprised to find that many Hong
Kong students had never written a poem before in English or Chinese. However,
I empathiz e wit h the m becaus e I neve r di d a s a chil d an d I fee l tha t I los t
something becaus e o f this. Everyone shoul d try their hand a t writing a poem,
telling a story and painting a picture. Poetry appears in every culture and seems
98 Dic k Tibbetts - r = ^ ^ ^ = ^ ^ ^ ^ = = = ^ = = = = = = = = = — = = =
to fil l a basi c huma n need . Educatio n shoul d encourag e ou r humanit y an d

encourage us to contribute to the world and to society. We do not deny student s
the opportunity t o paint just because they cannot compete with Qi Baishi, but
rather we enjoy their enthusiasm and their attempts to portray the world around
them.
Writing a poe m i s on e wa y i n whic h student s ca n respon d t o th e worl d
around them. It is this active response that adds so much to the learning process.
Reading poetry is valuable and Hong Kong students usually need to read poems
before writin g the m a s the y hav e limite d experienc e o f thi s medium . Male y
and Duff tal k of poetry as 'a n anchor for discussion' (1989 : 3). They stress the
value o f writin g poetr y i n Englis h bu t i t shoul d als o b e stresse d tha t poetr y
writing is more than just another way of putting down thoughts. Students ca n
write somethin g whic h i s clearl y aime d a t practisin g thei r Englis h bu t als o
gives the m a n opportunit y t o say , i n a concentrate d an d directe d shor t text ,
how the y feel . Too much o f English languag e teaching consist s o f testin g th e
student, looking for form rather than content. Students write letters to imaginary
, penfriends i n Canada , article s fo r imaginar y newspapers , repeat dialogue s i n
unreal situation s an d d o information ga p exercises wher e neither party reall y
wants to know the information. These activities are often designed and perceived
as a test of the students' abilit y to answer an examination questio n rather tha n
genuine communication .
In addition, much of this teaching is geared to enabling students to exchange
information i n a rathe r neutra l manner . Classroo m languag e tend s t o b e
transactional an d th e socia l aspec t o f languag e i s no t give n it s ful l weight .
Textbook writers and teachers appreciate the need for the language of emotions
but this is generally catered for by the teaching of colloquial pleasantries. The
emotive language that we need in order to exert influence ove r others is ofte n
lacking in textbooks. Language is more than passing information — it is about
making and changing relationships. Poetry is one way of using and developing
language for suc h tasks.
When Hallida y (1989 : 40-41 ) liste d a rang e o f function s fo r writte n
language, he included poetry in the section 'primaril y fo r entertainment'. Th e
use of 'primarily ' i s important. There is an underlying secondar y purpos e fo r
language, tha t of socialization . Socializ e here is used in its fullest sense . It is
not 'making polite noises' or a communicative function like 'refusing a request'.
It is the use of language to carve out one's position in society. All students ar e
interested i n findin g thei r plac e i n th e worl d an d i n havin g other s relat e t o
them, bu t the y rarel y hav e the chanc e t o explore thi s in English i n th e Hon g
Kong classroom. Poetry may be primarily for entertainment but the secondary
purpose of poetry is a powerful motivatin g factor for students. Writing a poem
gives them an opportunity to make a forceful persona l statement that can help
to define themselves and their desired position in society. This use of language
to define oneself is omnipresent in native speaker language use. In writing and
in speech, nativ e speaker s ar e constantly choosin g vocabular y an d structure s
not jus t t o conve y informatio n bu t t o subtl y conve y thei r attitude s t o tha t

information an d t o thei r audience . Their poem s deman d a personal respons e
from th e teacher an d othe r students . Thus student s ca n use English fo r a real
purpose.
Analysis
Because o f thi s rea l purpos e fo r usin g English , student s fee l ther e i s a rea l
reason t o b e a trul y effectiv e communicator . Writin g a poe m i s on e wa y o f
encouraging students to look at language under the microscope and say exactly
what they mean, wit h attentio n t o detail. A poem is short enough fo r student s
to examin e ever y wor d the y write . Poetr y help s student s t o loo k belo w th e
surface o f language and evaluate layers of meaning. It gives them confidenc e
over ambiguities as they realize that alternative interpretations ca n sometime s
be acceptabl e an d eve n interesting . Whe n m y student s listene d t o Georg e
Harrison's song, 'Happines s is a Warm Gun', they were struck by the differen t
meanings tha t th e titl e metapho r migh t contain . Th e son g 'Lov e Is ' b y th e
McGarrigle sisters also provides some ambiguous metaphors and students were
then inspired to write their own 'Lov e is a . .. ' poems exploring th e differen t
possible meanings of the metaphors they were creating and explaining them to
their classmates .
Focus
Many o f the examples given here are poems that are directly abou t the writer.
If you r student s writ e poem s o n a regular basi s the y o r yo u ma y writ e o n a
much wide r range o f topics , but for thei r first attempt s i t may be a good ide a
for th e student s t o focu s o n themselves . Thi s i s becaus e th e student s rarel y
have an opportunity t o present their feelings t o the teacher. Students need this
focus o n self to raise their self-esteem. I n overcrowded classroom s they ofte n
feel they are not valued as individuals, and this means that when asked to write
about thei r rea l feeling s the y tak e tim e t o resolv e th e conflic t betwee n thei r
private opinion of themselves and the negative, humble opinion they often fee l
the teacher expects. The 'writer of this poem' (above) has still not fully resolve d
the conflict a s can be seen from his last line, where he calls himself 'a s ugly as
a crow' afte r listin g al l his virtues.
Not every teacher is happy with this personal focus an d if the teacher does
not care for it in all probability the students will become embarrassed. I like it
because i t help s brin g m y student s t o lif e fo r me . I get t o know thei r hopes ,
ambitions and opinions in a way that I never would from letters to non-existent
friends abou t event s tha t neve r happene d o r platitudinou s opinio n essay s o n
the environment . Yo u d o no t hav e t o hav e thi s focu s o n th e sel f bu t yo u d o
need somethin g tha t will provoke a personal response from th e student if you
want th e studen t t o passionately car e abou t the writing task . The teacher ca n
100 Dic k Tibbetts - ^ = = = = = = ^ ^ = ^ = = = = = = = = = ^ ^
move fro m persona l focu s t o wide r issues , o r vic e versa , dependin g o n th e

situation and the class. However, it should be remembered that one of the boxes
in th e experientia l learnin g diagra m abov e i s 'genuin e communication' . Th e
poem has to be something th e students want to say.
'POETIC LANGUAG E LANGUAG E FO R LIVIN G
Poetry an d Accurac y
When I started using poetry writing in my language classes some of my fello w

teachers feared that students would be encouraged to produce deviant grammar.
I, o n th e othe r hand , fel t tha t a poe m wa s a tas k wher e student s coul d b e
completely accurat e in their language. It may seem strange to ask students fo r
error fre e wor k whe n the y writ e poetry bu t I believe poem s shoul d no t hav e
errors. The production and display of a text that is 'perfect', a t least in terms of
language accuracy, is in itself a strong motivating factor for students who rarely
achieve total accuracy i n their other writing tasks.
My colleague s wer e worrie d abou t 'accuracy ' an d suggeste d tha t poet s
are linguistic anarchists who hurl deviant grammar around in their poems purely
to prov e the y ar e poets . Thi s i s just no t true . Whe n I searche d fo r rando m
examples o f languag e devianc y i n poetr y I foun d tha t poetr y wa s fa r mor e
grammatically consisten t tha n eve n I had thought . O n thos e occasion s whe n
deviant gramma r an d idiosyncrati c punctuatio n ar e ther e i n a poem the y ar e
there for a purpose. These 'errors ' are part of the poet's communication t o the
reader. Th e mos t widel y know n exampl e o f thi s i s perhap s i n th e wor k
of e e cummings where the poet ignores punctuation to give an impression o f
stream o f consciousnes s and , perhaps , t o hel p reader s t o identif y th e poet .
Another exampl e i s Edwi n Morgan' s 'Spacepoe m 3 : Of f Course' , wher e
sentence fragments floa t i n the poem an d recombine i n unusual way s t o giv e
the reade r th e impressio n o f object s floatin g i n a spacecraft , spinnin g an d
colliding with each other in free fall. When Mick Jagger and Roger Waters use
double negative s i n thei r song s T Can't Ge t No Satisfaction ' an d 'Th e Wall '
(we don't need no education), it is not by accident. They are identifying wit h a
section of their audience who freely use such double negatives in their everyday
speech.
When student s write a poem they need to be accurate in their language s o
that they can express their meaning accurately. If they have made an error they
need t o justify i t a s a deliberat e 'error ' mad e t o furthe r th e communicativ e
effect o f th e poem . The y ca n rarel y d o this , bu t on e exampl e follows . Th e
poem belo w i s modelle d o n anothe r McGoug h poe m (1985) . The ide a i s fo r
the student to write a four-line verse of about eighteen words and then rearrange
these sam e words in a different wa y to make two more verses, modifying hi s
original choic e if he cannot get three sensible verses ou t of them. In this wa y
the studen t i s mad e t o manipulat e structure s an d examin e synta x closel y t o

decide ho w th e word s chose n fo r th e firs t vers e ca n b e rearrange d i n a
meaningful way . In the second verse Adrian, a Secondary 4 student I taught in
Hong Kong , has used 'so-call ' a s a verb.
Adrian is my name W
I use it, but rarely
People call mine mor e
And so now I use theirs more.
People so-call m y name mor e

But 1 rarely use theirs.
Mine is Adrian
And now I use it more.
People now rarely call my name

But I use theirs more
Mine is more . . . Adrian
And so / us e it.
Adrian wa s awar e of th e meaning o f 'so-called ' bu t had no t realized i t coul d

not be used as a verb and wanted to get across the idea that people were calling
him by th e wron g name , a derogatory nam e that he felt di d no t describe hi m
well. This generated a lot of discussion an d many student s learned an d talke d
about 'so-called' , a ne w lexica l ite m fo r them . I fel t i t di d no t quit e ge t hi s
desired meanin g across , but we could understand i t if he helped us , so we let
him kee p i t i n hi s poem . I t ma y no t b e accurat e Englis h bu t i t le d t o som e
genuinely enthusiastic language learning. It also led to an awareness that Adrian
was usin g non-standar d Englis h bu t wa s bein g treate d a s a n experimenter ,
seeking the limits of language rules, not as a student who had made a mistake.
This gave Adrian a tremendous feeling of control over the language. He realized
that if he chose his words carefully h e could break the rules knowingly and yet
still have his poem accepte d an d talked about .
Communicative Practic e
Communicative language learning is often seen in terms of functions, of passing

information. Sometime s thi s information i s concerned wit h facts , sometime s
with expressin g suc h emotion s a s ange r o r doubt . On e problem i s that thes e
emotions ca n rarely be practised i n a realistic situation . Student s ar e unlikely
to be able to express their emotions effectively i n English unless they have had
a chanc e t o practis e an d tes t ou t thei r idea s o f wha t constitute s a n effectiv e
102 Dic k Tibbetts
expression of anger or despair and what fails to make an impact or is laughable.

Here i s a n exampl e o f a poe m writte n b y a Maca u sixt h for m studen t o f
mine i n response t o the despair tha t we ai l feel o n occasio n whe n w e look a t
life aroun d us.
A Litan y
For those who have no shelter while we watch TV
in our home every night — a thought .
For those who pick their daily goods from rubbis h
while we throw away food — a thought .
For those who shake with cold in the gale
while we sit beside a warm stov e — a thought .
For those who are moved on by the polic e
while we may live in our home forever — a thought.
For those who beg for their living
while we have money to buy designer clothes — a thought .
For those who are not cared fo r
while we have many friends — a thought.
And for al l the street sleeper s
Most sorrowful o f all, they are the neglecte d
But the Day of Lov e is bound to come.
This poem is modelled on 'A Litany' by Salvador De Madariaga. De Madariaga

wrote about political prisoners but the student who wrote the poem above was
encouraged t o find a group o f peopl e sh e herself care d abou t an d t o contras t
them wit h ou r ow n goo d fortune . Thi s freedo m t o choose, althoug h limited ,
has given rise to a poem that shows genuine feeling .
The poems described above have been genuine pieces of communication .
However, poetry writing is rather a solitary occupation and the creative process
does not lend itself t o communication i n the classroom. Students ' poem s ca n
stimulate a response from thei r classmates, but students cannot be expected to
leap into action and give a response to every poem they hear. Students respond
better if they have a specific task .
One task that leads to communication in the classroom is to restore a poem.
In Gerar d Benson' s poem , 'Problem s o f Poetry' , h e replaces rhymin g word s
by non-rhyming phrases. There is an obvious challenge to students here. They
can put back the rhyming words, involving both vocabulary and pronunciation
work. I found Benson' s poem a little too difficult fo r my students so I actually
used the simpler exampl e below, adapted from Edwar d Lear .
Poetry Writing and Language Learning 10 3
There was a Young Lady whose eyes

Were uniqu e as to colour an d dimension; {size)
When sh e opened them wide,
People all turned i n another direction , (aside)
And starte d away i n astonishment. (surprise)
The secon d stag e was for th e student s t o create their ow n rhyming poems.
Once they had written their poems they doctored them as I doctored the above
example. They then challenge someon e else in the class to put the rhyming
words back. This poetic challenge involves discussion and negotiation while
still allowing students to retain control of their own poem.
POEMS AR E USUALL Y SHOR T
Drafting an d Proofreadin g — A n Achievabl e Targe t
Completing a poem can often b e done in a lesson though I prefer a draftin g

approach. This takes a little longer but is valuable because students examine
their work more carefully before giving it in and learn proofreading skill s in a
way I believe no exercise can ever teach them. The 'litany' above was redrafted
twice before th e version you se e was arrived at . Proofreading exercise s ar e
often unsatisfactor y becaus e ther e i s a grea t dea l o f differenc e betwee n
proofreading someon e else' s wor k an d proofreading one' s own . White an d
Arndt (1991: 5) stress the personal involvement of the writer in the creative
process and the responsibility of the writer for the final product. Poetry is also
a very good introduction to drafting becaus e the poems are short enough for
the task to be completed and evaluated quickly, unlike the proofreading o f a
lengthy essay. A short poem also seems to give the student more pride than the
completion of a standard essay, as Hedge (1988: 49) found when her students
drafted an d redrafted their poems. Perhaps this is because it is a more genuine
piece of communication, and thus there is more motivation in the proofreading.
CHOOSING A POE M
The Triangl e — Teacher , Learne r an d Poe m
In addition to the task, learning process and personal growth triangle there is a
second triangl e operating in poetry writing in the classroom. For a poem to
succeed i n a class ther e mus t be a triangular relationshi p betwee n student ,
104 Dic k Tibbetts - T ^ = = = ^ = = = = = = = = = = ^ = = = = = ^ ^
teacher and poem. The teacher is interested i n students' response to the poem
and i n th e poem s the y write . I choos e poem s tha t I enjoy readin g an d tha t I
hope will also appeal to my students. This is true even when looking at poems
written fo r younge r readers . I d o no t wan t t o tal k dow n t o m y students , bu t
rather to use the poem as a bridge of understanding between student and teacher.
It follows from this that the poem should be accessible to the students both
in language and cultural aspects. This does not limit the teacher as much as one
might expect, fo r th e themes o f man y poem s ar e universal. The poem shoul d
not contai n to o man y vocabular y item s tha t ar e unlikel y t o b e o f us e t o th e
students. It seems rather wasteful o f limited class time to explain so much that
does not need to be retained .
Another majo r facto r i s tha t th e poem writte n b y student s shoul d hav e a
language learnin g purpos e tha t i s apparen t t o th e students . I f student s kno w
why the y ar e doin g somethin g the y ar e mor e likel y t o b e motivated . Poetr y
writing offers somethin g for many different group s and types of students. Those
students who have something important to say are given an opportunity. Those
who like to impress their friends ca n play clever games with words. The group,
possibly th e majority , wh o wan t t o improv e thei r Englis h ar e offere d a
challenging languag e learnin g task . Mos t o f the class ca n be catere d fo r an d
motivated t o write.
There is a galaxy of poems that can be used as models to practise specifi c
language points. Some lend themselves to vocabulary sets , some to grammar ,
some to syntax, metaphor, idiom, usage or pronunciation. Some of the sources
for language learning poems that I have found useful ar e given in the appendix.
FITTING POEM S INT O TH E SYLLABU S
Supplementing th e Reade r
The Class Reader offers perhaps the easiest opening for poetry in the classroom.
Classes i n Hong Kon g ar e usually timetable d fo r a reader lesson every week .
Teachers ar e fre e t o us e i t a s the y wis h a s th e reader i s no t examine d i n th e
same way as the rest of the course. The reader supplies the topic but the teacher
is free to find a poem that will facilitate the learning of a chosen language item.
I once taught a Secondary 3 class where the reader was an abridged version of
a Wilbur Smith novel. This gave me many opportunities for exciting activities,
even thoug h I a m no t th e mos t ferven t Wilbu r Smit h fan . I n Wilbu r Smit h
novels peopl e di e a t fairly regula r intervals . Here w e have a n opportunit y t o
introduce epitaphs , first fo r th e character wh o has been bumped off , the n fo r
the student s themselves . T o writ e you r ow n epitap h ma y see m gloom y bu t
students often appreciat e black humour. For every situation in a reader there is
a poe m an d furthermor e ther e i s a poe m tha t ca n use d t o teac h somethin g
useful.
- Poetr y Writin g an d Languag e Learnin g 10 5
Clearly, if poems can be used with the Reader, poetry writing can be used
in th e sam e wa y t o supplemen t th e textbook . I kno w tha t thi s i s difficul t i n
Hong Kong . Som e teacher s fee l th e textbook autho r i s far bette r qualifie d t o
judge th e need s o f thei r student s tha n th e teacher s themselves . Som e Pane l
Chairs worr y that targets wil l not be reached i f teachers ar e given freedom t o
deviate from th e textbook. However , languag e teaching in Hong Kon g need s
to be less rigid an d steril e i f standard s ar e to improve an d i n the end i t is fo r
teachers to fight for th e changes they want. The personal dimension of poetr y
writing seems to promote thought and discussion among students in a way that
textbook exercises rarely do. Students' poem s can make teachers think, too.
POETRY AN D CHANG E
Such thoughts are not idle but have an impact on the learning environment. I t
is thi s typ e o f thinkin g tha t ca n lea d t o negotiation o f task s i n th e classroo m
and eventually to students taking a more mature role in their learning.
Poetry i s an agen t o f change . It change s th e way w e think . I t challenge s
previously hel d idea s an d give s insight s int o othe r huma n beings . I t i s a n
important part of all languages an d thus should be part of language learning .
REFERENCES
Halliday, M. 1989. Spoken and Written Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hedge, T. 1988. Writing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kohonen, V . 1992 . Experientia l languag e learning : secon d languag e learnin g a s
cooperative learner education. In Collaborative Language Learning and Teaching,
ed. D. Nunan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Maley, A. and S. Moulding. 1985. Poem into Poem. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
White, R. and V. Amdt. 1991 . Process Writing. Harlow: Longman.
APPENDIX
Resource Book s
Brownjohn, S . 1980. Does it Have to Rhymel London: Hodder and Stoughton.

Collie, J. an d S . Slater. 1987 . Literature in the Classroom. Cambridge : Cambridg e
University Press.
Maley, A. and A. Duff. 1989. The Inward Ear. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Maley, A. and S. Moulding. 1985. Poem into Poem, Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
106 Dic k Tibbetts — — — — ^ = = = — — = ^ ^
Murphy, M . (ed. ) 1993 . Using Poems in Schools. Hon g Kong : Institut e o f Languag e
Education.
Scot, D. and D. Kitchen. 1989 . Involved in Poetry. 2n d edition. London: Heinneman .
Poems for Younger Students
Bennett, J. (ed.) 1983 . Roger was a Razor Fish. London : Scholasti c Book Services .
Summerfield, G . (ed. ) Junior Voices. Middlesex : Penguin . (Ther e ar e a numbe r o f
volumes in this series with a wide variety o f poems. )
McGough, R. 1985 . Sky in the Pie. Middlesex : Puffin .
Rosen, M. 1981 . You Can't Catch Me. Middlesex : Puffin .
Poems for Intermediat e and Older Students
Foster, J. (ed. ) 1982 . A Fourth Poetry Book. Oxford : Oxfor d Universit y Press . (Ther e
are others in this series. )
Silcock, A. 1958 . Verse and Worse. London: Faber and Faber (good fo r epitaphs) .
Summerfield, G . (ed.) Voices. Middlesex: Penguin. (There are a number of volumes in
this series with a wide variety o f poems. )
CHAPTER
A
Using Songs in the English Language
Classroom
Philip Chan Kam Wing
INTRODUCTION
The introductory sectio n o f this chapter attempt s to answer three important

questions about the use of songs in the classroom. In the next section, I then
illustrate tasks that can be generated from songs for language learning, taking
'Where Have All the Flowers Gone?' as an example (see page 115) . Section
three examines these tasks more closely to justify the use of songs as a teaching
resource. Sectio n fou r suggest s mor e tasks tha t ca n be done wit h song s in
class. The last section lists a number of songs on different themes for use in the
secondary language classroom.
PRE-READING QUESTIONS
Before reading the rest of this chapter, think about the following questions:
1. Shoul d songs be introduced into the language classroom?
2. Ho w can we teach English through songs?
3. Wha t activities are best suited to exploit the use of songs in the language
classrooms?
Songs are not included in either the HKCEE or Advanced Level Literature or
Language Syllabuses in Hong Kong. This may be because language teachers
feel sceptical about using songs because the language found in many lyrics is
neither 'controlled ' no r systematic . The y fee l tha t i t ofte n contain s
108 Phili p Cha n Ka m Win g
'ungrammatical' structures , unusual collocations or slang. Literature teacher s

may find song s too simpl e or trivial for analysi s an d discussion. The place of
songs in the classroom is marginalized. Some teachers play songs occasionally
for a break from classroo m routine, drawing students' attentio n to vocabular y
and gramma r item s foun d i n the lyrics by way o f justifying thi s break. Som e
teachers use songs as a springboard to generate discussion. However, they put
the song s asid e onc e th e discussio n ha s starte d an d chance s t o analys e an d
discuss the lyrics are missed. As for students , they too often liste n to a song in
English mainly because they are attracted by the melody, the beat or the singer.
Most of them do not pay attention to the lyrics. Thus, the potential of songs as
a teaching resource is untapped. In the rest of this chapter this potential for the
exploitation of songs as a language resource will be discussed and exemplified .
HOW T O TEAC H ENGLIS H THROUG H SONG S TASK S FO R 'WHER E

HAVE AL L TH E FLOWER S GONE? '
I us e th e ter m 'tasks ' instea d o f 'questions ' becaus e th e way s i n whic h th e

latter term is used in most language textbooks presuppose two conditions: (1 )
the answer s ar e eithe r right o r wrong , an d (2 ) mos t o f th e answer s ca n b e
copied directl y fro m th e texts.
Here, tasks involve one's responses to the song and the inferences that can
be made from it . They requir e on e to identify wha t is implied i n the text an d
account for it. Tasks are a set of activities which include questions, discussions,
simulation an d projec t work . The task s generate d fro m thi s son g ar e divide d
into thre e parts : connotatio n an d denotation , reader/write r relationship , an d
form an d content . The y ca n b e carrie d ou t i n th e orde r liste d belo w o n a n
individual o r grou p basi s fo r writte n o r ora l practice . Thes e task s ai m t o
supplement but not replace the exercises found i n language textbooks .
Connotation an d Denotatio n
From its title, what do you think the song is about ?
Reader/Writer Relationshi p
Who is speaking in the song ?

Who is being spoke n to ?
Who ar e 'they' ?
What will 'they ' learn ?
When wil l 'they ' learn ?
What do the words 'O ' and 'ever ' tel l us about the tone of th e speaker ?
What is the speaker's attitud e to war?
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = - Usin g Song s i n the Englis h Languag e Classroo m 10 9
Form an d Conten t
Why i s the present perfect an d not the past tense used in the first lin e of eac h
verse?
What words are repeated in the lyrics?
What effect doe s the repetition create ?
Re-assemble th e jumbled verse s in the appropriate order .
What does the speaker want us to do after readin g the lyrics?
Draw a picture to illustrate each verse.
Produce video/slide clips to accompany th e song.
Rewrite the lyrics by replacing th e main subjects (flowers , girls , soldiers, etc.)
to make up a different story/situation .
WHY TEAC H ENGLIS H THROUG H SONG S — A N ANALYSI S O F 'WHER E

HAVE AL L TH E FLOWER S GONE? '
There are a number of advantages in using songs as texts for language teaching.
Songs are short and catchy; they pack a lot of meanings into very few words .
Because song s ar e not extracts or simplified texts , they have greater potentia l
to b e use d fo r teachin g interpretativ e procedures . Thei r lengt h make s the m
more manageable for class time allocation. Their limited length also helps sustain
the interest and patience of more students. As the words and sentence structures
of many songs are relatively less complicated than other texts, students' attention
can be focused on discovering the general meaning of the text instead of tackling
difficult words . Let us illustrate these advantages by analysing the song 'Wher e
Have All the Flowers Gone?' .
Connotation an d Denotatio n
From it s title , wha t d o yo u thin k th e son g i s about ? Theft ? Los t love ?

Environmental Protection? These guesses are similar in that they involve some
kind o f loss . What los s i s greate r tha n th e loss o f live s cause d inevitabl y an d
ironically by human beings themselves ?
The son g carrie s a message : wa r i s crue l an d inevitable . However , wh y
isn't the message expressed directly? Why aren't the three words 'war' , 'cruel '
and 'inevitable ' used at all? The writer may want us to infer this message fro m
the context created in the text. Put in the form of a question, the title urges us to
read on to find out for ourselves what the song is about. Reading word for word
does not get us far; instea d we have to read between the lines. In so doing, w e
may come to question the inevitability and responsibility of war. The connotative
use o f languag e a s exemplifie d i n th e son g leave s roo m fo r ou r imaginatio n
and thoughts.
Unlike songs, titles found in passages of textbooks are often straightforward .
110 Phili p Tha n Ka m Win g
The nee d t o conve y retrievabl e an d unambiguou s informatio n impose s

restrictions on the use of vocabulary. Words are used mainly to denote. This
predominant use of denotation in textbooks may predispose second language
learners to forge a one-to-one relationship between objects and their referents.
It also pivots their attention on individual words. This may explain why some
students consider the definition of a word to be an unchanging entity independent
of its context. Moreover, they identify an d remember English words by their
Chinese equivalents . As a result, learnin g Englis h involve s memorizin g
definitions of words rather than words to express themselves. Using a song for
its connotative meaning can help, in an entertaining and attractive way, to extend
students' abilit y to extract meaning from a text (in this case, the lyrics of the
song).
Reader/Writer Relationshi p
The texts that are prescribed for the EFL classroom belong predominantly to
the 'expository genre' which aims to 'describe or explain objectively, to inform,
or discuss ...' (Littlefai r 1991 : 4). Questions set for these texts serve mainly to
check comprehension o f the information o r explanation carried . Very often ,
the authority of the writer and his or her representation of the subject matter
are taken for granted. The readers are expected to accept the explanation and
information withou t giving any personal response to either the subject matter
or th e writer . The relationship betwee n th e writer an d the reader is , in this
sense, not reciprocal.
In contrast, the questions in the song seek to express, as well as to elicit,
feelings an d thoughts about war. The dialogue form create s a context which
serves to involve us in finding out the answers to the questions. The pronoun
'they' brings the speaker and we together against those who wage wars. The
words 'O ' and 'ever ' give expression to the speaker's attitude: that they will
never learn. All these questions and answers make us ask: why war? And what
can we do about the situation?
Songs provide a personal context for affective involvement. Through songs,
students can be motivated to express their feelings, thoughts and experiences.
Form and Content
Textbook exercises are often written to drill language forms; however the content
can be trivial or irrelevant for the learners. In each exercise, the example given
will be treated a s a formula. Followin g the formula, student s join the words
given to reproduce 'correct' sentences. Such a learning process is often repetitive
and mechanical. It is essentially what methodologists call 'text manipulation'
which means going through the motions without any benefit accruin g to the
learner. Since the exercise does not engage students in expressing themselves
or in communicating with their counterparts or teachers, doing and checking
the exercise becomes an impersonal and vicarious use of the language.
Using Songs in the English Language Classroom 11 1
In this song, form and content reinforce eac h other to convey meanings.
The present perfect tense, not the past tense, is used throughout to underlie the
recurrent effect s o f war . The plot i s very simple : flowers picke d b y youn g
girls; young girls gone to husbands; husbands gone for soldiers; soldiers gone
to graveyards; graveyards gone to flowers; and flowerspicked by young girls.
The simplicity suggests the inevitability of the chain of events started by war.
Repetitions at different languag e organization levels help weave the sequence
into a vicious circle. The form of the language in the song embodies and mediates
the message that war is endless, inevitable and meaningless.
The analysis of the language in songs can make students awar e of how
words and sounds are chosen and patterned to express certain purposes or to
highlight specific effects. It is hoped that in their use of language, they will be
more conscious in selecting the appropriate form for the appropriate function.
WHAT CA N W E D O WIT H SONGS ?
There are many ways for a song to be used in the language classroom depending
on the typ e o f songs , teaching objective s an d th e level o f th e student . The
following are some of the activities I have used to engage students in examining
and talking about the words and, to a lesser extent, the music of songs. The
main purpose is to create opportunities through the songs for student s to use
English in context.
Karaoke Contest s
Karaoke ha s become a very popula r pastim e i n recent years . To make i t a

learning opportunity for students to use English, teachers may organize contests
as part of the activities in the school's English Week. Students have to choose
a song for the contest and account for their choice. They have also to analyse
what the song is about and present their interpretations orally before singing it.
The following aspect s o f th e performance ca n be evaluated: interpretation ,
expression, diction and tone colour.
Song Dedicatio n
This is best organized as a lunch-time language activity held in the school hall
or the language room. To create the opportunity to use English, each student
must state to whom the song is dedicated and why.
Video Clips/Slide s Productio n
The pictures an d the words on most karaoke discs are unrelated. They lend
themselves to use as the basis for group projects making video clips or slides
112 Phili p Tha n Ka m Win g
production. Student s ar e required t o edit the lyrics an d for th e choice of eac h

shot to go with each motive, phrase, period or verse of the song.
Song Reconstructio n
When the students know a song well, they can try to reconstruct its form and /
or content by:
1. changin g th e lyrics from on e narrative point of view to another ;
2. turnin g th e narrative to dialogue;
3. rewritin g th e lyrics using the same rhyme scheme ;
4. writin g a sequel to the story of the song.
Dramatization
Many songs narrate a story, describe strong feelings or capture vivid experiences.
They lend themselves to dramatization. Song s such as 'Soun d of Silence' an d
'Those Were the Days' are particularly suitable for miming. The question-and-
answer structur e of 'Wher e Have All the Flowers Gone?' makes it interesting
for role-playing. Some songs can be adapted and combined to produce a musical.
To dramatiz e a song , wor k wit h student s t o edi t th e lyric s an d tur n i t int o a
script with stag e directions.
Collocation Practic e
Songs as texts are short and complete. Some songs carry interesting or unusual
combinations o f words. They can be used to illustrate how words collocate to
make sens e o r to cut deepe r impression s i n th e readers. In designin g a cloz e
passage base d o n songs , d o not delete the words a t random, fo r exampl e th e
fourth wor d o f eac h line . Instead , selec t th e son g whic h contain s th e ver b
patterns, nou n phrases , o r adjunct s tha t yo u wan t you r student s t o practise .
Delete the relevant words and have students supply them before the y listen to
the song . I t is useful t o let the m compar e th e words the y hav e supplie d wit h
those found i n the lyrics.
Dictation/Comprehension Practic e
The cloze passage designed for collocatio n practice can be used for dictation .
After student s have supplied their own words for th e cloze, play the song and
tell them to fill i n the cloze again while listening to the song.
Listening/Speaking Practic e
Songs ar e especiall y usefu l t o student s whos e language i s syllable-time d fo r

practising th e stres s patter n o f spoke n English . Th e regulate d an d stronge r
rhythm of songs as compared with speech can be used to practise the patterns
= = = = = = = ^ = = ^ - Usin g Song s i n the Englis h Languag e Classroo m 11 3
formed b y stresse d an d unstresse d syllables . To relate form t o content , dra w

students' attention to the words which are stressed, and which have the longest
and shortest duration. Let them listen to the lines in crescendo or decrescendo,
to the repeated phrases , and t o the highest an d the shortes t notes in the song .
Discuss how these musical arrangements help express or reinforce the meanings
of the words.
Guessing and Replacin g the Titl e
Tell students to guess the title of a song after listenin g to it. Let them compar e
their suggeste d titles with the actual title.
Song Re-assemblin g
Re-arrange a son g b y jumblin g th e line s i n eac h vers e an d th e verses . Tel l

students t o re-assembl e th e jumbled line s an d verses . Fo r student s i n lowe r
forms, keep the first vers e intact .
Discussion an d Analysi s
Encourage student s t o discuss i n pairs o r groups th e socia l o r cultura l issue s

treated i n a song . Tell the m t o write a n analysi s o f th e son g afte r discussin g
different point s of view on the issues.
SUGGESTED SONG S FO R ANALYSI S AN D APPRECIATIO N —

A THEMATI C APPROAC H (CHAN , 9 5 )
Theme One : Love

'Tammy' — The Voice of Lov e
'Seven Daffodils ' — Courtshi p
'Windflowers' — Lesson s i n Lov e
'If You Go Away' — The Pain of Lov e
Theme Two: Human Relationship s

'Bridge over Troubled Water' — Friendshi p
'Streets o f London' — A Sentimental Journe y
'Sound o f Silence ' — Reaching Ou t
T Am a Rock' — Alienatio n
Theme Three: Ideals and Freedo m
'Born Free'— Conditions o f Lif e
'El Condor Pasa (If I Could)'— Boundlessnes s
'Vincent' — I n Search o f Beaut y
'Imagine' — A Utopia
114 Phili p Chan Kam Wing
Theme Four : War

'Blowing in the Wind'— Why War ?
'Scarborough Fair ' — The Cruelties o f War
'Where Hav e All the Flowers Gone? ' — The Vicious Circl e
'The Impossible Dream' — Th e Ques t
Theme Five: Nature and Beaut y

'The Soun d of Music'— Responding t o the Sounds of Natur e
'Annie's Song' — Re-capturin g Los t Innocenc e
'Morning Ha s Broken' — Restorin g Lost Paradis e
'Over th e Rainbow'— Rekindlin g Imaginatio n
Theme Six : Time and Chang e

'Those Were the Days'— Nostalgi a
'Try t o Remember' — Memorie s an d Experience s
'Both Side s Now'— Realit y an d Illusio n
'Turn Turn Turn'— Eternal Chang e
REFERENCES
Chan, P . 1995 . English Through Song Analysis and Appreciation. Unpublishe d

manuscript.
Hodge, R. 1985 'Song'. In Discourse and Literature, ed. T.A. van Dijk, pp. 121-136.
Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Littlefair, A. B. 1991. Reading All Types of Writing. Milton Keynes: Open University
Press.
'Where Hav e AH the Flower s Gone? ' # Anonymou s
Where hav e al ! the flowers gone ?

Long time passing .
Where hav e al l th e flowers gone ?
Long time ago .
Young girls hav e picked the m ever y one .
O, whe n wil l the y eve r learn ?
When wil l the y eve r learn ?
Where hav e al l th e youn g girl s gone ?
Long time passing .
Where hav e al l th e youn g girl s gone ?
Long time ago .
Where hav e all th e youn g girl s gone ?
Gone t o husband s ever y one .
Where hav e al l th e youn g me n gone ?
Long time passing .
Where hav e al l th e youn g me n gone ?
Long time ago .
Where hav e al l th e young me n gone ?
Gone fo r soldier s ever y one .
Where hav e al l th e soldier s gone ?
Longtime passing .
Where hav e all th e soldier s gone ?
Long time ago .
Where hav e al l th e soldier s gone ?
Gone t o graveyard s ever y one .
Where hav e al l th e graveyard s gone ?
Long time passing .
Where hav e al l th e graveyard s gone ?
Long time ago .
Where hav e all th e graveyard s gone ?
Gone t o flower s ever y one .
Where hav e all th e flowers gone ?
Long time passing .
Long time ago .
Where hav e al ! the flowers gone ?
Young girls hav e picke d the m ever y one .
# Teacher s may wish to compare this version with that by Pete Seeger's Copyright 1961,
1962 by Fall River Music Inc. The song was recorded o n LD and CD by Peter Paul an d
Mary, and on CD and Cassette by The Brothers Four.
CHAPTER
Q
Drama i n the Classroo m
Dino Mahoney
INTRODUCTION
In thi s chapter , th e rol e o f theatr e an d it s link s t o activitie s i n th e languag e

classroom ar e discussed an d illustrated .
Before readin g this chapter, conside r the following questions :

1. Hav e you ever used drama techniques in your language classroom ?
2. I f not, can you think of at least three reasons why you have not ?
3. Ca n you now think of three reasons to counter the reasons you have given
in response to questions 2 ?
FROM THEATR E T O CLASSROO M
Drama activitie s i n th e languag e classroo m originat e fro m dram a activitie s

devised fo r us e i n dram a school s an d wit h theatr e companies . A lis t o f th e
types of drama activities developed for training or rehearsing actors now seems
almost interchangeabl e wit h activitie s w e woul d conside r a t hom e i n th e
everyday languag e classroom :
• improvisatio n
• mim e
118 Din o Mahone y
• game s
• voic e control exercise s
• interpretin g dialogu e through the spoken wor d
• interpretin g dialogu e through movemen t
Drama techniques an d strategie s adapt quite naturally an d legitimately t o any

language syllabu s that sees communication a s central to both the process an d
outcome o f languag e learning . A n exampl e o f ho w a dram a gam e devise d
specifically fo r actors can be transferred t o the language classroom can be seen
from th e followin g illustration . Th e well-know n Brazilia n director , August o
Boal, has written a book for traine e actors called, Games for Actors and Non-
Actors. I t consists o f a series of game s an d exercises t o sensitize an d prepar e
both actor s an d audienc e fo r som e for m o f theatrica l event . Wit h a littl e
imagination man y o f th e game s an d exercise s describe d i n th e boo k ca n b e
adapted for use in the language classroom. For example, in the section entitled
'Seeing wha t w e loo k at' , Boa l ha s a serie s o f dram a activitie s an d game s
called the mirror sequence. The first one of these activities is called 'Th e plain
mirror'.
Two lines of participants, each person looking directly into the eyes of the
person facing them . Those in line A are the 'subjects' , the people, those in
line B are the 'images'. The exercise begins. Each subject undertakes a series
of movements and changes of expression, which his image must copy, right
down to the smallest detail... Al l movement should be slow (so the 'image'
may be able to reproduce and even anticipate them) and each movement should
follow on naturally from the last. (Boal, 1992: 121)
The sam e procedur e ca n b e adopte d wit h student s i n a languag e class . Th e

difference betwee n th e activit y wit h actor s an d languag e student s i s on e o f
focus. Wit h th e actor s th e focu s wil l b e o n precisio n o f movemen t an d
expression; fo r th e language learne r i t wil l be on the generation o f th e targe t
language. For example, we can adapt the drama game as a production activit y
when teachin g th e presen t continuou s fo r presen t action . Othe r student s
observing the mirror images will have to call out what actions are taking place,
e.g. sh e i s brushin g he r hair , h e i s havin g a shave , etc . O r th e tw o student s
generating the mirror images can decide in advance on a series of movement s
and perform the m in a pre-prepared series . The observing students then watch
the sequence of actions and when the students performing the mirror mime are
finished the y report back what they have seen. In this way th e drama activit y
has bee n devise d t o generat e a simpl e pas t tens e narrativ e wit h appropriat e
connectors.
Why hav e these technique s transferre d s o readily fro m th e training o f
actors to the teaching of language students? The key to this answer lies in the
word 'communication' . Dram a is above all about communication — betwee n
actors o n stag e an d betwee n actor s an d audience . A t th e hear t o f languag e
Drama in the Classroom 11 9
learning there is a similar need to communicate. For example, the 1983 Hong
Kong Syllabus for English states that language should be seen as a medium for
purposeful communicatio n a s muc h a s a forma l languag e system . Thi s
confluence of interest perhaps, accounts for the ready transference o f activities
from theatr e to classroom .
THE ROL E AND PLAC E OF DRAM A ACTIVITIES I N TH E LANGUAG E

CLASSROOM
Drama activities , if carefully planne d an d executed, ca n be a great motivato r

for student s a s well a s teachers. They ca n revive flagging interes t wit h lowe r
ability group s an d accelerate learnin g amon g higher abilit y groups . They ca n
also hel p th e grou p dynamic s o f a classroo m a s student s interac t wit h eac h
other and develop a keener awareness of the personalities of their fellow student s
through highe r level s o f student-studen t communication . The y als o giv e th e
student a muc h neede d outle t fo r sel f expressio n an d i n thi s wa y the y ma y
become the vehicle for sel f exploration an d self development .
As well as these broader motivational and humanistic characteristics drama
in TESL/TEFL can be used as a fine instrument for teaching specific languag e
skills or language items. Such activities need not become the focus of an entire
lesson or series of lessons. They can be integrated into discrete language learning
areas such as:
• th e teaching of lexis;
• th e teaching o f pronunciation ;
• th e teaching o f language functions ;
• th e teaching o f grammar .
Drama can also play an important role in developing :

• spoke n language skills;
• fluency .
It can also act as:

•a stimulu s fo r creativ e writin g through , e.g . exploring feelings , attitude s
and reaction s o f character s t o b e writte n about ; improvise d dialogue s
providing th e kernel for mor e developed written dialogue ;
a way of bringing to life and exploring the characters, situations and issues
found i n literary texts.
Occasionally a dram a project , suc h a s devisin g an d performin g a shor t

sketch, may dominate a class or a series of classes. However, drama activitie s
in th e EFL/ES L classroo m ar e mos t commonl y use d a s a n ai d t o languag e
teaching and learning and are integrated into regular lessons. Most drama source
books for languag e teachers specif y whic h language area and which level th e
120 Din o Mahone y
drama activity is aimed at. For example in Charlyn Wessels' Drama she specifies
that th e dram a gam e 'Taxi ' i s for : pre-intermediat e student s upwards , fo r al l
ages an d th e target languag e i s conditionals. This informatio n help s t o guid e
the teache r i n selectin g an d integratin g th e dram a activity . Wit h increasin g
experience of using drama activities in the classroom the teacher will become
adept at using activities that he or she has tried and tested. He or she may als o
have built up a reservoir o f activitie s tha t he or she has eithe r modified fro m
existing one s or that he or she has devised independently .
Many teacher s ma y associat e dram a i n TESL/TEF L solel y wit h spoke n
English. Although drama activities clearly lend themselves to oral productio n
they can be just as effective fo r exploitin g other language skills. For example,
drama activitie s len d themselve s wel l t o providin g a stimulu s fo r creativ e
writing. Researchers have emphasized that any kind of creative, non-formulai c
writing cannot be conjured up on the spot. Teachers cannot simply ask students
to write an imaginative essay and expect them to produce one in class within a
limited tim e span . Improvisin g shor t scene s o r sketche s ca n hel p student s t o
generate ideas and feelings tha t will feed into the creative writing process. For
example, a teacher ma y wan t t o se t a writing tas k o n th e subjec t o f whethe r
older people should live in extended families o r in homes. The students can be
helped t o generate ideas on this subject by a few rol e plays or improvisation s
in which students role playing older people interact in different situations . This
will hel p th e student s t o generat e no t onl y idea s bu t als o sympathie s an d
viewpoints which will give their writing greater depth and insight. Rather than
being just anothe r topi c a t hand fo r a discursive essay , th e issu e take s o n a n
extra dimension — a n emotional an d affective dimension .
Maley an d Duf f wer e amon g th e firs t t o recogniz e th e powe r o f dram a
activities i n th e classroo m i n puttin g bac k som e o f th e 'forgotte n emotiona l
content into language — and to put the body back too'. One of the dangers of
book-based approache s t o languag e learnin g i s that to o muc h emphasi s ma y
be pu t o n surfac e for m an d abstrac t grammar . A n over-concentratio n o n th e
rules o f gramma r an d synta x ma y decapitat e th e language, severin g it s hea d
from its body. A language with a head but no heart is a dry language, a machine
without a soul . Dram a activitie s involv e th e whol e person . The y involv e th e
learner in direct experience thus restoring the feeling bas e of language.
The power of drama to transform classroom language from dry artificialit y
into somethin g clos e t o livin g communicatio n ca n b e illustrate d throug h a n
analysis of the drama activity, 'Handshakes' . This is a simple activity designed
to giv e practic e i n th e languag e functio n o f makin g introductions . I t i s littl e
more than an elaborate language drill. Yet the drama element introduced into it
makes thi s activit y infinitel y superio r t o choral drilling . S o often a s we wal k
along schoo l corridor s w e recognize th e English lesso n by the sound of fort y
students in lockstep, chanting something like: 'HELLO . . . HO W ARE YOU?
. . . MY NAM E I S JOHN' . Ther e i s als o a stron g likelihoo d tha t thes e fort y
students ar e giving equal stres s to each word . What make s th e dramatizatio n
========= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^ ^ Dram a i n the Classroom 12 1
of this drill so much more substantial than choral drilling? A number of factors
can be pinpointed:
• personalizatio n — students use their real names;
• th e unpredictability of who you will be introducing yourself to next;
• th e inclusion of eye contact and body language in the exchange;
• th e slight variations in paralinguistics, tone, speed, and volume that occur
depending on the person you are speaking to;
• variatio n in paralinguistic features accordin g to the gender, size, and age
of the person you are speaking to;
• variatio n i n paralinguisti c feature s accordin g t o th e relationshi p yo u
normally have with that person.
Every introductio n i n th e dramatize d dril l wil l b e slightl y different . Th e

differences wil l not be random but determined by the nature of the interaction
between the two people concerned. What is occurring is a close approximation
to real introductions. The students receive far richer input and feedback in this
small area of language learning than with any amount of repetition or exercises
in a textbook.
Improvisation, whic h involves spontaneou s an d unrehearsed verba l and
non-verbal responses, is a more cognitively complex drama activity. In drama
schools it is often used to explore character and situation arising in a play text.
Actors may use it to help provide insights into a play text which will later be
realized as a staged performance. Playwrights, in conjunction with actors, may
experiment with it as the basis for constructing a scene in a play, or an entire
play.
In th e languag e classroo m improvisatio n ca n b e tailore d t o matc h th e
language needs of the syllabus while providing a close approximation of real
life communication. The function o f the improvisation will vary according to
where in the syllabus or lesson it occurs. For example it may be used at the
beginning of a lesson to give the teacher feedback on how much of the target
language the students may already have acquired. Or it may be used after the
presentation and practice phases of the lesson to allow the students to explore,
experiment an d creat e meanin g wit h th e newl y presente d language .
Improvisations can take many forms. For example, they can be:
• situational , e.g. improvise a shoplifting scen e in a supermarket.
• mood - o r character-based , e.g . improvis e a scen e i n whic h someon e
becomes uncomfortable; improvis e a scene in which you are a character
from a story you have read.
• pre - or post-extensions o f textboo k dialogues , e.g. improvis e wha t you
think came before or after the dialogue in the textbook.
• issues-based , e.g. improvise a scene around the issue of the rightsof people
to play loud music in their homes.
122 Din o Mahone y
Improvisation serve s clear pedagogic needs for both teacher and learner.
In addition , i t involve s th e learne r i n th e complexit y an d richness of rea l
communication. It is almost impossible to be detached when involved in an
improvisation. Th e ac t o f spontaneousl y generatin g language , eve n a t
elementary levels in semi-controlled situations, necessitates a whole person's
response, however clumsy or halting that may be. Perhaps most importantly of
all, improvisation offer s on e of the few chances we have in the classroom to
explore implied, as well as overt meaning.
One of the great oversimplifications that often accompanied the adoption
of the communicative approach was an assumption that the teaching of notions
and functions wa s the natural communicativ e pedagogy. Lists of functiona l
exponents displace d gramma r item s a s the cor e syllabus . However, i n rea l
communication, statements are very often questions, questions may be answers,
polite requests may be irrefutable demands. Improvisation, however haltingly
executed, carries the potential for a richsubsurface current of meaning. It carries
the potential for contradiction, irony, hypocrisy, persuasion and oblique criticism
in a way that classroom-generated languag e rarely does. Using good drama
texts, or good prose with dialogue in it, can be an effective wa y of exploring
subsurface meaning. However, improvisation is one of the few methods through
which submerged meaning can be explored through generation. This may be a
messy proces s involvin g a welte r o f wha t som e teacher s ma y fee l i s a n
unacceptably high level of language errors.
But real communicatio n i s messy. Unless w e are engaged i n ritualized
language routine s communicatio n involve s negotiatio n o f meaning . Th e
language of communication is tentative, exploratory; it can go back on itself
and then suddenly leap forward. It attempts, in its roundabout way, to find the
answers to unspoken questions such as: What is the other person getting at?
What d o they want ? What is thei r attitud e toward s wha t I a m saying? The
messiness that communication generates seems out of place in classrooms where
language learning seems to be all about turning the pages of the latest glossy
textbook.
A ste p down from improvisatio n i n the area of risk taking is role play.
Role plays are usually backed up by role cards that give a lot of supportin g
information, both in terms of external biography, e.g. name, age, attitude; and
linguistic input, e.g. a list of targeted language function exponents to be used.
Role plays are often carried out with students sitting around a table; they may
be trying to reach a consensus on an issue, e.g. members of a family trying to
reach an agreement on what kind of holiday to take and where to go. Assuming
a variety of roles will mean that the student has a chance to experiment with
language in different registers, e.g. with the above example a student may play
the role of a parent and a child, switching between roles of authority and limited
authority. The potential weakness of role plays is that sedentary participant s
will cling to their role cards and more or less read from them, which will tend
to limit the scope for any lively, spontaneous interaction to take place. At best
— Dram a in the Classroom 12 3
the role cards will provide participants with a safety net , something to refer t o
if they dry up. In this way they may foster confidence and encourage the student
to tak e mor e conversationa l risks . Rol e play s ca n als o ac t a s a basi s fo r a
rehearsed improvisation , e.g . student s perfor m a task onc e sittin g dow n wit h
the role cards, and then again without them, using movement .
DRAMA I N TH E HON G KON G CLASSROO M — OBSTACLE S AN D

RESERVATIONS
With the increasing pressure of modern urban life making itself felt o n young
people, there is plenty of real-life dram a in Hong Kong classrooms. However ,
for many Hong Kong teachers 'drama ' ma y simply mean theatrics, the putting
on of plays in the school hall. Being involved in a school play can be a wonderful,
unforgettable experience . However the number of students able to be involved
in a school pla y i s limited. I n thi s chapte r I shal l b e examining dram a no t a s
theatrical performanc e bu t a s a n are a o f creativ e expressio n tha t ha s bee n
borrowed an d adapted a s a methodology fo r secon d language teaching .
The rational e fo r usin g dram a i n L I teachin g situation s i s grounde d i n
humanistic philosophies of teaching. It is seen as a means towards developin g
the student a s a whole person. The contribution o f drama to the whole person
development o f the young comprises fou r broa d areas:
• intellectua l growth: creativity, expression, appreciation an d interpretatio n
• emotiona l development : persona l feeling s
• aestheti c appreciation: artistic awareness, artifice, th e role of language in
performance
• behavioura l awareness : empathy , interaction , self-discipline , socia l
awareness
In a n L 2 environmen t th e primar y rational e fo r buildin g dram a int o a

syllabus may have a different focus . Its inclusion will more likely be based on
its potential effectiveness a s a methodology fo r teachin g the nuts and bolts of
language. Th e 198 3 Hon g Kon g Syllabu s fo r Englis h recommende d b y th e
Curriculum Development Committee exemplifies this. In its opening paragraph
on the use of drama in Hong Kong school s the report states :
. . . w e suggest that dramatic activity and the appreciation and performance

of dram a ca n b e very profitabl y considere d a s one important aspec t o f a
learner's study of language, (p. 102)
A more non-language specific , humanisti c rationale is also later offered :
Drama in the secondary school should ideally complement and reinforce the
creative work of the student's imagination, and provide an additional focu s
for the teacher's responsibility to encourage creativity in her class, (p. 103)
124 Din o Mahoney — ^ = = = = = = = = = = = ^ = = = = = = ^ =
The report , however , predominantl y interpret s dram a a s th e teachin g o f

established drama texts, talking about drama in relation to classic drama texts,
e.g. Shaw's 'Arms and the Man', or in the context of performance, e.g. classroom
sketches an d schoo l plays.
The emphasis on the need for communication in language teaching should
have propelle d dram a t o th e forefron t o f methodologie s bein g use d i n th e
language teaching classroom. However , in many Hong Kon g school s thi s has
not happened. Why i s this so ?
An overal l reaso n ma y b e tha t despit e th e provisions o f th e Hon g Kon g
secondary school syllabus for a communicative approach to language teaching,
this approach, and its battery of student-centred interactive tasks and activities,
has no t really take n root . There ha s been a growing groun d swel l o f opinio n
among teachers that there needs to be modifications t o this approach to match
the needs and culture of the Hong Kong classroom. Issues of student reticence,
discipline, expectations, and falling language levels have all contributed towards
this. In such an atmosphere, drama, which may appear as the most demandin g
and radical of the communicative language methodologies, may therefore have
little hope of acceptance or survival .
More specifically, man y teachers may not have had training in using drama
as a methodology for teaching language and may, therefore, feel unqualified t o
employ it. The old idea of drama as solely a matter of school hall performanc e
may als o discourage teachers from integratin g it into their teaching .
OVERCOMING MISGIVING S — TH E TEACHE R
One thing is sure, teachers wh o don't use drama activities in their classroom s
can give you any number of practical reasons for not doing so. In this section I
shall examine some of the main misgivings most commonly expressed in regard
to usin g dram a activitie s i n th e classroom . I shal l als o sugges t way s o f
overcoming th e perceived problems .
Teachers ofte n mentio n th e physica l environmen t o f man y Hon g Kon g
primary and secondary schoo l classrooms whic h may not be suitable for suc h
activities. Classrooms packed with forty separat e desks and chairs are not easy
to rearrange. Classrooms that have three-quarter walls may make such activities
impossible du e t o th e nois e factor . The y wil l als o ofte n mentio n th e studen t
factor. Students, they say, feel inhibited about performing i n English or making
mistakes i n fron t o f thei r peer s an d th e teacher . Som e student s ma y tak e
advantage o f th e freer classroo m settin g ofte n require d o f dram a activitie s t o
misbehave. These are all legitimate practical concerns that need to be recognized
and addressed if drama activities are to be incorporated into the teaching of the
syllabus. However there are a number of ways of overcoming these negatives.
The most important factor i n overcoming th e above obstacles is the level
of commitment and confidence o f the teacher. If the teacher believes i n dram a
Drama i n th e Classroo m 12 5
as a valid methodology centra l to her work of teaching English than this belief
will give the teacher the motivation to work around the obstacles confrontin g
her. I f thi s belie f i s accompanie d b y trainin g i n usin g dram a activitie s i n th e
classroom then there should be nothing to hold the teacher back. Such training
is no w bein g offere d i n variou s Hon g Kon g teache r educatio n programme s
such a s the BA TESL being offere d a t the Department o f Englis h a t the Cit y
University of Hong Kong or the Postgraduate Certificate i n Education (PCEd )
or the Certificate in English Language Teaching (Cert. ELT) programmes offere d
by the Education Faculty and SPACE at Hong Kong University. Teachers with
no background trainin g i n using dram a i n th e classroom shoul d tr y t o atten d
workshops offere d b y various tertiar y institution s i n Hong Kong . Failing thi s
there ar e a numbe r o f book s o n th e marke t tha t ca n ac t a s ric h source s fo r
gathering ideas : Charly n Wessel s (1987) , Male y an d Duf f (1982 ) an d Joh n
Dougill (1987 ) hav e al l written good , practica l book s o n drama activitie s fo r
the classroom .
The suppor t o f th e English pane l chai r an d othe r colleague s ca n be vita l
when firs t experimentin g wit h classroo m dram a activities . If th e pane l chai r
sanctions what you are doing then you need not conduct these experiments i n
fear that you will be found out and branded as a maverick who is not marching
her student s dow n th e straigh t an d narro w examinatio n road . Th e suppor t o f
the panel chair will also help you to gain general acceptance for what you ar e
trying to do with your other colleagues in the school. Help and encouragemen t
is needed i n the early stage s of introducing dram a activitie s t o your students .
Bringing dram a int o th e classroo m involve s a certai n amoun t o f
experimentation. Th e teache r ma y nee d t o modify activitie s o r tr y ou t bran d
new ones. Such work has unknown outcomes and in the early weeks of findin g
out what works an d what doesn't th e teacher may encounte r som e dispiritin g
failures. I f sh e doe s no t receiv e hel p an d encouragemen t thi s delicat e an d
important early phase of trying out drama activities may collapse. This can be
very demotivating for the teacher who feels that a return to a lockstep textbook
bound way of teaching is a defeat .
It i s a grea t hel p fo r teacher s t o realiz e tha t dram a activitie s d o no t
necessarily involve major rearrangement of the furniture o r the generation of a
higher than usual noise level. Many activities can take place with the student s
sitting in their normal places speaking at their normal level of speech volume.
Drama activitie s ar e wonderfull y malleabl e an d eve n th e mos t activ e an d
demanding activity can generally be modified to suit the constraints the teacher
is working under . For example wit h lower level classes mor e control ma y b e
introduced o r mor e languag e inpu t give n befor e th e activit y take s place .
Activities ca n be shortene d o r be kept private s o that there is no threat to th e
weaker students of having their mistakes put on public display. With experience
the teache r wil l b e abl e t o decid e whic h activitie s ar e suitabl e an d possibl e
with which classes — what works for on e class may not work for another .
Teachers may complain that drama activities end in chaos. When this does
126 Din o Mahoney
occur it is very often fo r one easily remedied problem — inadequate rubric.

Drama activities, particularly those requiring movement and rearrangement of
the normal classroo m setting , need very careful explanation . The teacher is
well advised to use LI if there is any doubt that the students will not be able to
fully comprehend her instructions if given in L2. Instructions for drama activities
need time. The teacher shoul d paraphrase them at least once and be sure to
concept check with a quick cross section of students. In addition to the teacher's
verbal explanation , th e stages of the activity shoul d be listed clearl y o n the
blackboard. In this way, when the all clear is given for the students to proceed,
they will know exactly what is expected of them and the chances of chaos are
next to zero.
The teacher may also worry that drama activities take up too much time.
However, drama activities do not have to displace what is in the syllabus. Nor
do such activities need to take up an entire lesson. Many teachers working to
rigid deadlines in which to cover predetermined textbook syllabuses may reject
drama activities out of hand saying that they have no time for them. But drama
activities complement the syllabus, they are not a substitute for it. They can be
incorporated int o lesson s a t an y stage : war m up , presentation, practic e o r
production and they can last for as little as three minutes.
T only use drama with my higher band senior forms.' This is an often
heard statement made by some teachers who meet out drama only to the chosen
few. Dram a activities , wit h prope r modification , ca n be use d a t an y level:
elementary, intermediate and advanced. It is a myth that drama activities can
only be conducted wit h higher band classes in band one classes or schools.
Very often it is the lower band students who need something new and exciting
to revive thei r flagging motivation. Man y dram a activitie s d o no t requir e
language but are used to generate the potential for language . Such activities
can clearly be used with all students, no matter how circumscribed their spoken
English may be. Similarly drama activities need not be confined to the senior
school student s only . Junior level s respond wit h great enthusias m t o drama
activities. The important thing is to make sure they are very clear about why
they are taking part in such activities.
Some teachers may be reluctant to introduce drama activities into their
classroom for fear of possibly embarrassing themselves and losing face. The
best wa y t o overcom e thi s concer n i s b y no t plungin g int o a high ris k
improvisation activity but by introducing low risk drama activities and gaining
confidence in these before progressing to the medium and higher risk activities.
Another excellent way of gaining enough confidence to use drama activities is
by observing a colleague using them in her own class. Of course this works
best if it can be arranged informally and the two teachers know and get on with
each other . I f thi s i s impossibl e the n watchin g trainin g video s o f teacher s
employing drama activities is very helpful, a s is attending workshops where
the participants engage in micro-teaching simulations.
There are, then, a number of possible ways for teachers to overcome their
__ = _ = = = _ = __ = = _ = = : ^ ^ Dram a in the Classroom 12 7
reluctance to use drama activities in the classroom. These can be summarized

in the following list:
• choos e drama options when you are studying for your Education Certificate
• atten d in-service workshops on drama in TESL/TEFL
• orde r copies of resource books that give practical ideas on drama techniques
in TESL/TEFL
• enlis t the help and support of your Panel Chair and other colleagues
• don' t be afraid to make mistakes
• lea m to modify drama activities to suit the socio-dynamics of your different
classes
• lea m t o modify dram a activitie s t o sui t the particular circumstance s o f
your physical environment
• lear n to modify dram a activities to suit the level of your students
• explai n clearly to your students in advance the purpose of the drama activity
• discove r if you have a belief in using drama in the classroom and if you do
use this as the engine to drive you towards overcoming obstacles
OVERCOMING RESERVATION S TH E STUDEN T
If some teachers have misgivings about introducing drama activities, what about
the students? Can we assume that they will automatically take to drama activities
like duck s t o water ? As wit h teachers , ther e ar e man y student s wh o hav e
reservations about participating in drama activities.
Some student s may think that drama activitie s ar e a waste of time and
completely fail to see the point in taking part in them. Students in Hong Kong
are very exam-conscious. As such they will put pressure on the teacher not to
deviate from th e exam syllabus. Drama activities may seem to them to be a
frivolous wast e of time and they may pressure the teacher to give them up.
Students may also feel threatened by them. Drama activities often require
some form of spontaneous response, linguistic or non-linguistic. For students
who have become dependent on teacher-centred textbook lessons this emphasis
on improvising may represent an uncomfortable departure . Students used to
using English in a controlled and familiar way, such as standing up to answer
a pre-prepared question in a textbook, may feel inhibited about the freer use of
English i n some drama activities . They may be fearful o f making mistakes
and losing face in the less controlled mode of the drama activity. Issues of face
have to be dealt with very sensitively.
Students may also think that drama activities require acting talent. Most of
them have probably never been in a school play and when asked to do a simple
mime or role play, they may feel that they are not actors and therefore they are
incapable of miming or role playing.
Students may also be suspicious of experiencing pleasure while learning a
language. They may have become so addicted to the notion of no gain without
128 Din o Mahone y
pain that suddenly havin g fun i n the language classroom might see m to the m
altogether inappropriate . Ho w ca n suc h misgivings o n the part of the studen t
be overcome ?
The single most important strateg y th e teacher can use to overcome suc h
student misgivings is to clearly explain the purpose of a drama activity befor e
introducing tha t activity. If, fo r example , student s ar e suddenly give n a quick
lesson i n palmistr y an d the n aske d t o rea d eac h other' s palms , th e student s
may thin k tha t this is fun bu t has nothing whatsoeve r t o do with passing tha t
ever looming examination . However , i f th e teacher too k tim e t o explain wh y
they were going to have a little lesson in palmistry and why they were going to
read eac h other' s palms , th e student s migh t reac t i n a wholl y differen t an d
more positive way. So vital is it to ensure that students understand the purpose
of the activity befor e participatin g i n it that the teacher is well advised t o use
LI whe n giving the explanation. This is true particularly for lower level forms.
So, perhaps using LI, th e teacher might sa y something like :
Has anybody been to Temple Street? What kind of people do you see down
there? What kind of fortune tellers do you find?Does anyone know anything
about palmistry? Now in our books we have been studying the future tense
and 'will' for predictions. Do you remember, we looked at a piece of writing
about what the writer thought the world would be like in the year two thousand
and fifty . . . 'There will be houses made of plastic. Cars will use electricity.'
Well today w e are going t o practise 'will ' for prediction s b y reading each
other's palms. This will help you practis e the form in the book. I will come
around and help you if you have any problems.
With suc h a clea r an d concis e explanatio n th e student s no w realiz e tha t

reading eac h other' s palm s i s no t just a party gam e the teacher ha s suddenl y
thought up. They will see that it is directly related to the syllabus of the textbook
they are following. They will then be able to relax, freed fro m the fear that they
are wastin g time . A s th e teache r walk s aroun d sh e wil l hea r he r student s
experimenting wit h predictive 'will' : 'Yo u will live a long time. You will have
a lot of money. '
Addressing th e issu e o f student s feelin g threatene d b y dram a activitie s
teachers shoul d be awar e tha t there is a cline o f activitie s rangin g fro m low -
risk to high-risk. Dougill (1988 ) has categorized thes e as follows :
Low-risk Lo w languag e an d dramatic deman d

Low language demand but some dramatic deman d
Fairly high language demand but low dramatic deman d
High-risk Hig h language demand an d dramatic deman d

Examples h e gives o f these categorie s rang e from th e low ris k 'Handshakes '
drama activit y t o th e hig h risk , 'Actio n Miming ' activity . 'Handshakes ' i s a
way o f practisin g introductions . Student s mov e freel y i n a space . When th e
teacher clap s he r hand s th e student s shak e hand s wit h th e perso n closes t t o
them and introduce themselves to each other. In 'Actio n Miming' student s ar e
required to act out a situation without using words. They are given five minutes
to prepare an d rehearse their scene , e.g. a burglary tha t goes wrong, and the n
three minutes t o perform it . Awareness o f the different level s of risk involve d
with differen t dram a activitie s wil l hel p th e teacher t o eas e he r student s int o
drama activities withou t embarrassing them . Plunging student s straigh t into a
high risk language activity may build up stiff resistance to any future attempts .
I vividl y remembe r a mistak e I mad e mysel f a s a studen t teacher . I ha d
been assigne d t o a comprehensive schoo l i n a minin g regio n o f Englan d fo r
my teachin g practice . Among my teachin g dutie s wa s a drama lesso n wit h a
fourth for m clas s ever y Wednesday . In my ver y first lesso n wit h tha t clas s I
told the students I wanted them to imagine they were all fish i n an aquarium. I
told them I was goin g t o play the m a record an d when th e music starte d the y
were to get up and move around the classroom like fish. I then put on a record
by Stockhausen , a ver y difficul t an d atona l contemporar y compose r an d
indicated with a rising hand movement that they were to begin. Of course, they
all just sa t there , gawpin g a t m e lik e fish , nobod y moving . I t wa s a classi c
mistake. I had rushed al l the way to the end of the risk cline in one giant leap.
There ha d bee n n o tim e t o establis h trus t betwee n studen t an d teache r an d I
had made no attempt a t explaining wh y I wanted the m to do the activity .
Students may be shy of taking part in drama activities because they thin k
that as they have no acting experience they lack the necessary qualifications t o
take part. However student s need few o r no acting skills to take part in dram a
activities. Children at play naturally role play and imitate other people. Therefore
it is not unreasonable t o expect ou r student s t o relax into a little role play, t o
assume emotion s tha t the y ma y b e generatin g fo r th e occasion , t o us e thei r
imaginations i n conjuring u p settings and situations. The barrier to doing thi s
may be not so much the student's ability or otherwise in acting, but rather their
underexposure to play as a means of acquiring language. If, for all their learning
years, students have associated language learning with exercises in books and
listening to the teacher trying to explain the workings of the language, a sudden
shift int o student-centre d pla y ma y mak e the m seiz e up. The teache r shoul d
not b e pu t of f b y thi s apparen t seizin g up . I t i s probabl y onl y a temporar y
phase. If the teacher persists in an ordered way, all the while seeking to validate
the dram a activit y wit h a carefu l explanatio n o f it s aim s an d objectives , th e
student will have a good chance of eventually relaxin g into it.
130 Din o Mahoney
TEXTBOOKS AN D DRAM A ACTIVITIE S
Many textboo k writer s have recognized th e importance of drama activities t o

language learnin g an d hav e incorporate d them , t o som e extent , int o thei r
materials. Indeed textbooks have often been the vehicle in which drama activities
have bee n brough t int o th e classroom . Howeve r i t i s often necessar y fo r th e
teacher to supplement o r modify th e drama activities a s they stand .
An example of a textbook used in Hong Kong schools that employs som e
drama technique s i s A Modern Course. I n Uni t Si x o f A Modern Course 4,
there is a short dialogue illustrating the target function o f making complaints .
A fe w question s ar e the n give n followe d b y a rol e pla y activit y invitin g th e
students t o 'mak e up' a similar conversatio n wit h their partner using a list of
suggested situations. This in itself is a reasonable attempt at introducing drama
elements int o a textboo k — us e o f dramati c dialogu e an d us e o f paralle l
improvisation. Howeve r withou t fulle r interventio n b y th e teache r verse d i n
using dram a i n th e classroo m thes e activitie s coul d stil l remai n dr y an d
somewhat uncontextualized. What can be done to extend the textbook dialogue
and activity ?
When makin g complaints , (th e languag e functio n bein g focuse d on) ,
intonation is very important. It signals the degree of dissatisfaction expresse d
by the complainant and the degree of cooperation or non-cooperation expresse d
by the recipient of the complaint. If students merely read the somewhat stilte d
dialogue directly from their books, the importance of intonation may be lost in
the reader's struggle to read the text aloud. Sight reading a text is a very complex
activity.
One wa y o f gettin g roun d thi s woul d b e t o us e th e 'Word-Se t
Improvisations' dram a activit y fro m New Ways in Teaching Speaking (Baile y
and Savage, 1994). In this activity the meaning of the dialogue is conveyed not
through words but through using familiar word sets, such as numbers or colours,
e.g.
A (Accusing tone ) Purple, yellow, black.

B (Defensive) Green .
A (Angry) Red .
B (Apologetic) Green , white, pink, blue.
A (Very angry) Red, red, red !
This activit y wil l fre e th e student s fro m th e constraint s o f readin g th e tex t

aloud an d allo w the m t o focu s o n th e rhythm s an d stres s point s o f th e
complaining discourse. It is very easy to generate closed sets such as numbers
and letter s o f th e alphabe t an d s o th e creativ e deman d o f th e improvisatio n
focuses on prosodic features rather than on the generation of continuous speech.
In suc h a n improvisatio n th e pitch , volum e an d pac e rang e wil l al l exten d
naturally. Such an extension will have the effect of bringing the emotion behind
the complaint close r to the surface. Remembe r though, it is very important t o

explain to the students why they are doing this. Without a careful explanatio n
they ma y b e a t a los s t o understan d wh y the y ar e bein g aske d t o hav e a
conversation usin g letters of the alphabet rather than words.
This word set improvisation can then be followed by short improvisations
of complaints related to the students' ow n lives, e.g. complaining that a frien d
was late for a n appointment, complainin g tha t a borrowed boo k has not bee n
returned. Th e student s ca n rehears e thes e dialogue s payin g attentio n t o th e
stress points a s in the previous activity .
A return to the textbook could involve improvising a situation that occurred
before th e textbook dialogue , e.g . th e buyer complainin g t o a member o f hi s
family about a faulty thermos. This can be followed by an improvisation which
is a continuation o f the textbook dialogue, either an extension o f the dialogu e
in the sho p o r else a report o f wha t happened i n the shop to a member o f th e
family.
In a similar way to improvisation, dram a games can be used to enhance a
textbook. Dram a game s ar e used wit h dram a student s t o relax an d stimulat e
them an d t o ope n u p thei r rang e o f expressiv e capability . I n th e languag e
classroom they can be used to elicit language in a motivating an d memorabl e
fashion.
The thir d uni t o f New Integrated English I focuse s o n th e functio n o f
'Asking fo r an d giving personal information' , th e target language is state d a s
being, 'Ho w ol d are you?', T , 1 2 years old , I was born in . . . (+ year), dates,
ordinal numbers , lik e + -ing' . An exampl e o f a drama gam e whic h coul d b e
used to introduce or practise the target language and language features describe d
in the Hong Kong syllabus is a drama game from the resource book, New Ways
in Teaching Speaking, calle d 'Th e Yes/N o Game' . I n thi s dram a gam e on e
student ask s anothe r student s a strin g o f question s i n quic k succession . Th e
responding studen t mus t tr y t o answe r withou t sayin g eithe r ye s o r no . Th e
activity is timed. The responding studen t wins if they can continue answerin g
without sayin g ye s o r n o fo r a minute . Th e questionin g studen t win s i f th e
responding student inadvertently uses yes or no before the minute is up. In this
drama game the language of personal information ca n be used intensively, e.g.
A: Yo u are fourteen year s old, aren't you ?

B: I am not.
A: Ho w old are you then ?
B: Thirteen .
A: Yo u like playing table tennis, don't you ?
B: I do not.
A: Wha t do you like playing then ?
B: Cards .
A: Gambling ?
B: I don't play for money .
132 Din o Mahoney
A: I see. Were you born o n the second of October ?

B: I was born on March th e eighteenth.
A: Ar e you sure ?
B: Ye s . .. o h no, I said, yes!
A: I win!
Again, i f th e student s ar e tol d clearl y ho w thi s dram a activit y relate s t o th e

syllabus the y will feel muc h more committed t o taking part in it.
CONCLUSION
A review of the benefits o f introducing drama techniques into the TESL/TEFL

classroom reveals a n impressive range of advantages :
• student s use English in various roles
• us e of everyday languag e
• feeling s ca n be expressed both verbally an d non-verball y
• memorabl e language learnin g
• bot h linguistic an d paralinguistic communicatio n i s practised
• implie d a s well as explicit meaning is explore d
• integrate s emotio n into classroom generated languag e
• integrate s negotiatio n int o communicatio n
• integrate s lexis, grammar, phonology an d language skills into the process
of communicatio n
Given tha t dram a ca n mak e suc h a rich an d varie d contributio n t o languag e

teaching an d learning what is the way forward fo r implementing it s wider use
in Hong Kong classrooms? Clearly greater incorporation of drama into teacher
education programmes for both pre- and in-service training would be a positive
way forward . Trainin g i n using dram a technique s ca n dispe l th e mystique o f
using dram a i n th e classroom . Cohort s o f ne w teacher s wil l the n b e abl e t o
enter schools and implement an d shar e these techniques.
Drama technique s hav e a natura l an d legitimat e plac e i n an y languag e
syllabus tha t see s communication a s central to both the process an d outcom e
of languag e learning . W e no w hav e t o mak e u p ou r mind s ho w seriou s w e
really ar e about putting communicatio n a t the heart o f ou r language teachin g
methodology. I f w e are , then dram a deserve s t o be right ther e in the thick o f
things, reviving interest and bringing fresh lif e into both students and teachers
alike.
=^- Dram a in the Classroom 13 3
REFERENCES
Bailey, M. an d L. Savage. 1994 . New Ways in Teaching Speaking. TESOL .

Boal, A. 1992 . Games for Actors and Non-Actors. London : Routledge .
Bolton, G . 1992 . New Perspectives on Classroom Drama. Ne w York : Simo n an d
Schuster Education .
Bolton, G . 1986 . Selected Writing on Drama in Education. London : Longman .
Christie, H. and K.S. Yuen. 1991 . English, A Modern Course. Hon g Kong : Aristo.
Curriculum Developmen t Council . 1983 . Syllabus for English (I-V). Hon g Kong :
Dougill, J. 1987 . Drama Activities for Language Learning. London : Macmillan .
Hines, M.E. 1994 . Skits in English. Prentic e Hall Regents Macmillan ELT.
Johnson, L. and C. O'Neil. 1990 . Dorothy Heathcote: Collected Writings on Education
and Drama. Cheltenham : Stanle y Thomes Ltd .
Methold, K . an d J. Tadman. 1990 . New Integrated English. Hon g Kong : Longman .
McRae, J. 1985 . Using Drama in the Classroom. Pergamo n Press .
Maley, A. an d A. Duff. 1982 . Drama Techniques in Language Learning. Cambridg e
University Press .
Morgan, N. and J. Saxton. 1987 . Teaching Drama. Cheltenham : Stanle y Thomes Ltd .
Wessels, C. 1987 . Drama. Oxford : ELB S with Oxfor d Universit y Press .
m
CHAPTER
•v /
Using Stories in the Language Classroom

at Senior Secondary Leve l
Peter Kennedy
'Stories mak e words new. ' (Eudor a Welty)
INTRODUCTION
Some teacher s fee l tha t storie s i n th e languag e classroo m ar e a luxur y the y

cannot afford . Thei r concer n i s wit h languag e improvemen t i n orde r t o ge t
students through examinations. The aim of this chapter is to show that storie s
can be used to fulfil th e goals of the Hong Kong Certificate o f Education an d
Use of English syllabuse s an d yet still 'mak e words new' .
Consider th e following question s before readin g th e rest of this chapter :

1. Ar e stories in the language classroom a luxury that we, as teachers, cannot
afford?
2. I f we were to use stories, can you think of three purposes tha t they coul d
be used for ?
3. Wha t is the difference betwee n a story and a reading text ?
Here are three goals that the Hong Kong Certificate o f Education an d the
Use of English syllabuse s have in common :
1. Student s shoul d 'recycle ' th e structure s the y encountere d i n Secondar y
One to Four, deepen their understanding of the meanings of these structures
and extend their knowledge of how they are used in different contexts .
136 Pete r Kennedy
2. Student s have to develop the ability to 'rea d between th e lines'.

3. Student s need to be able to express their own ideas, opinions and feeling s
in English.
GRAMMAR AN D STORIE S
Knowing about gramma r i s not the sam e a s being abl e to use a structure. At
senior secondary level it is important for students to think about how and when
structures ar e used.1 Elements of a story suc h as plot and characterization ca n
be harnessed fo r thi s purpose.
Plot
A story is not simply a succession of events. The basic material is shaped an d

patterned by the plot. The order in which the events are presented is important.
A writer may choos e to reveal o r withhold informatio n fro m th e reader o r to
shift backward s an d forward s i n tim e within a story. A reader's assumption s
have to be constantly revise d a s events unfold .
For instance , t o understan d th e meanin g o f th e pas t tens e an d th e pas t
perfect ver b pattern , i t i s necessar y t o thin k abou t ho w a sequenc e o f pas t
events i s shape d an d patterned . Student s ma y kno w tha t i n a chronologica l
sequence of events in the past, the past perfect is used for referring back, fro m
the past, to earlier events. They may not know that whether events are labelled
'past' o r 'pas t perfect' depend s o n the point at which the narrative begins an d
on what events are highlighted .
In the story , 'M r Heine', 2 a man visit s his former teacher . The teacher i s
about to retire. At first, it seems Mr Heine has come to thank his teacher but it
soon becomes apparen t he has other motives. As the story unfolds, th e reader
is shown, in a series of flashbacks, certain events from Mr Heine's schooldays .
Gradually w e com e t o realize th e impact thes e past event s ha d o n Mr Hein e
and t o understan d wh y h e i s th e ma n h e is . Student s nee d t o b e aler t t o th e
significance o f these strategically-placed flashbacks . After the y have read th e
1' A knowledge of the language systems . . . should never be pursued, at this level,
as an end in itself... [rather than] going through isolated discrete items in practice
papers . . . [ther e shoul d be] a 'recycling ' o f languag e (vocabulary , form s an d
functions) see n and practised in a variety of contexts', Use of English Syllabus,
1991: 13.
'[In the exam] Language will be assessed in terms of the extent to which the
candidate's use of sentence sturctures supports successful communication', Hong
Kong Certificate of Education 1996 Syllabus, 1994 : 188.
2 'M r Heine' by Iain Crichton-Smith.
Using Stories in the Language Classroom at Senior Secondary Level 13 7
first seventy-five lines of the story, the students can be given a list of events as
they are revealed in the story and asked to put them into chronological order:
Look at the sentences below. This is the order in which they appear in
the story:
It was 10 o'clock at night and Mr Bingham was talking

to the mirror.
Mr Bingham first entered the teaching profession.
Mrs Bingham went to answer the door.
When Mr Heine was eleven he joined Mr Bingham's

class.
1
Mr Heine heard Mr Bingham was retiring.
Mr Heine's landlady saw Mr Bingham in town.
Mrs Bingham went into the kitchen to make a cup of

coffee.
A group of boys used to make fun of Mr Heine.
In what order do you think they happened? (Number the sentences

from 1 to 8. 1 = the most distan t i n time, 8 = the most recent).
Compare your answers with your partner's.
Asking student s t o sequenc e jumbled event s s o a s t o wor k ou t 'wha t ha d

happened before' is a standard exercise when teaching the past perfect. What
makes a difference her e is why the writer chooses to reveal past events in the
order he does. As we learn more about Mr Heine's schooldays — sentences
four and eight above are the start of this process of gradual revelation — we
begin to understand why he has come back to torment the teacher who once
tormented him. Much of the pathos and humour in the story arises from th e
order in which we learn about these past events.
Rather than being told about the past perfect tense , students can see for
themselves how it is used, meaningfully, across a text. The powerful emotional
impact of the story helps make learning this more memorable.
138 Pete r Kennedy
Plot and th e Reade r
In th e ac t o f readin g an d thinkin g abou t a story , th e reade r i s likel y t o hav e

recourse t o certai n structures . Fo r instance , crim e fictio n o r tale s o f myster y
and suspens e requir e the reader t o piece togethe r clues . In speculatin g abou t
what wil l happe n nex t o r th e consequence s o f event s s o far , i t i s likel y tha t
modal verbs (Tt must have been . . . ' , 'I t can't be . .. ' , 'H e may plan to . .. ' )
and conditional sentence s (Wha t if. . . ?, If she hadn't x , then . . .) wil l arise.
Students have a genuine communicative purpose for using these structures o n
such occasion s an d this can be exploited fo r teachin g purposes . This activit y
parallels the prediction exercise s used in the standard reading comprehensio n
lesson. The difference i s that the student becomes genuinel y intereste d i n th e
outcome of his predictions.
Getting students to guess story endings contextualizes the revision of modal
and conditional structure s too. If the story has a surprise twist at the end — of
the kind found in Roald Dahl stories — then so much the better. Prediction and
story completion exercise s als o work well with tales of adventure that have a
strong story-lin e an d a rapid successio n o f incidents.
Character
Characters in EFL textbooks often tend towards the stereotypical. The southern,
middle-class Englishman with his Times, tea and briefcase is a typical example.
'Flat' characters like these are seldom as memorable or distinct as the 'rounded '
characters to be found i n good stories .
In a story, certain structures may be associated with a particular character .
Eveline i s a story abou t a girl who cannot decid e whether t o run of f t o start a
new life with her boyfriend o r to stay in her dull, safe routine at home with her
father. Sh e is a passive person wh o allow s thing s t o happen t o her. Sh e doe s
not tak e the initiativ e herself . I n thi s respect, th e verb form s associate d wit h
her are significant :
She was going to go away .. . She had consented to go away .. . She was to
go away . . .
Eveline's passivity is embodied i n the meanings o f these verbs. 3
It i s no t difficul t t o fin d othe r storie s i n whic h a particula r structur e i s
closely associate d wit h a particular character . Her e is a n extract fro m a stor y
about a n unusua l ol d ma n tha t i s appropriat e fo r Hon g Kon g Certificat e o f
Education level :
Suddenly he leapt from his chair and began to zoom about the room, bowing
and gliding, humming and laughing . . . scattering honey on the chairs.4
3 Thi s paragraph is based on the reading of 'Eveline' given in Yorke, F. 1986.

4 Fro m 'Long Lankin', a collection of short stories by John Banville.
Using Stories in the Language Classroom at Senior Secondary Leve l 13 9
While students ar e reading th e story, the teacher may as k them to look a t

all the V-ing forms use d here. Why ar e there so many?
(This old man has a zest for life, whenever he appears there is action an d
animation. Whenever he appears, so do the V-ing forms. His staid son and dull
daughter-in-law ar e altogether different. The y are a conventional couple, set in
their ways, unimaginative. When they appear, their actions are simply reported
— 'glanced' , 'sighed' , 'turned' , 'nodded ' etc . They remain static. )
The linking of certain verb forms wit h character traits is not accidental or
arbitrary here . In this story , a 'dynamic ' characte r an d 'dynamic ' ver b form s
are closel y allied . Whe n a characte r i n a stor y i s memorable , an d student s
consider, i n context , th e meaning s o f th e structure s tha t hel p realiz e tha t
character, then those structures are likely to be more meaningful an d memorable
too.
Grammar teaching can be linked to plot and characterization, the 'grammar '
of stories . This doe s no t mea n ransackin g storie s simpl y t o find example s o f
the target structur e for grammar practice. (Ab)using storie s in this way woul d
diminish them . Storie s shoul d be read primarily fo r enjoyment , fo r thei r ow n
sake. But stories are made from languag e a s much as paintings are from pain t
and any reading of a text has to be based on the words on the page. This needn't
entail complex stylisti c analysis.
A review of certain structures can arise out of a simple discussion of what
the character s ar e lik e o r ho w th e event s i n a stor y ar e organized . Cover t
grammar revision can also occur when a reader is speculating about what will
happen next in a story. If students are led to think about how language is used
in stories to create character and plot, then their awareness of the functions an d
meanings o f familia r structure s wil l b e enhanced . Som e teacher s fee l tha t t o
examine th e languag e o f storie s ma y destro y th e pleasure . Th e tw o ar e no t
incompatible.
INFERENCE AN D STORIE S
Even simpl e utterances nee d interpreting . Fo r instance , t o make sens e o f th e

sentence, 'Yo u get it, I'm wet' , it is necessary to supply a context and imagine
possible meanings . I n differen t contexts , 'it ' coul d b e a n umbrella , th e doo r
bell, a towel, a baby's nappy, the telephone etc. All texts require interpretatio n
whether the y be legal contracts, business documents o r newspaper stories . At
Hong Kong Certificate of Education and Use of English level, a student's ability
to interpret a text — t o understand wha t is implicit a s well as what is explici t
— is of central importance. 5
5 'T o understand underlying themes, arguments in a passage and to make inferences

. .. inferrin g idea s tha t ar e no t necessaril y explicitl y stated' , Use of English
Syllabus, 1991: 15-16.
'[Students should be able to] . . . find the implications and draw inferences fro m
the passage', Hong Kong Certificate of Education 1996 Syllabus 1994: 187-191.
140 Pete r Kennedy
Inference skill s canno t b e presuppose d though , the y hav e t o b e taught .

Students wil l need practice before the y can 'see ' a n inference fo r themselves .
Stories ca n hel p develo p suc h skills . In man y expositor y passage s i n schoo l
textbooks everything is spelt out but stories come with 'holes' in them. Areader
imaginatively involve d i n a stor y has , i n th e proces s o f understandin g it , t o
negotiate meaning, to search for clue s and be alert to what is implied.
Dialogue
Looking a t dialogue in stories can help prepare student s to read between an d

behind the lines of a text.
The Ernest Hemingway story, 'Hills Like White Elephants', is very simple
in term s o f vocabular y an d structure . Mos t o f th e stor y take s th e for m o f a
dialogue betwee n a youn g ma n an d a young woman . Th e conversatio n the y
are having takes place on two levels. The words they use appear to be soothing
and appeasing, but what is going on beneath the surface o f the words, what is
not bein g said , is much mor e important. Student s canno t be expected t o pick
up on this straigh t off . The y wil l need to do a few, shor t 'warm-up ' exercise s
before the y approach the text.
Warm-Up Activity A.l. — Saying/Thinkin g
A teacher may take a familiar textboo k dialogue, ask students to read

what th e character s ar e sayin g an d the n t o writ e dow n wha t th e
characters may be thinking. For instance:
A: (lookin g at the menu) What would you like to eat? (thinks)

I haven yt got much money.
B: (lookin g at the menu) Oh, I'm no t hungry. I'll just have shark' s
fin soup , then number 21 , 3 2 and maybe 71 and . . .
A: I'l l just have noodles.
B: Really !
A: Listen , I have something very important to say to you.
B: Oh ?
After that , one pair of students reads the dialogue. While they read,
another pair stands behind them and reads aloud the thoughts the y
have written down. At the end of this activity, they reverse roles.
Using Stones in the Language Classroom at Senior Secondary Level 14 1
Warm-up Activity B.L — Intonation
To infer meaning from a text effectively, i t is necessary that students

read with their ears as well as their eyes. They need to hear a line said
in different way s and consider changes of meaning.
A
Read each sentence to your partner so as to give it the meaning of the
word underlined.
L Than k you very much. annoye d gratefu l

2. I did it, please d ashame d
B
Listen to your partner. Tick the word that describes the speaker's mood.
1. annoye d ( ) 2 . please d ( )
grateful ( ) ashame d( )
~~ - ~
Warm-up Activity C I. - — (Un)predictability
Students may have learned paired exchanges of this kind:
A: How are you?

B: Fine thanks.
Real exchanges are seldom as predictable as these set patterns. Most speech
acts ar e indirec t an d hav e to be interpreted . ('O h no ! Not YOU!' ca n b e a
friendly greetin g i n certai n contexts. ) I f student s ar e onl y equippe d wit h a
repertoire o f stereotypica l act s labelle d 'greeting' , 'inviting ' 'offering ' etc. ,
they will never learn to cope with the unexpected in real communication. As a
preliminary task to help prepare them for unpredictable exchanges, students
can be given hal f o f a paired exchang e and asked to write down what they
would expec t th e usua l repl y t o be . Her e ar e som e line s take n fro m th e
Hemingway story mentioned earlier:
142 Pete r Kennedy
A: Do you feel better ?

B: (Yes, much better thanks. )
A: I care about you .
B: (And I care about you too. )
A: I've neve r seen one.
B: (Oh, really? Haven't you? )
In th e story , however , B' s replie s ar e no t a s predictabl e a s th e sentence s i n

brackets:
a. B There's nothin g wrong wit h me.

b. B Oh yes, but I don't car e about me.
c. B No, you wouldn' t have .
These thre e preliminar y exercise s ge t student s t o look a t what i s said an d t o

think about what is meant. They can now put together these separate elements
to work out the undertones in a longer exchange such as this one from the same
Hemingway story :
The girl was looking at the line of hills. They were white in the sun and the
country was brown and dry. 'They look like white elephants,' she said. 'I'v e
never seen one,' the man drank his beer. 'No , you wouldn't have'. ' I might
have,' th e man said . 'Jus t becaus e you sa y I wouldn't hav e doesn't prov e
anything.'6
Students who have done warm-up exercises such as Al, Bl an d CI, would
now be ready to move on to the next step. 7 This can be illustrated if we return
to the story, 'M r Heine' .
Mr Heine was treated cruelly by a teacher he trusted and now he wants

revenge. What h e say s t o his forme r teache r Mr Bingha m i s usuall y
ironic an d not what he really means at all.
Task A.2. — Saying/Thinkin g
When, fo r instance , M r Hein e say s t o M r Bingham , T am sur e yo u

chose the right profession', thi s isn't meant as a compliment.
6 'Hill s Like White Elephants' by Ernest Hemingway.

7 Task s A2, B2 and C2 follow on from the warm-up activities outlined earlier.
Using Stories in the Language Classroom at Senior Secondary Level 14 3
We ca n infe r tha t wha t h e reall y mean s is : 'Yo u ar e th e wors t

teacher ever!'. Students, now more alert to the disparity between what
a perso n i s sayin g an d wha t h e i s thinking, ca n be give n mor e fines
like this from th e story and asked to write down Mr Heine's thoughts.
Task B.2 . — Intonatio n
Mr Bingham's son Colin was one of Mr Heine's tormentors at school.

Mr Heine is therefore delighted to learn that Colin has married Norah,
a schoolmate who had a reputation for sleeping around. He insinuates
this whe n h e ask s Mr s Bingha m th e nam e o f he r daughter-in-law :
'Her nam e i s Norah' , sai d Mr s Bingha m sharply. 'Nora h Mason' .
Students need to hear thes e lines. They should now be better attune d
to how Mr Heine asked the spiteful questio n that provoked this angry
reply.
Task C.2 . — Unpredictabilit y
Towards the end of the story, after h e has had his revenge, Mr Hein e
wishes th e Bingham s goodnight . Th e repl y h e get s i s hardl y a
conventional rejoinder :
T wish you both goodnight' .
'GET OU T sir, ' Mr Bingha m shouted .
Students more aware of the unpredictable nature of real conversational
exchanges will be better prepared for exchanges suc h as this one.
Stories whic h engag e the reader imaginativel y len d themselve s t o open -

ended, interactiv e task s tha t hel p develo p inferenc e skills . The interpretativ e
procedures student s learn in reading storie s can then be applied when readin g
other types of texts.
STORIES — TEXTS , TOPICS AN D TASK S 8
Reading researc h ha s reveale d th e extent t o which th e interpretation o f text s

depends o n th e activatio n o f th e prio r knowledg e an d expectation s a reade r
8 'Student s should be given plenty of opportunities to think through their ideas and
be encouraged to elaborate, illustrate, explain . .. t o express emotion, argument,
opinion.' Use of English Syllabus, 1991: 8-17. '[Student s should] express their
own views, feelings an d ideas . . . describe, discuss and reflect upo n their own
experiences throug h th e medium of spoke n and written language. ' Hong Kong
Certificate of Education 1996 Syllabus, 1994 : 187.
144 Pete r Kennedy —
brings to a text. Reading is not passive but an active and interactive process. A
reader seek s t o interpre t an d mak e sens e o f a tex t b y matchin g i t agains t a
template o f rea l worl d knowledge . Text s o n topic s consonan t wit h th e
experiences o f learner s — an d task s tha t enabl e the m t o deplo y thei r prio r
knowledge an d experiences — ar e likely to assist the interpretation process .
There is sometimes ver y little relation between topic s of real-life interes t
and the texts Hong Kong learners encounter in their English classes. It is crucial
to selec t storie s o n subject s student s wil l recognize . This doesn' t mea n the y
have to be stories set in Hong Kong but, like the three stories mentioned here,
they should reflect wha t adolescent secon d language learners in the 1990 s are
likely to know about and be interested in, such as stories that deal with personal
relationships o r famil y matter s i n a thought-provokin g way . Contemporar y
stories tha t re-present th e students ' world, wit h greate r vividnes s an d clarity ,
are more likely to appeal than the usual 'lette r from a penfriend' saf e texts.
Stories nee d t o b e shor t enoug h t o b e handle d i n on e o r tw o classroo m
sessions and , o f course , the y mus t b e linguisticall y accessible . At thi s level ,
students ought to be exposed to unmodified stories , the real thing, not extracts
or simplifie d versions . When storie s ar e turne d int o 'simplifie d readers ' th e
juice i s squeeze d out . A stor y lose s it s originalit y an d become s just lik e an y
other EFL text.
Using storie s such as the three described here, will enable students to tap
into thei r ow n lif e stories . Then , instea d o f just answerin g comprehensio n
questions or mouthing opinions they have been given, students may talk about
related incidents, memories and experiences they have had, or about their own
feelings an d opinions on the topic. The result is greater personal investment in
learning the language:
It is easier to teach the student to be anybody in the target language ... than it
is to prepare the student to be somebody... speakin g in accordance with your
own personal psychological disposition towards others. (Di Pietro, 1981)
Students whose imaginations have been stimulated by reading stories are usually
predisposed to engage in follow-up activities that require thought and invention
such as writing about an incident in the story from the point of view of another
character; imagining an episode as a scene from a film; discussing issues arising
from th e story; and exploring 'why ' an d 'wha t if... ' questions .
CONCLUSION
It may be objected that since students are unlikely to have to deal with narrative
texts i n thei r futur e job s ther e i s n o poin t i n usin g the m i n class . Thi s i s t o
confuse th e goals o f languag e learnin g wit h th e processes, the ends wit h th e
means. Languag e learnin g activitie s mus t b e motivating , meaningfu l an d
memorable if they are to be effective .
• Usin g Stories in the Language Classroom at Senior Secondary Leve l 14 5
Language learning i s not just a n intellectual process but has to do with

feelings and emotions. Narratives are probably the most accessible, and most
frequently occurring forms of discourse. When people organize their experiences
into story patterns they create coherence and endow their lives with meaning.
The emotional response to narrative leads to greater engagement and to student-
centred task s tha t mak e th e languag e learnin g proces s mor e meaningful .
Learning associate d wit h stor y pattern s ma y wel l be mor e memorabl e too.
(There is a considerable body of psycholinguistic evidence which suggests we
use story frameworks a s an aid to both comprehension and recall.)9
Story elements such as plot, characterization and dialogue can be harnessed
to fulfil th e goals of the Hong Kong syllabus. At the same time students will
encounter fresh an d original texts that are worth reading for their own sake.
REFERENCES
Banville, J. 1984 . Long Lankin, pp . 81-89. Dublin: Gallery Press .

Crichton-Smith, I . 1981 . Mr Heine. Murdo and Other Stories. London : Gollancz .
Di Pietro , R.J . 1981 . Discourse an d real-lif e role s i n th e ES L classroom . TESOL
Quarterly, 15/1 .
The Curriculu m Developmen t Council , Hon g Kong . 1991 . Syllabuses for Secondary
Schools: Use of English (Advanced Supplementary Level). Hon g Kong :
Hemingway, E . 1925 . Hill s Lik e Whit e Elephants . The Short Stories of Ernest
Hemingway. Ne w York: Charles Scribne r an d Sons .
Hong Kon g Examination s Authority . 1994 . Hong Kong Certificate of Education
Examination Regulations and Syllabuses, 1996:187-194 . Hong Kong: Hong Kong
Examination Authority .
Prince, G. 1973 . A Grammar of Stories. Th e Hague: Mouton.
Toolan, M.J. 1988 . Narrative: A Critical Linguistic Introduction. London : Routledge .
Yorke, F. 1986 . Interpretative task s applie d t o shor t stories . ELT Journal 40/4 : 313—
319.
9 Fo r a discussion o f 'stor y grammars ' and memorability, se e Toolan, M. 198 8 and

Prince, G. 1973 .
Ill
Introduction to the Tertiary Section
In thi s section , tw o chapter s ar e devote d t o a discussion o f th e activ e use o f

drama and poetry activities with tertiary level student teachers. In Chapter 11,
Velda Harris, drawing on her extensive experience in UK and Asia with student
teachers, demonstrates how participatory activities taken from theatre practices
can aid textual comprehension an d act as a stimulus for speakin g and writing.
Several year s ago , Richar d Via , writin g i n th e TESOL Journal o f hi s
experiences in the USA and Japan, demonstrated how successful suc h activities
can be with second language speakers. Velda Harris, using more recent methods,
demonstrates th e sam e points, focusing o n the use of Shakespearea n tex t fo r
language enhancement .
In Chapte r 12 , Pete r Falve y stresse s th e importance , i n th e literature /
language poetr y classroom , o f teacher s leadin g b y exampl e i n orde r t o len d
credibility t o thei r teachin g an d t o provid e interes t an d motivatio n fo r thei r
students. He maintain s tha t just a s teachers mus t provide goo d example s fo r
their students , so must teacher educators. The chapter als o discusses th e use s
to which poetry writing can be put in the language classroom. The data for this
chapter is drawn fro m example s o f student-teache r wor k a t the University o f
Hong Kong .
11
CHAPTER
•I
Drama Texts as Theatre — Participator y

Activities Draw n fro m Theatr e Practic e
Velda Harris
INTRODUCTION
In thi s chapte r i t i s initiall y suggeste d tha t particular readin g an d respons e

skills are required when approaching a play text and that these can be developed
by espousing a range of techniques employed in professional theatre practice.
There follows a descriptive account of a drama text lesson in which two short
extracts are examined in performance by students working interactively in pairs.
Guidance sheets encourage the students to find answers to specific question s
about character, motivation and interpretation and the performed extract s are
then subjecte d t o cross-examinatio n o f th e student s i n role. In subsequen t
sections a range of additional theatrical approaches to text teaching are outlined
and a number o f relevan t an d relate d writin g task s suggested . Finally , th e
benefits o f this approach are summarized with particular reference to second
language learning.
Before reading this chapter consider the following questions:

1. Wha t can experience of literature contribute to the professional education
of English language teachers?
2. Wha t i s t o b e gaine d b y th e student-teache r o f Englis h languag e b y
'engaging in real texts written by real authors'?
150 Veld a Harris ^ = = = = = = ^ = ^ ^ ^ = = = = = = = = = = = =
3. Wha t parallels can be drawn between explorin g a drama text in rehearsa l

and the process of understanding a text in the second language classroom ?
READING A PLA Y TEX T
Reading a pla y an d readin g a nove l ma y see m t o b e ver y closel y relate d

activities. In each case we enter a fiction an d accept the existence of the context
and character s wit h whic h w e ar e presented . W e probabl y identif y strongl y
with one or more of the characters while simultaneously retainin g a detached
and critica l judgemen t whic h allow s u s t o thin k independentl y abou t th e
unfolding actio n an d t o appreciat e th e writer' s craft . I n a conventional nove l
the voice of the storyteller is almost always at hand directing our attention to a
particular event , explaining a character's behaviour, focusing ou r attention o n
a particular detai l an d controlling ou r response. In choosing t o unfold a stor y
in dramatic form, th e playwright has elected to stand to one side. Context an d
atmosphere ar e create d b y th e stag e setting . Plo t an d characte r ar e reveale d
through actio n an d dialogue . Thi s ha s implication s fo r th e reader . While th e
novelist has a mediating role helping readers to interpret the unfolding action ,
the playwright leaves readers to make their own deductions from th e clues in
the text. Consequently, whil e it is possible t o read a novel quit e quickly, i t is
essential to read a play text at the speed of speech, paying close attention to set
descriptions, stage directions, pauses, adverbs denoting vocal expression, an d
other aid s t o interpretation whic h th e playwright offers . Wha t th e reader o f a
play ha s t o imagin e i s no t onl y wha t th e se t an d character s loo k lik e bu t
inflectional patterns , emphasis , ton e of voice , actions , eve n silenc e — al l of
which conve y meaning . I t shoul d b e eviden t fro m th e abov e tha t th e
inexperienced reader, whether in a first or second language, needs a great deal
of support in reading and understanding a play text .
I have been talking s o far abou t reading a play text. But of course, a play
is not written to be read silently but to be performed b y actors and appreciate d
by a n audience . And i t is to the theatre that we should tur n fo r approache s t o
play text teaching that will help students to interpret and understand the text. It
was Konstantin Stanislavski, working with students at the Moscow Arts Theatre
School a t th e tur n o f th e century , wh o first brok e awa y fro m th e nineteent h
century Europea n tradition of 'external ' actin g and developed a methodology
which encourage d hi s student s t o explor e th e 'internal ' logi c o f a role . Hi s
method ha s bee n widel y espoused , adapte d an d develope d b y th e twentiet h
century theatr e practitioner s an d b y th e developin g Dram a i n Educatio n
movement. Th e mos t influentia l aspect s o f hi s methodolog y relat e t o
motivation, or the underlying reasons for speech and action; to the notion of a
subtext, whic h mean s tha t wha t th e character say s an d what th e characte r i s
thinking ar e not inevitably th e same thing; to the improvisation of additiona l
scenes around the text as a means of clarifying motivation ; and the awakenin g
Drama Texts as Theatre 15 1
of the actor's emotion memory in an attempt to make the stage representation

of an emotion mor e convincing .
THE RELEVANC E O F PROFESSIONA L THEATR E PRACTIC E T O PLA Y TEXT

TEACHING
Let us consider som e of the activities that take place in the rehearsal room. At
the first rehearsal of a play the director will probably start by describing his or
her concep t o f th e pla y an d wil l sho w pre-decide d se t an d costum e design s
which reinforc e th e interpretation . Then , ther e wil l b e a first readin g o f th e
whole play, possibly with the actors seated, but just as likely with the actors on
their fee t beginnin g t o mov e abou t a simplifie d mock-u p o f th e stag e set .
Thereafter, rehearsal s begin in earnest. It is unusual in the professional theatr e
for th e directo r t o impos e move s o r t o 'block ' th e play . I t i s expecte d tha t
movement wil l aris e fro m th e actors ' understandin g o f characte r an d
relationships (guided by the stage directions) and where these are at odds with
the director's interpretation ther e will be a pause in rehearsal for discussion. A
thoughtful directo r will use a whole armoury of theatrical exercises to increase
the actors' understanding of their roles and of the play's structure and meaning.
There will be pauses to discuss the inflectional pattern or emphasis in a particular
line and to work out small details of stage business. Throughout, the emphasis
is o n justification o f interpretatio n throug h minut e examinatio n o f th e tex t
supplemented b y relevant background information .
What aspects of this professional theatr e practice can inform th e teaching
of play texts in the school context? And what is the relevance of play text study
in second language learning? Let us consider a drama text lesson. The students
have already play-read the whole text in class with individual members coming
to the front t o take parts. It is now time for som e detailed work on the text. In
this lesson th e class has been subdivide d int o small groups an d each grou p i s
working on a short extract from the text. Where possible, students should spil l
out int o adjacen t space s — int o th e corridor , th e stai r well , a nearb y empt y
classroom — s o they ar e on thei r feet movin g abou t a s the y ac t ou t th e text .
The teache r ha s prepare d a guidanc e shee t whic h give s th e group s clea r
guidelines abou t th e kin d o f question s the y shoul d b e askin g abou t context ,
character, relationship s an d meaning . Th e group s wor k intentl y o n thi s
interesting and unusual task, pausing to clarify the meaning of words and phrases
they ar e not sur e o f throug h grou p discussion , referenc e t o the note s i n thei r
play tex t o r b y askin g th e teache r wh o move s fro m grou p t o grou p givin g
support an d makin g suggestions . The student s ar e working interactivel y an d
taking responsibility for their own learning. They enter into the emotion of the
scene an d tr y ou t differen t inflectiona l pattern s an d emphase s t o poin t th e
meaning of particular lines. They are aware that action and silence are important
elements in the text. They discuss character and motivation, and although they
152 Veld a Harris _ = = = = = = ^ = = = = = = = = = = = = ^ ^
are workin g o n a shor t tex t extract , the y fin d tha t the y hav e t o refe r t o th e
whole text in order to justify thei r point of view. Towards the end of the lesson
the student s ar e calle d bac k int o th e classroo m an d on e grou p i s invite d t o
present the scene. The other groups watch with interest noting the similaritie s
and differences fro m their own interpretation. The teacher concludes the lesson
by drawin g ou t som e genera l point s relatin g t o th e guidanc e sheets . The
important point is that learning takes place in the process of working on the
scene. While viewing the product is a useful way of drawing the work to a
conclusion, it is not the most important part of the exercise.
AN ILLUSTRATIV E LESSO N
At this point in the argument it would be worth illustrating the approach I have
been describing by reference t o a particular lesson. This was conducted with a
group o f teacher s o n th e Postgraduat e Certificat e i n Educatio n (P.C.Ed )
Literature Optio n cours e a t Th e Universit y o f Hon g Kong . A preliminar y
discussion raise d genera l issue s abou t th e valu e o f literatur e i n languag e
teaching. It was suggested that what the experience of literature adds to language
teaching is:
• engagemen t wit h 'real ' text s writte n b y accomplishe d author s wit h
something meaningful t o communicate;
• opportunitie s fo r affectiv e respons e to recognizable situations ;
• enjoymen t o f the skilled use of language;
• persona l involvement in texts through acting them out, reading aloud an d
other activity approaches ;
•a stimulus for talkin g an d writing.
The class was divided into pairs. Half worke d o n a short extract from th e
opening o f Act 2 of Arthur Miller' s The Crucible an d hal f o n a shor t extrac t
from Hamlet, th e 'nunner y scene' . The Crucible grou p wa s provide d wit h
Guidance Sheet 1 contextualizing the scene and presenting activities/question s
to consider . Th e Hamlet grou p wa s presente d wit h Guidanc e Shee t 2 . Th e
students wer e tol d tha t whil e th e guidanc e sheet s identifie d som e question s
worth answering , it was likely tha t they would formulate thei r own question s
while working o n the scene.
Guidance Shee t 1
The Crucibl e
This is theatre and intended to be acted. Let's treat it as such.
What you need to know (contextualization) .
John Proctor is an independent-minded farmer living in a Puritan

community near Salem, Massachusetts, in the spring of 1692. His
wife Elizabeth is a God-fearing Christian much respected in the
neighbourhood. In the previous year when Elizabeth was sick for
some time during a difficult pregnancy Proctor committed adultery
with a young servant girl who was living in their house. What can
you deduce about their present relationship from this extract? How
can you as actors communicate this clearly to an audience? Search
for the subtext.
Text Extract: The Crucible b y Arthur Miller, Opening of Act 2.
The common room of Proctor's house, eight days later.
At the right is a door opening on the fields outside. A fireplace is at

the lefty and behind it a stairway leading upstairs. It is the low, dark
and rather long living room of the time. As the curtain rises, the
room is empty. From above, ELIZABETH is heard softly singing to the
children. Presently the door opens and JOHN PROCTOR enters, carrying
his gun. He glances about the room as he comes to the fireplace,
leans his gun against the wall as he swings a pot out of the fire and
smells it He is not quite pleased. He reaches to a cupboard, takes a
pinch of salt, and drops it in the pot As he is tasting again, her
footsteps are heard on the stair. He swings the pot into the fireplace
and goes to a basin and washes his hands and face.ELIZABETH enters.
UNIT A ELIZABETH Wha t keeps you so late. It's almost dark .

:
PROCTOR: I were planting far out to the forest edge .
ELIZABETH: Oh , you're done then?
PROCTOR: Aye , the farm i s seeded. The boys asleep ?
ELIZABETH: The y wil l b e soon . (And she goes to the
fireplace, proceeds to ladle up stew in a dish.)
PROCTOR: Pra y now for a fair summer .
ELIZABETH: Aye .
i
154 Veld a Harri s
PROCTOR: Are yo u wel l today ?

ELIZABETH: I am . (She brings the plate to the table, and,
indicating the food) I t is a rabbit .
PROCTOR: (going to the table) Oh , is it? In Jonathan's trap ?
ELIZABETH: No, sh e walked i n the house thi s afternoon ; I
found he r sittin' i n a corner lik e sh e come t o
visit.
PROCTOR: Oh, that' s a good sign , walkin ' in.
ELIZABETH: Pray God . I t hurt m y heart t o stri p her , poor
rabbit. (She sits and watches him taste it.)
PROCTOR: It's wel l seasoned .
ELIZABETH: I too k grea t care . She' s tender ?
UNITB PROCTOR : Aye. (He eats. She watches him.) I think we'l l
see gree n field s soon . I t ' s w a r m a s bloo d
• beneath th e clods .
ELIZABETH: That's well .
(Proctor eats, then looks up.)
PROCTOR: If th e crop i s goo d I'l l buy George Jacob' s
heifer. Ho w woul d tha t pleas e you ?
ELIZABETH: Aye, i t would.
PROCTOR: (with a grin) I mean t o please you , Elizabeth .
Elizabeth: (it is hard to say) I know it , John.
(He gets up, goes to her, kisses her. She receives
it. With a certain disappointment he returns to
the table.)
PROCTOR: (as gently as he can) Cider ?
ELIZABETH: (with a sense of reprimanding herself for having
forgot) Aye . (She gets up and goes and pours a
glass for him. He arches his back.)
UNITC PROCTOR : This farm' s a continen t whe n yo u go foot b y

foot droppin ' seed s i n it.
ELIZABETH: (coming with the cider) I t must be .
PROCTOR: (drinks a long draught, then, putting the glass
down) Yo u ough t t o bring som e flower s i n the
house.
ELIZABETH: Oh, I forgot! I will tomorrow .
PROCTOR: It's winter in here yet. On Sunday le t you com e
with me , an d we'll wal k th e farm together ; I
never se e such a load o f flowers i n the earth.
(With good feeling he goes and looks up at the
sky through the open doorway.) Lilac s hav e a

purple smell . Lilac i s the smel l o f nightfall , I
think. Massachusetts is a beauty in the spring!
ELIZABETH: Aye , i t is .
(There is a pause. She is watching him from
the table as he stands there absorbing the night.
It is as though she would speak but cannot.
Instead, now, she takes up his plate and glass
and fork and goes with them to the basin. Her
back is turned to him. He turns to her and
watches her. A sense of their separation rises.)
Activities/ Questions to Answer
1. Creat e the set. Where would you place the table/ chairs/ fireplace/
doors? Yo u ma y wis h t o chang e thes e position s whe n you'r e
working.
2. Wher e ha s Procto r com e from ? Wha t ha s h e bee n doing ? Ho w
does this affect the way he moves, the way he makes his entrance,
what he does next?
3. Wha t ha s Elizabeth bee n doing ? What i s her reaction whe n sh e
sees her husband? How doe s her movement reflect he r feelings ?
4. Wha t internal monologu e (unspoke n thoughts) is each characte r
engaging i n th e firs t si x exchange s o f th e scene ? Spea k thes e
thoughts as well as the written dialogue .
5. Pa y particular attention to pauses and the non-verbal action in the
scene. What is each character thinking a t these times ?
ACCOUNT O F TH E LESSO N
What follows i s a descriptive account of the lesson. This is not a transcript but
a pos t ho c reconstructio n o f wha t happened . Th e pair s o f student s fin d
themselves relativel y privat e space s i n which the y ca n mov e about , indicat e
the set with chairs an d so on. They work for abou t half a n hour acting out the
scene, finding answer s t o the questions raised, tryin g ou t moves, gesture an d
tone of voice, and searching fo r the subtext of the action. I move between th e
groups lookin g a t wor k i n progres s an d makin g suggestion s an d comments .
One grou p need s som e hel p wit h th e Ne w Englan d farmhous e setting . Th e
word 'heifer ' i s unfamiliar . The y ca n deduc e tha t i t i s a n anima l bu t ar e no t
sure what kind. With another group I discuss the subtext underlying the opening
156 Veld a Harri s - - = = ^ ^ = = = = ^ = = = = = = = = ^ ^
exchanges o f the scene. Elizabeth's enquiry , 'Wha t keeps you s o late? . . .' i s
not simpl y solicitous . Sh e n o longe r trust s Procto r an d i s afrai d tha t h e ma y
have gone to Salem to meet Abigail. She is suspicious and still hurt. If the line
is to be interprete d i n thi s wa y ther e ar e implications fo r th e tone o f voic e in
which it should be delivered. And Proctor's repl y shoul d then be perceived a s
not simpl y informativ e bu t defensive . Th e openin g o f th e scen e need s t o b e
delivered a t a slow pace with pauses between th e lines s o that the underlyin g
implications ca n b e mad e clear t o a n audience . Othe r exchange s indicat e th e
degree of distance that there now is between th e couple and this is reinforce d
by the stage directions.
'He get s up , goe s t o her , kisse s her . Sh e receive s it . Wit h a certai n
disappointment he returns to the table.'
I ask the students what they can bring from thei r own experience (o r emotio n
memory) which can help them to find appropriate gestures and facial expressions
to make th e meaning o f th e actio n clear . With anothe r pair I comment o n th e
symbolic nature of the action described in the final stag e direction .
There i s a pause. Sh e i s watchin g hi m fro m th e tabl e a s he stand s ther e
absorbing the night. It is as though she would speak but cannot. Instead now,
she takes up his plate and glass and fork and goes with them to the basin. Her
back i s turne d t o him . H e turns t o her an d watche s her . A sens e o f thei r
separation rises.
The significanc e o f thi s become s clea r whe n th e actor s ar e o n thei r fee t
moving about. At one moment Proctor stands with his back to Elizabeth staring
out int o th e night . Sh e look s a t hi s back , want s t o tal k t o hi m bu t can't . A
moment late r th e stag e imag e i s reversed . Elizabet h ha s turne d he r bac k t o
Proctor an d h e finds i t ver y difficul t t o continu e th e conversatio n betwee n
them.
When w e al l retur n t o th e classroo m I explai n tha t w e wil l watc h on e
performance o f each extract and after each we will 'hot seat' o r cross-examine
the actors in role. One couple perform th e extract then sit on chairs at the fron t
of the class prepared t o answer questions. The rest of the group are in a good
position to conduct the cross-examination because they are now quite familia r
with the text. My function i s to arbitrate particularly when questions have to be
answered by wider reference t o the whole text. The actors answer in character.
Q: Proctor . When you came in the first thing you did was to
taste the stew and add salt to it. Why did you do that ?
PROCTOR: Elizabet h alway s underseasons th e food. I put the sal t in
while sh e was out of the room because I didn't wan t he r
to think that I was criticizing her. I was trying to avoid an
argument.
Q: Elizabeth . Proctor asked you if you were well today. Are

you?
ELIZABETH: Yes , I think so.
VH: (intervention ) Elizabeth , yo u ar e probably no t as well a s
you think . You had a very difficult tim e having you r las t
baby an d yo u ar e stil l no t bac k t o ful l strength . I t wa s
while you were recovering that Proctor committed adultery
with Abigail. Later on in the scene you tell us that Mar y
Warren, you r timid servan t gir l wh o i s no w involve d i n
the witch trials has 'scare d al l your strength away' .
Q: Proctor . Why did you tell Elizabeth that she ought to bring
flowers int o the house ?
PROCTOR: Workin g on the farm makes me feel close to nature. I love
the beauty of the Massachusetts spring. When I come into
the house it feels lik e winter.
Guidance Shee t 2
Hamlet
What you need to know
Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, is deeply distressed when his much loved

father dies and even more upset when a month later his mother marries
Claudius, his father's brother, who then becomes King. To make matters
worse, Hamlet's father's ghost appears to him and reveals that he had
been murdered by Claudius and orders Hamlet to take revenge. After
initially determining to respond to the ghost's command Hamlet begins
to wonder if the spirit he has seen is some kind of diabolical
manifestation and decides to wait until he has further proof. As a mask
for his own feelings and to allay suspicion he adopts 'an antic
disposition'. Hamlet's behaviour about the court has become very
strange — he appears to be mad — and Claudius is determined to
find out whether this madness is real or assumed. He therefore plots
with his chief minister, Polonius, to spy on a meeting between Hamlet
and Polonius' daughter, Ophelia.
158 Veld a Harri s
Text Extract: Hamlet b y William Shakespeare, Act 3 Scene 1 .
HAMLET: Sof t yo u now ,

The fair Ophelia ! — Nymph, in thy orison s
Be all my sin s remembered .
OPHELIA: Goo d my lord ,
How does your honour for thi s many a day?
HAMLET: I humbly than k you, well, well, well.
OPHELIA: M y lord, I have remembrances o f your s
That I have longed lon g to re-deliver.
I pray you now receive them .
HAMLET: NO , no t I .
I never gave you aught .
OPHELIA: M y honoured lord , you know right wel l you did ,
And with them words of so sweet breath compose d
As made the things more rich. Their perfume lost ,
Take these again. For to the noble mind
Rich gifts wa x poor when givers prove unkind .
There, my lord .
HAMLET: Ha , ha ! Ar e yo u honest ?
OPHELIA: M y lord ?
HAMLET: Ar e you fair ?
OPHELIA: Wha t means your lordship ?
HAMLET: Tha t if you be honest and fair, your honesty should admit
no discourse to your beauty.
OPHELIA: Coul d beauty, my lord, have better commerce than with
honesty?
HAMLET: Ay , truly. For the power of beauty will sooner transfor m
honesty fro m wha t i t i s t o a baw d tha n th e forc e o f
honesty can transform beaut y to his likeness. This was
sometime a paradox, but now the time gives it proof. I
did love you once.
OPHELIA: Indeed , my lord, you made me believe so.
HAMLET: YO U should not have believed me. For virtue cannot s o
inoculate our old stock but we shall relish of it. I loved
you not .
OPHELIA: I was the more deceived .
HAMLET: Ge t the e t o a nunnery. Why woulds t tho u b e a breeder
of sinners? I am myself indifferent honest, but yet I could
accuse me of such things that it were better my mother
had no t born e me . I a m ver y proud , revengeful ,
ambitious, with more offences a t my beck and call than
Drama Text s as Theatre 15 9
I have thoughts to put them in, imagination to give them

shape, or time to act them in. What should such fellows
as I do crawling between earth and heaven? We are arrant
knaves all. Believe none of us. Go thy ways to a nunnery.
Where's your father?
OPHELIA: At home, my lord.
HAMLET: Let the doors be shut on him, that he may play the fool
nowhere but in's own house. Farewell .
OPHELIA: O, help him, you sweet heavens!
HAMLET: If tho u dos t marry , I'l l giv e the e thi s plagu e fo r th y
dowry: be thou as chaste as ice, as pure as snow, thou
shalt not escape calumny. Get thee to a nunnery. Go,
farewell. Or if thou wilt needs marry, marry a fool. For
wise men know too well what monsters you make of
them. To a nunnery, go, and quickly too. Farewell.
OPHELIA: 0 heavenl y powers, restore him!
HAMLET: 1 have heard of your paintings too, well enough. God
hath give n yo u on e fac e an d yo u mak e yourselve s
another. You jig and amble, and you lisp. You nickname
God's creature s an d mak e you r wantonnes s you r
ignorance. Go to, I'll n o more on't. I t hath made me
mad. I say we will have no more marriage. Those that
are married already — all but one — shall live. The rest
shall keep as they are. To a nunnery, go. (Exit.)
OPHELIA: O, what a noble mind is here o'erthrown!
The courtier's, soldier's, scholar's, eye, tongue, sword,
Th'expectancy and rose of the fair state,
The glass of fashion and the mould of form,
Th'observed of all observers, quite, quite down!
And I, of ladies most deject and wretched,
That sucked the honey of his music vows,
Now see that noble and most sovereign reason
Like sweet bells jangled, out of time and harsh,
That unmatched form and feature of blown youth
Blasted with ecstasy. O, woe is me
T'have seen what I have seen, see what I see.
Questions
1. What ca n yo u discove r fro m th e scen e abou t Hamlet' s
relationship with Ophelia ? Does Ophelia love Hamlet? Does
Hamlet lov e Ophelia ? Ho w ca n yo u mak e thi s clea r t o a n
audience?
160 Veld a Harris
2. Doe s Hamlet suspect that they are being spied on? At what point
in the scene is it clear that he knows? How do you communicate
this to an audience ?
3. I s Hamle t reall y ma d o r i s h e puttin g o n a n ac t t o thro w th e
watchers off th e scent? How do you sho w that he is genuinel y
mad/ putting on an act/ emotionally disturbed / perfectly sane ?
4. Th e scene is usually played with a lot of physical action. How
much physica l actio n ca n yo u brin g i n t o mak e you r
interpretation clear ?
ACCOUNT O F TH E LESSO N
The pair s o f student s fin d a spac e i n whic h t o wor k an d begi n t o rea d th e

extract. Th e tex t present s greate r linguisti c difficultie s tha n th e Mille r tex t
because of the verse form and archaic language. The students need much more
persuasion to get on their feet an d play-read the text. The text is accompanie d
by a commentary to which the pairs refer and they help one another to reach an
understanding o f difficul t word s an d phrases . As I mov e abou t th e group s I
confirm thei r interpretation o r explicate further. On e pair has not come acros s
the wor d 'bawd ' before . Anothe r pai r hav e difficult y makin g sens e o f 'Fo r
virtue cannot so inoculate our old stock but we shall relish of it' eve n with the
help of the notes. I urge them to discover the action in the scene. Should ther e
be physical violenc e a s wel l verba l abus e i n Hamlet's treatmen t o f Ophelia ?
Some pair s hav e move d o n t o discus s characte r an d motivation . Other s ar e
reluctant t o pu t dow n th e guidanc e shee t an d searc h th e tex t fo r thei r ow n
questions an d answers . When w e retur n t o th e classroo m th e pair invite d t o
present thei r wor k giv e a very sensitiv e reading whic h show s tha t they hav e
engaged with the emotion of the scene. The 'hot-seating' procedure is repeated.
Because of the greater complexity of the text I take much more of a lead in the
questioning bu t the whole group supports the pair in contributing answers .
Q: Ophelia . At th e beginning o f th e scen e yo u tr y t o retur n

'remembrances' to Hamlet. What exactly ar e these ?
OPHELIA: The y are love letters and presents that he gave me.
Q: Wh y does Hamlet say that he never gave you anything ?
OPHELIA: I don't know .
Q: D O yo u think Hamlet loves you ?
OPHELIA: I thin k h e di d lov e m e onc e bu t no w I don' t know . Hi s
behaviour is very strange .
VH: (teache r intervention ) I n fact i n a n earlie r scen e you tel l

us how he came to your closet in a very dishevelled state,
held yo u b y th e wrist an d stare d a t you r fac e fo r a lon g
time. Then he sighed deeply and left th e room lookin g a t
you over his shoulder all the time.
Q: Hamlet . Do you love Ophelia ?
HAMLET: I haven't go t time to think abou t love now. I have swor n
to put everything out of my mind except revenge.
Q: A t what point in the scene do you know that you are being
observed?
HAMLET: I' m no t sure. Maybe right from th e start.
(General discussio n wit h th e whole grou p lead s t o the suggestio n

that he possibly heard a noise behind th e arras just before, 'H a ha ,
are you honest?' Thereafter th e way h e addresses Opheli a an d th e
pace of the scene is quite different) .
Q: Ophelia . Why were you prepared to be used in this plot to

spy on Hamlet ?
OPHELIA: I had no choice. I am an obedient daughter .
Q: Wha t di d yo u thin k o f Hamlet' s behaviou r durin g th e
scene?
OPHELIA: H e treated me very cruelly. He seems a completely changed
person. I think he may be mad.
It shoul d b e apparen t tha t thi s cross-examinatio n i n rol e fulfil s man y o f th e

functions of traditional oral and written comprehension exercises. The differenc e
lies in the fact that it is the students (with the teacher's support) who are asking
the questions , whic h ar e question s tha t hav e arise n durin g thei r ow n clos e
reading, performanc e an d discussio n o f th e text. It is a s much a n exercis e i n
understanding t o formulate question s a s to answer them. In working o n thes e
particular text extracts the students have made discoveries about the relationship
between Proctor and Elizabeth and about Hamlet and Ophelia which will inform
their reading of the whole play. We have here a microcosmic approach in which
increased familiarit y wit h a smal l sectio n o f tex t inculcate s a habi t o f clos e
textual scrutiny and raises questions which have to be answered by much wider
textual reference .
162 Veld a Harris - = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
OTHER THEATRICA L APPROACHE S
In th e lesso n describe d abov e th e mai n emphasi s i s o n th e exploratio n o f

character, motivatio n an d relationships . Othe r kind s o f theatricall y derive d
activity allow us to look at the structure and meaning of the whole play, at the
use o f metapho r an d symbolis m an d t o wor k intensivel y o n th e languag e o f
very shor t fragments o f text .
An activity known as 'stripping the text' invites students working in pairs
or small groups to search the whole text for key moments and to present thes e
as a sequenc e o f stil l tableau x (froze n photographi c images ) eac h wit h a n
accompanying phras e fro m th e text . Th e proces s o f selectio n stimulate s
discussion over what the key moments are and the presentation of the tableaux
enables us to see the whole action in an abbreviated form . In preparing a play
for production , professiona l director s ofte n sub-divid e th e actio n o f a scen e
into units. This is called 'unitin g the text' and each unit is given a summarizing
label whic h focuse s th e actors ' attentio n o n th e underlyin g meanin g o f th e
dialogue and helps to establish the rhythm of the scene. In the extract from The
Crucible discusse d abov e the units might be labelled a s shown below :
Unit A 'Elizabet h greet s Proctor suspiciously' ;
Unit B 'Procto r trie s to normalize the conversation' ;
Unit C 'Procto r contrast s th e warmth o f the earth with the coldness o f
the house'.
Other director s engag e i n 'mapping ' th e pla y text . A grap h i s draw n o f th e

action whic h show s th e moment s o f emotiona l clima x a s hig h peak s o n th e
graph whil e precedin g an d subsequen t actio n i s presente d a s line s risin g o r
falling fro m th e peaks. This is a particularly useful approac h in scenes like the
later court scene in The Crucible whic h is emotionally highly charged. Because
the scen e deal s wit h hysteri a i t i s essentia l tha t i t is no t playe d a t maximu m
fever pitc h unti l th e rea l moment s o f climax . Mille r show s hi s skil l a s a
playwright i n structurin g th e scen e lik e a piec e o f musi c wit h a powerfu l
crescendo leadin g t o a climax i n th e middl e o f th e scen e followe d b y a ne w
start which builds slowly to a second climax at the end. While the best way to
understand the structure and emotional momentum of this scene is to act it out,
the process o f analysis helps us to appreciate the playwright's craft .
It is sometimes useful particularly with plays by non-contemporary author s
to invite students to work in groups on a very short text extract using the textual
notes to render it into contemporary English. Th e extract is then performed i n
the modernize d form . Thi s i s a demanding exercis e an d o f cours e th e poeti c
and othe r qualitie s o f th e origina l ar e los t i n th e translation . Bu t i t i s ver y
helpful i n encouraging close reading of the text and reference to commentaries,
and the fact tha t the students ar e working i n groups mean s tha t they ca n hel p
one another in the quite challenging task of finding a modern equivalent . It is
much bette r a t th e performanc e stag e i f th e student s rel y o n memor y rathe r
than reading their notes.
Before th e firs t meetin g wit h a cas t th e directo r an d designe r wil l hav e

spent some time discussing set and costume design. A good designer will have
read th e pla y carefull y an d don e som e background researc h int o th e styl e o f
the period. But both director and designer will be more interested in the way in
which the stage set and costumes can be used to point the meaning of the play
and t o reinforc e th e director' s interpretation . A productio n o f Hamlet a t th e
Royal Cour t Theatre in London stresse d the fact tha t Claudius' court was ful l
of spie s by a set comprised mainl y o f doors, some of which wer e operationa l
but other s painte d o n th e stag e flat s wit h painte d courtier s listenin g behin d
them. In a brilliant Russian film of Hamlet, Opheli a is first see n being dresse d
in he r cour t costume , laye r upo n laye r o f heav y brocad e lai d o n a restrictiv e
metal frame. When she returns in the later mad scene wearing nothing but her
shift th e symbolic casting off cour t dress and manners alon g with her sanity is
visually clear. Once they are familiar wit h a text students can also be invited to
draw sketch designs for a production of the play. Thi s should be accompanie d
by a commentary which justifies their decisions by reference to the text. Colour
symbolism an d th e us e o f ligh t an d soun d t o evok e atmospher e ca n als o b e
relevant considerations . I t i s ofte n a goo d ide a t o invit e student s t o desig n a
production of a period play, like one by Shakespeare, so that it has contemporary
significance. I f a play can't be made relevant to a contemporary audienc e why
doit?
There ar e man y othe r activitie s employe d i n th e cours e o f rehearsa l t o
help actor s t o a bette r understandin g o f thei r roles . Som e involv e th e
improvisation of additional scenes. Other s encourag e th e acto r t o spea k th e
subtext o f th e scene as well as the written dialogue . An interesting varian t o n
this emerge s fro m th e theatrica l practic e o f Bertol t Brecht , th e Germa n
playwright an d theatrica l innovato r writin g i n th e firs t hal f o f th e twentiet h
century. Sinc e h e wa s concerne d t o distanc e o r 'alienate ' bot h actor s an d
audience from th e action of the play s o that they would consider more clearl y
the underlyin g socio-politica l issue s involved , h e ofte n aske d hi s actor s to
perform a scene in the third person, in 'quotation marks \ readin g th e stag e
directions while enacting them. So a short sequence from The Crucible extrac t
above would be performed a s follows :
PROCTOR: Procto r answer s wit h a gri n an d says , T mean t o pleas e
you, Elizabeth' .
ELIZABETH: Elizabet h finds it hard to reply, but says, T know it John'.
PROCTOR: Procto r gets up, goes to her, kisses her.
ELIZABETH: Sh e receive s it .
PROCTOR: Wit h a certain disappointment h e returns to the table, and
says as gently a s he can, 'Cider' .
Actors working in this way find that reading the stage directions as well as the
text make s the m thin k ver y carefull y abou t th e intentio n behin d th e line s a s
well as the tone of voice in which the lines should be delivered .
164 Veld a Harris
TEXT WOR K A S A STIMULU S FO R WRITIN G
An interesting variety of writing tasks is stimulated by practical work on play

texts. Some arise in the process o f working on a text as an aid to discussion o r
as a mean s o f recordin g ideas . Discussio n migh t b e precede d b y 'brain-
storming' i n whic h a grou p write s dow n al l it s initia l idea s o n a topi c ver y
quickly o n a larg e shee t o f paper . I n th e cours e o f grou p wor k i t migh t b e
relevant t o make lists o f information o r of questions; to write labels, tabulat e
information o r make graphs (as in the text structure analysis described above);
to write paraphrased or modernized versions of a scene. All of this is provisional
or draf t writin g no t intende d a s a finishe d produc t t o b e marked . I t i s ofte n
worth asking the students to keep an informal lo g book or journal of lessons in
which the y recor d an d consolidat e th e perception s tha t hav e emerge d fro m
discussion an d othe r activities . Arisin g fro m detaile d wor k o n character ,
motivation an d subtext , student s migh t b e aske d t o writ e a 'stream-of-
consciousness' account of a scene, fro m th e poin t o f vie w o f Elizabeth , fo r
example, i n The Crucible extract : T a m upstair s i n th e bedroo m sayin g
goodnight to the boys. I hear a noise downstairs. At last! Why is John so late?
He must have gone to Salem. Did he see Abigail there? . .. ' . More traditiona l
tasks would be to ask the students to write a character description or a detailed
account of the scene in the third person. An interesting way of assessing students'
understanding o f a play i s to ask them to write an account of the action from
the point of view of one of the secondary characters. Th e British playwright ,
Tom Stoppard, does this effectively i n his play Rosencrantz and Guildenstern
Are Dead. Horatio' s accoun t o f event s i n Elsinore o r Hale's 'Memoir s o f th e
Salem Witc h Trials ' woul d provid e interestin g way s o f summarizin g an d
commenting on the plot. Students might also be asked to write supplementary
scenes in dramatic form. Wha t actually happened i n a scene before th e actio n
of Miller's pla y start s when th e girls were conjuring spirit s in the woods an d
were interrupte d b y Parris ? Fro m a more theatrica l angle , student s coul d b e
asked to justify set and costume designs, to write the director's first address to
a cast outlining his or her view of the play, or to create a programme. Th e
latter should include biographical information abou t the playwright, historica l
notes an d relevan t backgroun d informatio n a s wel l a s th e director' s reason s
for selectin g the particular play (contemporar y relevance ) and justification o f
interpretation.
CONCLUSION
The techniques I have been describing in this chapter originate in professiona l

theatre practice . Th e prim e concer n o f th e director , designe r an d acto r i s t o
understand th e tex t full y s o tha t the y ca n interpre t i t fo r a n audienc e an d
communicate a considered meaning . It is also the concern o f teachers to lea d
their student s t o a full understandin g an d appreciatio n o f a literary text . Th e
Drama Text s as Theatre 16 5
approaches describe d abov e lift th e play from th e printed page and awaken in
the studen t a n understandin g o f th e theatrica l element s i n th e text : dramati c
action; structure ; climax ; th e us e o f space ; stag e directions ; visua l imagery ;
emphasis and inflection; emotional tone; motivation and subtext. The classroom
application of these techniques places emphasis on pair and group discussion ,
self-initiated discover y learning , clos e readin g o f th e tex t an d no t jus t th e
expression bu t th e justificatio n o f persona l opinio n supporte d b y textua l
reference. Student s ar e usuall y wel l motivate d i n wor k o f thi s kin d becaus e
they ar e workin g interactivel y toward s a common goal . Intensive wor k o n a
short sectio n o f tex t help s the m t o formulat e question s an d gai n perception s
which wil l infor m thei r readin g o f th e whol e play . They lear n t o read a pla y
text slowly wit h their aura l and visual sense s aler t and in performing extract s
they hav e a n opportunit y t o develop thei r communicatio n skills , sensitiv e t o
the way that meaning is expressed through verbal emphasis, intonational patterns
and emotional tone, and non-verbally through silence, movement, gesture and
facial expression .
Second language learners can benefit in a number of ways from a practical
approach t o pla y texts . The y hav e a n opportunit y t o engage affectively with
'real texts' i n a way whic h make s the m accessible . They ente r into an d shar e
the viewpoint o f th e dramatist an d activel y experienc e a n excellent mode l o f
spoken an d writte n English . Th e rang e o f activitie s associate d wit h thi s
methodology offers a holistic approach to language learning and allows practice
in th e fou r languag e skill s — speaking , listening , readin g an d writing .
Additionally, importance is attached to the expressive and meaningful delivery
of spoken language. Th e emphasi s o n pair an d grou p wor k an d o n discover y
learning enables students to explore ideas in a supportive and non-threatenin g
context. Thi s i s helpfu l i n confidenc e building . Repor t bac k strategie s a t th e
end o f th e lesso n provid e a mor e publi c foru m fo r performanc e an d th e
expression o f opinions . Mos t importantly , thi s i s a n approac h whic h make s
language learning enjoyable by stimulating interest, increasing motivation and
ultimately leadin g to pride in achievement .
REFERENCES
Esslin, M. 1959 . Brecht: A Choice of Evils. London : Eyre Methuen.

Hapgood, E . (ed. ) 1990 . Stanislavski: An Actor's Handbook. London : Methuen .
Jackson, R. and R. Smallwood, 1993 . Players of Shakespeare 3. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press .
Miller. A. 1957 . The Crucible. Ne w York: Viking Press.
Russell, J. 1981 . Discovering Shakespeare. London : Macmillan .
Stanislavski, C. 1950 . An Actor Prepares. London : Methuen .
19
CHAPTER
Teaching and Writing Poetry

in the Secondary School —
Bridging the Credibility Ga p
Peter Falvey
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we focus on ways in which English language majors attending

pre-service and in-service teacher education programmes can become aware
of the benefits of introducing poetry writing into the language classroom. For
the purpose of this discussion, the creation and writing of poetry (referred to as
'poetry writing') will be distinguished from the use of poems written by others
in the literature and language classroom.
Consider the following questions before reading the chapter:

1. Wha t issues of credibility do teachers face in the language classroom?
2. Wha t are the benefits of teachers or tutors demonstrating that they too are
willing to attempt the exercises that they set their students?
3. D o teachers gain by doing the creative activities they set their students?
PURPOSE
In this chapter it is claimed that writing poetry is not only a worthwhile activity
in itself, i t is also argue d tha t the teachers themselve s ca n benefit fro m th e
experience of writing poetry. This is because they can be shown that it is not
168 Pete r Falvey
only possible for them to achieve a degree of success in their own experience
of writing poetry but also to realize that their willingness to write and present
their poems will add to their credibility, and thus effectiveness, in the classroom.
The main argument in the chapter is that poetry-writing classes will suffe r
from bot h a lac k o f credibilit y an d fro m misse d opportunitie s fo r a share d
initiative between teache r and students unless it is possible for the teachers to
demonstrate that they too are prepared to write poetry an d make it accessible
to thei r students . (Tibbett s demonstrate s thi s i n Chapter 8 when h e creates a
poem spontaneousl y i n front o f the class). The same argument applie s als o to
the teache r methodolog y class/tutoria l roo m wher e i t i s likel y tha t simila r
credibility problems will arise unless teacher educators can also demonstrate a
comparable commitmen t t o writing an d presenting thei r wor k to teachers-in-
training.
In this chapter we present the poetry created by teachers-in-training. While
elaborating th e arguments above , w e also discus s th e major benefit s tha t the
teaching of poetry-writing can bring to the second language classroom and its
possible contribution t o second language acquisition .
The author is grateful t o his students for the data presented in this chapter.
The poems quoted were produced by participants attending recent and current
undergraduate and postgraduate teacher education programmes at the University
of Hong Kong. The great majority of the students involved in these programmes
are native speakers of Cantonese, attending programmes wher e they major in
the teaching of English language .
READING AN D WRITIN G POETR Y TH E BENEFITS TO SECON D

LANGUAGE LEARNIN G
It ha s been argue d elsewher e (Male y an d Duff, 1989 : 6-16; Cummings an d

Simmons, 1983 ; Chan, 1995 ) that the use of poems and the teaching of poetry
can b e advantageou s i n the second languag e classroom . A sensitivit y t o and
awareness o f language ca n be enhanced b y a study o f how poets creat e thei r
poetry.
In Chapte r 2 Margaret Falve y argue s tha t a n exposure t o the poetry o f a
second languag e ca n be of direc t benefit t o young learner s o f English . Thi s
chapter will argue that the development of the language skill s involved in the
creation o f poetr y provide s 'add-o n value ' t o the benefits tha t accru e whe n
students are given explicit exposure to the reading and comprehension of poetry.
Involvement in the processes of creating poetry not only enhances an awareness
of the second language, it can also be of direct benefit to language acquisitio n
itself, particularly the development of writing skills.
Some of these direct benefits of encouraging and helping students to write
poetry can be summarized as follows an d further elaborate d below :
Teaching and Writing Poetry in the Secondary School 16 9
• th e development of an awareness of the processes of writing in line with

modern approaches to writing exemplified by drafting, revision, rewriting,
peer review and publishing;
• th e development o f discourse skill s through a n awareness o f the use of
inference and explicitness while creating poetry;
• th e developmen t o f sensitivit y t o th e organizatio n o f text s durin g th e
construction of a poem;
• a sense of empowerment and ownership of the text.
PROCESS APPROACHES T O WRITIN G
Modern approaches to writing stress the need to draft, t o revise and to give
exposure to one's writing. Sengupta (1996) has demonstrated clearly that such
practices do not occur in the secondary language classrooms o f Hong Kong
where the usual practice is to concentrate on language accuracy, particularly
syntactic (lexico/grammatical accuracy) , to the virtual exclusion of anything
else. The creation and construction of poetry calls for the processes of drafting
and re-writing which are advocated by a process approach to the development
of writing skills in the classroom. The resistance of students to drafting which
Sengupta ha s documente d (ibid. ) disappear s whe n they ar e creating poetry.
There are two reasons for this:
• th e texts are fairly short.
• relativel y small changes to the text are capable of producing major changes
to the meaning being conveyed by the writer, thus helping the student to
realize th e advantages an d uses o f revisio n (i n its usual sens e and als o
with a sense of 're-seeing ' an d of rewriting).
The second point above is significant because when students (and teachers)
realize how much meaning can be changed by a relatively minor adjustment to
the text, the value of redrafting become s apparent. In such an exercise, it is
possible to point out the transferability o f drafting skill s from poetry texts to
the expository prose texts which are created in the composition classroom.
THE DEVELOPMEN T O F DISCOURS E SKILL S
Discourse skills can be developed by the development of an awareness of the

importance of inference and explicitness in text. Falvey (1993) has demonstrated
clearly that in the construction of 'real-world' texts (those produced by middle-
level manager s i n business an d commerce) , explicitnes s i s th e nor m whe n
original drafts o f policy document s (particularl y thos e which have financia l
and legal implications) are being revised and redrafted. Managers realize that
it i s importan t t o 'spel l out ' everythin g an d t o avoi d th e opportunitie s fo r
170 Pete r Falvey
different interpretations by readers of the finaltext. Poetry-writing, on the other

hand, often make s use of the opposite rhetorical strategy — inference, where
the reader has to work out what is meant by the writer and where, in a short
text, emotions, passions and strong feelings are exposed.
It is noteworthy that most readers expect to work harder to read and interpret
poetry. This attitude can be contrasted with the general expectations of readers
of English prose. They expect the text to be as accessible and reader-friendl y
as possible. Indeed, pros e writers ar e taught in schoo l an d colleg e to make
their texts audience-friendly .
The contras t between poetry , which i s more 'writer-indulgent ' an d less
reader-friendly, an d typical expository written texts which are expected to be
reader-friendly i s a useful one . What emerge s i s that inferenc e i s tolerate d
much more by the reader in poetry than it is in prose. During the process of
peer review and peer discussion of different draft s of poems, an awareness of
the differences an d values of inference an d explicitness in text can develop,
thus assisting students in the process of developing prose writing skills.
TEXT ORGANIZATIO N
The development of an awareness of text organization can be developed during

the process of writing and the redrafting tha t takes place willingly during the
creation of poetry. As poetry texts tend to be relatively short when students and
their teachers begin writing (unless someone embarks on a ballad or narrative
poem — which enhances an awareness of that genre and its textual organization
too), it is likely tha t 'poetr y paragraphing ' wil l be grouped aroun d a single
proposition or theme (see the examples presented below). Such a focus enhances
the development o f a sense of paragraphing an d a gradual awareness of the
macrostructure of the poem.
A SENS E OF EMPOWERMEN T AN D OWNERSHI P O F TH E TEXT
Most contemporary composition theorists (Elbow, 1973; Raimes, 1991; Zamel,

1987) discuss the importance o f empowering student s in their ow n writing.
Unfortunately, thi s does not often occu r and in Hong Kong, Sengupta's work
(ibid.) demonstrates that students consistently state that they are writing solely
for the teacher in the classroom context and for the examiner in the examination
hall — and no one else! In contrast, poetry writing, because of its experiential
and personal dimension, can allow for a sense of empowerment. It can create a
sense of ownership which is enhanced when the poems produced are allowed
to be published or presented (even if only on the wall of the classroom).
CHANGES T O TH E HON G KON G CURRICULU M — OPPORTUNITIE S

FOR CREATIV E WRITIN G
A ne w curriculu m i s currentl y bein g implemente d i n Hon g Kon g t o mee t

changing approaches to language learning and language assessment in English
(see Harri s an d Mahon , Chapte r 1) . The ne w curriculu m is , a t th e moment ,
only bein g implemente d i n th e primary school s bu t i t will , eventually, reac h
the secondar y school . On e o f th e thre e dimension s fo r Englis h i n th e ne w
curriculum, name d th e Target Oriented Curriculu m (TOC ) i s the experientia l
dimension. Attentio n t o th e thre e dimensions : cognitive , interpersona l an d
experiential i s give n s o tha t th e fou r skill s ca n b e se t withi n a n appropriat e
functional context . Within the experiential dimensio n is a target which argue s
for students , a t a late r stag e o f secondar y educatio n (Form s 4 an d 5 ) t o b e
known a s Ke y Stag e 4, t o be abl e t o expres s themselve s throug h poetr y an d
drama. Thus , th e languag e curriculu m scen e i n Hon g Kon g i s clearl y an d
explicitly se t fo r thes e task s t o be attempted . Th e nee d fo r opportunitie s fo r
students t o b e abl e t o construct/creat e poetr y i s explicitl y state d i n th e
curriculum.
The followin g section s dea l wit h ho w teacher s ca n b e initiate d int o thi s
process themselves even though they may have had no previous experience to
such facets o f English in their previous English language learning lives.
PERSUADING TEACHER S (AN D THEI R STUDENTS ) T O WRIT E POETR Y

— ISSUE S AND PROBLEM S
The means by which both teachers and their students can be persuaded to create
poetry wit h th e concomitan t benefit s describe d abov e res t mainl y o n th e
persuasive power s an d th e strategie s use d b y thei r tutors . Foremos t amon g
these is the issue of credibility. The tutor (whether it be the teacher educator or
the teacher herself) must be prepared to expose herself to her students by writing
along with them — by showin g that she too goes through the same processe s
of creation .
Working wit h Undergraduate s
A variet y o f technique s ca n b e used , bu t on e simpl e on e t o begi n wit h i s t o

follow th e letter s o f a person' s nam e a s th e firs t lette r o f ever y lin e — a n
acrostic poem. The two examples given below come from th e classroom o f a
colleague, Bo b Adamson, workin g wit h B. Ed. student s (20-year-olds ) a t the
University o f Hong Kong. These are their first attempts .
172 Pete r Falve y
Charming
Handy
Important
Responsible
Sensible Do what you want to do
Tidy Or you won't fee l happ y
Imaginative Remember, howeve r that you should d o
Nice Although you won't b e willing to
Excellent
CHRISTINE: That' s me!
These student s ar e give n th e opportunit y t o publis h i n th e magazin e SPACE

SHUTTLE. Subsequently , with Jenny Tyrrell (see her discussion of 'bi g books'
in Chapte r 3) , the y hav e als o produce d 'Bi g Books ' whic h ar e moving ,
impressive an d very useful teachin g tools.
Working wit h Postgraduat e Teacher s
Postgraduates ar e older , mor e experience d an d mor e matur e tha n

undergraduates. Their experiences of the world are wider and they have mixed
with adult s more . Student s attendin g th e Universit y o f Hon g Kon g fo r th e
Postgraduate Certificat e o f Educatio n are , o n th e whole , part-tim e student s
who hav e alread y bee n teachin g fo r on e o r tw o years . This greate r dept h o f
experience is apparent in the topics dealt with in the poems presented below .
The examples give n below aros e from a discussion abou t writing poetry ,
topics that would create interest and the uses of poetry writing in the language
classroom. Thi s discussio n too k plac e afte r thre e previous session s i n whic h
approaches to the use of poetry in the lower secondary forms had been discussed.
After initia l hesitation and fear, student s went away and produced a first draft .
A crucial factor in persuading them to do so was that the tutor promised that he
too would write the first draft of a poem based on the topic that had emerged in
the discussion . Afte r eac h firs t draf t wa s produced , i t wa s rea d alou d an d
supportive, enquiring comments were given by peers, initially, and subsequently
by the tutor.
What emerge d wa s a n enjoyable , fear-fre e discussio n sessio n wher e th e
participants realize d tha t they wer e the 'knowers ' i n the interaction, an d tha t
what the y ha d t o sa y wa s th e mos t importan t inpu t int o th e discussion . Th e
theme was family members. Mothers were written about most frequently. Othe r
poems wer e about a father, a wife, a grandmother an d a baby. What was sai d
was wholly valid for that person. The tutor could not say (as is often sai d in the
language classroom ) 'bu t that' s wrong! ' becaus e onl y th e write r coul d sa y
whether wha t wa s bein g sai d wa s tru e o r not . The subsequen t redraft s owe d
much to the discussion tha t took place.
Students commented that the willingness of the tutor to produce a poem in
the same time-frame tha t they had been given and the additional willingness to
revise his poem affecte d thei r attitude. They state d tha t they then felt tha t th e
exercise was a genuine one.
As ca n b e see n below , often , quit e smal l change s t o th e tex t produce d
major change s i n meaning . Commentar y o n th e poetry an d th e change s tha t
are made to them will be interspersed wit h the examples being shown .
The first poe m i s th e tutor's . H e i s writin g abou t hi s eighty-six-year-ol d
mother afte r sh e had phone d hi m t o sa y tha t i t had bee n snowin g wher e sh e
lived:
MUM (Draf t 1 )
There's six inches of sno w lying around
But I took your dad's umbrella stick
And went shoppin g
It's not going to get me down!
Thus she spoke on the telephone yesterda y
Indomitable, quietly fierce, fiercel y independen t an d prou d

Some o f the adjective s t o set in front o f a noun
To produce, excep t fo r the last one, an unusual collocation :
Mum
Her fire forge d m e

Her pride forced m e
Her independence cocoone d m e
Her strengt h reinforced m e
I am what she made of m e
But where's MY independence?
Draft 2 places th e 'me ' o f lin e 4 in capitals an d bold typefac e t o produce th e

emphatic intonatio n o n th e mothe r o n th e telephone . I t reject s th e languag e
references to adjectives an d collocation as being too 'pretentious ' an d focuse d
on the mother's qualities being described. The other major change occurs when
changes ar e made to the former penultimat e line . It now become s a two-lin e
stanza to provide a climax to the final lin e — a cry from th e heart!
174 Pete r Falve y
MUM (Draf t 2 )
There's six inches of snow lying around
But I took your dad's umbrella stick
And went shoppin g
It's not going to get ME down!
Thus she spoke on the telephone yesterda y
Indomitable, quietly fierce, fiercel y independen t

Her fir e forged m e
Her pride forced m e
Her independenc e cocoone d m e
Her strengt h reinforce d m e
I am what she is made of

I am what she made of m e
So where's M Y independence?
(Peter Falvey)
The next two drafts sho w similar attempts to improve the texture of the poems
although the first one creates a more substantial change with a move to rhyme
and a most amusing twist in the tail as the writer writes about a former boyfriend .
The reader may be left t o judge which version is preferable .
Past To o Perfec t Past To o Perfec t

(Draft 1 ) (Draft 2 )
Had a boyfriend onc e Had a boyfriend once .

The kind any woman coul d brag about . Never thought mal e company could be such fun .
How many men could gourmet wine and din e Wining and dining he honed to an art .
Let alone talk so well about art . Talent and taste that'd gon e straight to my heart.
Not fo mention pian o renderings of Debussy ? Even his music was brighter in tune
All this perfection ha d just one flaw . With piano renderings of Clai r de Lune.
Passion h e had plent y of Sadly this passion ha d onl y one flaw ,
For well muscled me n Had I been a well-muscled man ,
But not for me . I would have been what he'd bee n lookin g for .
(Jennie Hsing Mak)
Teaching an d Writing Poetr y i n the Secondar y Schoo l 17 5
Granman (Draf t 1 )
The phone call, the numbness, the disbelief,
the tears, the 'goodbye '
Months may pass relentlessly but the memories stay fresh .
Do you know how much you are missed ?

Your laugh, your jokes, your love — you.
Memories just aren't enough , the y can only replay the past .
I want more, I want tomorrow ,

yet without Granman , tomorro w seem s very empty.
Granman (Draf t 2 )
The phone call , the numbness, the disbelief, the tears,
a myria d o f emotions leading to the final 'goodbye' .
Months pass relentlessly but the memories remain clear .
Do you know how much you are missed?

Your laugh, your jokes, your love — you.
Memories just aren't enough , the y can only replay the past .
I want more, I want tomorrow ,

yet without you, tomorrow seems very empty.
(Gary Harfitt )
In the redraft, tw o small but significant change s have occurred. In the last line,
the change from the third person use of 'Granman' in draft 1 to the more intimate
personalized use of 'you ' i n draft 2, demonstrates the engagement of the writer
with his text and his subject .
The two final poem s presented here both show a n engagement with thei r
topic which is strong and loving. In the first, untitled poem, the writer wonders
at the life insid e her. This poem becomes mor e explicit as the second draf t i s
expanded t o describe more of the writer's feelings abou t her baby. This is the
result o f tw o processe s — re-draftin g an d th e passag e o f tim e a s th e bab y
grows inside the mother and the mother begins to relate more to and understand
more abou t he r baby . The reader wil l note that th e baby, in the secon d draft ,
has been identified a s a boy. In the second set of drafts 'M y Father is mean', a
complicated relationship is evoked. The drafts wrestle with the strong emotion
that exists between a father an d his son and how best to express this love/hate
relationship. This writer wishes to remain anonymous .
176 Pete r Falve y
Untitled (Draf t 1 )
I cannot se e you but begin to know you.
I imagine holding your hand, walkin g
along garden path s and green mazes, talking
of your dreams, answering your questions.
You are full o f curiosity , energy , laughter ,
and growing and bringing joy.
I know you and already love you.
Untitled (Draf t 2 )
You flutter, gently , gentle like a tiny butterfl y
I feel your life joining mine , and growing, growin g
everyday. A lovely baby boy.
I imagine holding your hand, walking
along garden path s and green mazes , talking
of your dreams, answering your questions.
You are full o f curiosity, energy, laughter .
Bringing joy, lov e and happiness into my life.
I know your heart bea t and fee l your strength .
I have never felt such passion .
These two drafts char t a young mother-to-be's feeling s mos t evocatively. Th e

last line of the second draft, whe n contrasted with the last line of the first draf t
clearly show s the growth of love and emotion. They ar e contrasted below :
Draft 1 : I know you an d already love you.

Draft 2 : I have never felt suc h passion.
These tw o draft s illustrat e wel l th e power o f poetr y — it s abilit y t o captur e

emotion and feeling, and the ability to encapsulate powerful feeling s i n a short
text. Students can enjoy thi s feeling o f power over their words — a power that
remains long after tedious compositions have been written and discarded. These
students hold on to their poems. They do not throw them away, nor do 1.1 never
throw away my former students ' poems although I always throw away studen t
assignments writte n more than two years ago!
We now com e t o two drafts o f a poem demonstratin g ra w emotion s — a
mixture of love and resentment. Notice the changes that occur from on e draf t
to another. The author of this poem will remain anonymous .
My Fathe r i s Mea n My Fathe r i s Mea n

(Draft 1 ) (Draft 2 )
My father i s mean My Father i s mean

And gets so hot And gets so ho t
When there's nothin g When there's nothin g
To laugh abou t To laugh abou t
His big brown eye s His big brown eye s
Are daunting. Hi s voice You can't endur e
Is thunder and his His thundering voic e
Words are cutting, forge d Rapes you with words
From a furnace o f frustratio n Forged from a furnac e
My father i s an executioner , Hated an d loved ,
Courageous, caustic , hars h My father bring s out
And loved most by his son Your worst and bes t
The second draft is tighter in its construction than the first. It demonstrates that
in poetry, second drafts are often NOT more explicit than first drafts. The process
of tightenin g u p th e first draf t i s common t o poetry. A noteworthy featur e o f
this poem is the change which occurs to the line 'Hi s voice is thunder an d his
words are cutting', which becomes 'His thundering voice rapes you with words'.
Here the poem moves from a powerful bu t prosaic description to a much more
shocking, powerful an d effective metaphor which encapsulates well the brutality
and the vicious impact and penetration of the destructive words from fathe r t o
son.
CONCLUSION
Bridging th e credibility ga p is one of the tasks that teachers regularly hav e to

face, whether it is in the contrast between their own ordered lives and the ofte n
wider experienc e o f th e seamier , crime-linke d sid e o f lif e tha t estate-base d
teenagers have to endure or the frustration fel t by young students who question
the validity of some of the educational experiences with which they are faced .
The effor t t o sho w a willingness t o replicate th e tasks whic h th e teache r
asks her students to do can help to bridge the credibility gap. Indeed, it is ofte n
more than a bridge. It can also be viewed as an impetus for tasks and activities
which greatl y assist and complement all the other work that takes place in the
second language classroom .
178 Pete r Falve y
REFERENCES
Chan, P . 1995 . Towards an Interface between Language and Literature. Unpublishe d

Ph.D. thesis. Nottingham: Universit y o f Nottingham .
Cummings, M. and R. Simmons. 1983 . The Language of Literature. Oxford : Pergamon .
Elbow, P. 1973 . Writing without Teachers. NY: Oxford Universit y Press .
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Maley, A. an d A . Duff . 1989 . The Inward Ear: Poetry in the Language Classroom.
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Raimes, A. 1991 . Out o f th e woods : emergin g tradition s i n th e teachin g o f writing .
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Sengupta, S. 1996 . A Study of the Influences of Systematic Teaching of Revision on L2
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Conclusion
One theme appears constantly throughout this book. It is that in the English
language classroom, whether it be at primary, secondary or tertiary levels, high
interest and positive motivation can occur through active learning when literary
texts, literary techniques and literariness become regular features of the class.
There is an increasing trend, worldwide, to incorporate both literature and
literary technique s int o th e English languag e classroom . Sinc e Hon g Kon g
already possesses a forward lookin g Form 5 and Form 7 A/S Level syllabus,
there is no reason why the good work which often occurs at the end of students'
school lives should not take place much earlier, from early in primary school.
There is an opportunity fo r thi s to occur relatively soo n in Hong Kong
because of the introduction of the TOC. It is within the context of the TOC that
a number of contributors have mentioned the experiential dimension which is
part of the English Language TOC. Once TOC is implemented throughout the
primary and secondary school system, it will be necessary for textbook writers
and teacher s t o creat e materials , activitie s an d assessmen t task s fo r thi s
dimension. The texts, techniques an d task s mentioned throughou t th e book
can provide easily accessible resources for this dimension which encourages
the student to experience the feelings and emotions which the typical classroom
text does not stimulate or encourage. Indeed, many of the practices described
here allo w th e studen t t o no t onl y acces s bu t als o t o expres s feeling s an d
emotions throug h literary genre s suc h a s narrative, creativ e writing, poetry,
the short story and drama.
180 Conclusio n
In virtually every chapter, contributors make a number of recurring points:

• literar y text s are authentic texts written to be read an d enjoyed ;
• literar y texts are enjoyable for the second language learner if they are chosen
with care;
• th e motivating features of literary texts and techniques can greatly enhance
the work of the language classroom ;
• typica l student s ar e capable of being creative ;
•a lively, highly motivated class, enjoying their language learning are likely
to be abl e to use Englis h bette r tha n th e class whic h consist s o f student s
who are unmotivated an d bored ;
• literar y text s allo w student s t o access an d express emotion s an d feeling s
which fi t i n wit h th e experientia l dimensio n o f th e Targe t Oriente d
Curriculum;
• wha t the contributors are describing have taken place with ordinary students
in ordinary classroom s in Hong Kong and Macau ;
• wha t the y ar e describin g i s no t difficul t t o carr y ou t i f a teache r ha s
enthusiasm.
It shoul d b e note d tha t Falve y (1996) , in talkin g abou t th e deart h o f Englis h

teachers i n Hon g Kon g wh o ar e bot h subjec t an d professionall y qualified ,
discusses the need for special treatment for teachers of English. This is because
so many are not capable of exploiting the many appropriate texts and techniques
which ar e readily availabl e to them.
Furthermore, it is quite clear from preliminary research work on language
benchmarks fo r teacher s (Conia m an d Falvey, 1996 ) that many teacher s wh o
possess neither content knowledge nor professional training in teaching English
are totall y 'book-bound ' i n thei r struggl e t o surviv e i n th e Englis h languag e
classroom. In order to survive, they slavishly follo w th e textbook, no t alway s
understanding th e pedagogic points which it promotes. It is impossible to ask
teachers suc h a s those describe d her e to use literary texts , to work creativel y
with students , t o hav e th e confidenc e t o tel l stories , t o writ e poems , t o us e
short stories instead o f textbook texts.
Does thi s mean tha t the approache s advocate d her e must be abandoned ?
The answer is an emphatic 'no!' . Hope is at hand. Once language benchmark s
are implemented, we will have a teaching force whose English language ability
will be benchmarked, whos e subjec t conten t knowledge/languag e awarenes s
will be benchmarked an d who will all have professional training . Once thes e
conditions ar e met , th e goo d wor k whic h i s alread y takin g place s i n a larg e
number o f Hon g Kon g classe s ca n b e sprea d t o othe r classroom s wit h othe r
teachers. I t wil l the n b e possibl e t o se e th e type s o f text s an d technique s
advocated her e used o n a regular and systematic basis.
The hope for th e future o f English language teaching in Hong Kong rests
on th e implementatio n o f a numbe r o f initiative s whic h ar e currentl y bein g
promoted. They are :
Conclusion 18 1
• th e implementation o f TOC principles,

• th e establishmen t o f languag e benchmark s fo r teacher s o f Englis h a t al l
levels,
• th e decision that all teachers will be professionally qualifie d b y 2004.
Once these three factors ar e fully implemented , it will be possible for the ideas
presented in this book to become reality for the majority o f English teachers in
Hong Kong .
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Index
A D
activity(ies) 1 , 3,4 , 5 , 8,9,11-14,19 , discussion 10 , 24, 29, 47, 54, 74, 98,
22, 23, 25-27, 30-33, 37, 39, 43, 49, 101, 103 , 105,108,113,139, 145 ,
65, 66, 70, 71, 73, 78, 93-96, 98, 151, 152 , 161, 162, 164, 165, 167,
104, 107, 108, 111, 117-121, 123- 170, 172, 173, 190, 193, 194, 197
132, 138, 140-142, 144 , 149-152, drama 3 , 56, 69, 7, 112, 117-133, 149-
155, 162-165 , 167, 177, 179, 185, 151, 164 , 165, 171, 179, 184, 185,
187,190, 19 3 187,190-193, 196 , 197
analysis 14,76,99 , 108 , 109, 111, 113 ,
114, 120, 139, 162, 164, 184 , 187- E
189, 192 , 196 education 2 , 4, 7, 9, 25, 31, 67, 73, 92,
98, 100 , 105, 106, 125, 127, 132,
C 133, 135 , 136, 138, 139, 143, 145 ,
coherence 17 , 145, 186, 194 149, 150, 152, 167, 168, 171, 172 ,
cohesion 1 7 177, 183-190, 192-19 7
communicative 2 , 49, 67, 87, 98, 100. examinations 1 , 135, 145, 194
101, 122 , 124, 138
context 10,20,29-31,35-37,39,42 , G
46, 66, 67, 74, 76, 77, 81, 86, 109- games 4,21,23,26,31-33,35,46,49 ,
111,124, 130,135,136,138,139 , 104,118,131,133, 19 3
141, 150-153 , 165, 170, 171, 179, grammar 3 , 4, 12, 17, 56, 100. 104, 108,
188. 190, 191 119,120,122,132,136,139,145,
curriculum 1 , 10, 26, 27, 29, 30, 49, 53, 183, 184, 191
67, 71, 74, 78, 81, 87, 92, 123, 133 , group activities 1 1
145,171,180,184,186,187,190, group work 164 , 165
193, 195 , 196
200 Inde x
level 3 , 5, 9, 10 , 15, 20, 23, 26, 27 , 29 , second languag e 5 , 9, 10 , 31, 52, 54, 58,
30, 31, 44, 66-68, 87, 88, 97, 107, 65,67,78,87,92,105, 110,123 ,
111,119,122,124-129,135,136, 144, 149-151, 165, 168, 177, 180,
138-140, 144 , 145, 169, 179, 181, 184, 193 , 194
185,189,191 selecting 2,14,47,111,120,16 4
listening 10 , 11, 38, 43, 48, 65, 68, 69, simulation 108 , 126
71,73,81,112,113,129,163,165, stories 2 , 3, 4, 7, 8, 20, 22, 25, 52-54,
188 56, 65-67, 69-71, 73, 74, 78, 80, 81,
literature 1 , 4, 7, 9, 10 , 20, 25, 27, 29, 89, 135 , 136, 138-140, 143-145 ,
52, 66, 73, 74, 78, 81, 85, 87, 88, 91, 180, 183-185, 187 , 188, 191-193,
92,105,107,114,149, 152 , 167, 196, 197
178,179, 183-19 8 structure 2 , 3, 13-15, 18 , 20, 24, 54, 56,
68, 74, 76, 77, 81, 88-90, 94-98,
M 101,108,109, 112,135,136 , 138 -
materials 3 , 11, 23, 29, 130 , 179 140, 151 , 162, 164, 165 , 188, 196
motivation 2 , 10 , 24, 25, 29, 30-33, 37,
43, 44, 53, 65, 76, 78, 96, 103 , 119,
125, 126 , 149-151 , 160, 162 , 164, tasks 2-4 , 12 , 18, 20, 22, 24, 25, 27, 30,
165, 17 9 32,51,81,87, 94, 98, 100, 105, 107,
108, 124 , 142-•145, 149 , 164, 171,
177, 179 , 197
poetry 1 , 3, 29, 86, 92-100, 102-106 , television 2 , 7, 8, 73,74,81
167-173, 176-179 , 183-186 , 188 - texts 1-5 , 14 , 15, 18-20,27,35,36,39,
197 46,48,49,51, 52, 54, 57, 58, 73, 74,
pre-reading 9 , 10 , 51, 65, 74, 85, 93, 76,85-89,91, 108-110,112,119,
107,117, 135 , 149,16 7 122, 124, 135, 136, 139 , 141, 143-
prediction 77 , 128 , 138 145, 149 , 151, 152, 164 , 165 , 169,
170, 179 , 180, 186-188, 190 , 191,
195
reader 4 , 7, 52, 53, 55-57, 74-78, 86,
87, 89, 100, 104 , 105, 108, 110, 112,
130, 136 , 138-140 , 143 , 144, 150, vocabulary 1 , 2, 11, 18, 20, 26, 36, 39,
170, 174 , 175, 185-191, 194, 198 40, 42, 44, 46, 66-69, 74, 76-78, 81,
reading 2 , 4, 5, 8-11, 14 , 20, 24, 25, 27, 94, 96, 98, 102, 104, 108, 110, 136,
30, 51-54, 57, 65, 66, 68, 70, 71, 73, 140
74, 76-78, 85-87, 91-93, 98, 103,
104,107, 109,114,117,128,130 , W
135, 138 , 139, 143-145, 149-152 , writing 2 , 4, 7, 9-15, 18-20 , 22, 23-27,
160-163, 165 , 167, 168, 183-19 8 52, 58, 66, 70, 71, 77, 80, 93-100,
rhymes 1,4,7,29,33,35-37,39,45 - 102-105,112,114,119,120,128,
48,71,74,79,90,96,194 133, 144, 149 , 152, 163-165, 167 -
role play 48 , 120, 122, 123, 127, 129, 173, 178 , 179, 183, 186, 189 , 191-
130 197

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Learning Language Through Literature A Sourcebook For Teachers of English in Hong Kong (Peter Falvey Peter Kennedy)

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Learning Language

EDITED B Y PETE R FALVE Y AN D PETE R KENNED Y

Hong Kon g Universit y Pres s

© Hong Kong University Press 199 7

ISBN 962 209 434 1

All rights reserved. No portion of this publication ma y

Secure On-line Orderin g

Printed in Hong Kong by Nordica Printing Co. Ltd.

SECTION I Introductio n to the Primary Sectio n

CHAPTER 1 Writin g an d the Use of Literature in the English 9

CHAPTER 2 Vers e and Worse — Poetry an d Rhyme in the EFL 2 9

CHAPTER 3 Pictur e Books and Fantasy Texts 5 1

CHAPTER 4 Th e Place of Story-telling in Language Teaching 6 5

CHAPTER 5 Th e Use of Children's Literature in the English 73

SECTION I I Introductio n to the Secondary Sectio n 83

CHAPTER 6 Makin g Textbook Languag e More Literar y 85

CHAPTER 7 Poetr y Writing and Language Learnin g 93

CHAPTER 8 Usin g Song s in the English Language Classroo m 107

CHAPTER 9 Drama in the Classroo m 111

CHAPTER 1 0 Usin g Storie s in the Language Classroom at Senio r 135

SECTION II I Introductio n t o the Tertiary Section 14 7

CHAPTER 1 1 Dram a Texts as Theatre — Participatory Activities 14 9

CHAPTER 1 2 Teachin g and Writing Poetry in the Secondar y 167

FURTHER READIN G 183

Philip Chan Kam Wing Lecturer , Schoo l of Educatio n

Margaret Falve y Associat e Professor .

Peter Falve y Senior Lecturer, Faculty o f Educatio n

John Harri s (formerly) Associate Professo r

Velda Harris Lecturer, English Departmen t

Peter Kenned y Lecturer (Englis h Studies )

Erica Lain e Special Projects Unit Manage r

Madeleine Leun g Senior Inspector, Curriculu m Developmen t Uni t

Tony Maho n Lecturer in Englis h

Dino Mahone y Associate Professor, Departmen t o f Englis h

Mike Murph y Lecturer in English

Dick Tibbett s Lecturer in English

Jenny Tyrrel l Lecturer in English

The editors are grateful t o the following fo r permission to reproduce copyright

WHY US E LITERAR Y TEXT S AS A RESOURC E I N TH E HON G KON G

The 1980 s saw a preoccupation with technique i n English Language Teaching

In literary texts, language is often ther e to be looked at as well as through (i t is

Classroom Task s and Activitie s

harnessed. He demonstrates that creativity need not be achieved at the expense

Learning a languag e entail s mor e tha n jus t makin g gramma r deposit s i n a

At al l levels , th e 'affectiv e response ' t o literar y text s lead s t o greate r

Readers wil l not e th e regular us e o f th e terms LI , L2 , ESL, EFL , TEFL an d

The firs t sectio n contain s fiv e chapters , al l focusin g o n th e issu e o f ho w

Writing and the Us e of Literatur e

In this chapter, modern approaches to the teaching and development of writing

Before readin g thi s chapter , as k yoursel f th e followin g question s an d tr y t o

Writing i s th e creatio n o f meanin g i n visua l language . A t bes t i t i s a

positions fo r failin g t o d o wha t i s perceive d a s thei r duty ; an d pupil s fee l

These challenging points ar e based on an excellent paper by Williams (1991 )

It is commonplace currently in discussions of writing to say that it is a process.

These stages, however, should never be seen as an inflexible se t of procedures.

Stage 1 Pre-writin g o r Assembling Idea s

This stage might include:

Stage 3 Revisin g and Editin g

this wa y student s ca n receiv e usefu l an d individua l feedback . Teacher s ar e

This is an important part of developing positive attitudes to writing. The end-

1. Man y o f th e suggeste d activitie s ar e bette r don e b y group s o r pair s o f

Modelling i s a teaching strateg y that can be used t o introduce childre n t o th e

Figure 1 Th e modelling process

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