MODULE-4

BJT Applications, Feedback Amplifiers and Oscillators

• Bipolar Junction Transistor is a 3-terminal device.

✓ Base

✓ Emitter

✓ Collector

• But in the circuit connections we need four terminals, two terminals for input and
another two terminals for output.

• To overcome these problems we use one terminal as common for both input and
output actions.

Transistor Regions

Common Base Configuration

➢ In this configuration we use base as common terminal for both input and output
signals.

➢ Here the input is applied between the base and emitter terminals and the
corresponding output signal is taken between the base and collector terminals with the
base terminal grounded.

➢ Input parameters are VEB and IE and

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BJT Applications, Feedback Amplifiers and Oscillators

➢ Output parameters are VCB and IC.

➢ The input current flowing into the emitter terminal must be higher than the base
current and collector current to operate the transistor, therefore the output collector
current is less than the input emitter current.

➢ USES:

➢ Used in single stage amplifier circuits, such as microphone pre amplifier or

radio frequency amplifiers because of their high frequency response.

Common Collector Configuration:

➢ In this configuration we use collector terminal as common for both input and output
signals. This configuration is also known as emitter follower configuration because
the emitter voltage follows the base voltage.

➢ The input signal is applied between the base-collector region and the output is taken
from the emitter-collector region.

➢ Input parameters are VBC and IB and the output parameters are VEC and IE.

➢ The input and output signals are in phase.

➢ Uses:

✓ Used as a buffer.
✓ These configurations are widely used in impedance matching applications
because of their high input impedance.

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BJT Applications, Feedback Amplifiers and Oscillators

Common Emitter Configuration:

➢ In this configuration we use emitter as common terminal for both input and output.

➢ Here the input is applied between base-emitter region and the output is taken between
collector and emitter terminals.

➢ The input parameters are VBE and IB and

➢ The output parameters are VCE and IC.

➢ This type of configuration is mostly used in the applications of transistor based

amplifiers.

➢ In this configuration the emitter current is equal to the sum of small base current and
the large collector current. i.e. IE=IC+IB.

➢ The output signal has a phase shift of 180 deg i.e.,(both the input and output are
inverse to each other )

FORMULAS:

➢ Current gain (α) = IC/IE

➢ Current gain (β) = IC / IB

➢ Collector current IC =α IE = β IB

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BJT Applications, Feedback Amplifiers and Oscillators

BJT as an amplifier:

➢ Consider npn transistor in CE configuration along with input as shown in above fig.

➢ A transistor raises the strength of a weak input signal and thus acts as an amplifier.

➢ The signal to be amplified is applied between emitter and base, then the output is
taken across the load resistor(RL) connected in collector circuit.

➢ Transistor in active region act as amplifier.

➢ Transitor is biased (VBB ,VCE ) and input a.c signal Vi.

➢ Input circuit has low resistance, a small change in input signal voltage causes a large
change in the base current.

➢ As change in base current inturn causing the same change in collector current(IC
=βIB)

➢ The collector current flowing through a high load resistance RC produces a large
voltage across it.

➢ Hence by applying weak signal at input circuit appears in the amplified form at the
output.

➢ The ac base voltage can be given by,

Vb=Ie re‘

Since IB is negligible we can consider IC is approximately equal to IB

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BJT Applications, Feedback Amplifiers and Oscillators

Transistor as a switch:

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BJT Applications, Feedback Amplifiers and Oscillators

Case i: Input and base are grounded(0V)

VBE<0.7V. Base-emitter junction is reverse biased and base-collector junction is

reverse biased. Transistor is fully OFF(Cut-off region).No collector current
flows(IC=0) through transistor hence VOUT = VCE= VCC=Logic 1(for digital circuits).
Transistor operation as an open switch

Case ii: Input and base are connected to VCC

VBE>0.7V. Base-emitter junction is forward biased and base-collector junction is

reverse biased. Transistor is fully ON(Saturation region).Maximum collector current
flows(IC= VCC/RL) through transistor hence VOUT = VCE=Logic 0(for digital circuits).
Transistor operation as an closed switch

Transistor to switch ON/OFF the LED:

Based on the voltage applied at the base terminal of a transistor switching operation is
performed. When a sufficient voltage (Vin > 0.7 V) is applied between the base and emitter,
collector to emitter voltage is approximately equal to 0. Therefore, the transistor acts as a
short circuit. The collector current Vcc/Rc flows through the transistor.

Similarly, when no voltage or zero voltage is applied at the input, transistor operates in cutoff
region and acts as an open circuit. In this type of switching connection, load (here LED lamp)
is connected to the switching output with a reference point. Thus, when the transistor is
switched ON, current will flow from source to ground through the load.

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BJT Applications, Feedback Amplifiers and Oscillators

Transistor to switch ON/OFF a Lamp in a Power Circuit using a Relay:

It is possible to control the relay operation using a transistor. With a small circuit
arrangement of a transistor able to energise the coil of the relay so that the external bulb
connected to it is controlled. The input applied at the base causes to drive the transistor into
saturation region, which further results the circuit becomes short circuit. So the relay coil gets
energised and relay contacts get operated. Inorder to avoid damaging to the circuit we used
diode.

Determine the voltage gain and AC output voltage for the circuit. Consider value of
re‘=50ohm,Rc=2Kohm.

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BJT Applications, Feedback Amplifiers and Oscillators

FEEDBACK CONCEPT:

Feedback Systems process signals and as such are signal processors. Simple analogue
feedback control circuits can be constructed using individual or discrete components, such as
transistors, resistors and capacitors, etc, or by using microprocessor-based and integrated
circuits (IC’s) to form more complex digital feedback systems.

The feedback connection is as shown in above figure. The input signal Vs is applied
to a mixer network, where it is combined with a feedback signal Vf. Some part of output
voltage Vo is sampled and applied to feedback network. Feedback network design depend on
application whether to increase or decrease the gain. Then the input voltage(Vi) to amplifier
is difference of Vf and Vs .

➢ Negative feedback: The feedback signal is opposite polarity (out of phase) to the
input signal.
➢ Positive feedback: The feedback signal is in-phase with the input signal.

Negative feedback used to decrease gain and positive feedback used to increase gain.

Feedback Connection Types:

➢ Based on the input quantity being amplified, and on the desired output condition, the
input and output variables can be modelled as either a voltage or a current. As a result,
there are four basic classifications of single-loop feedback system in which the output
signal is fed back to the input and these are:
➢ Voltage-Series Feedback System

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BJT Applications, Feedback Amplifiers and Oscillators

For the Voltage-series connection, the configuration is defined as the output voltage, Vo to
the input voltage, Vi. Most inverting and non-inverting operational amplifier circuits operate
with series-shunt feedback producing what is known as a “voltage amplifier”. As a voltage
amplifier the ideal input resistance, Rin is very large, and the ideal output resistance, Rout is
very small.
Then the “Voltage-series connection” works as a true voltage amplifier as the input signal is a
voltage and the output signal is a voltage, so the transfer gain is given as: Av = Vout ÷ Vin.
Note that this quantity is dimensionless as its units are volts/volts.

Current shunt Feedback System:

For the current-shunt connection, the configuration is defined as the output current, IO to the
input current, Ii. In the shunt-series feedback configuration the signal fed back is in parallel
with the input signal and as such its the currents, not the voltages that add.
This parallel shunt feedback connection will not normally affect the voltage gain of the
system, since for a voltage output a voltage input is required. Also, the series connection at
the output increases output resistance, Rout while the shunt connection at the input decreases
the input resistance, Rin.

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BJT Applications, Feedback Amplifiers and Oscillators

Then the “shunt-series feedback configuration” works as a true current amplifier as the input
signal is a current and the output signal is a current, so the transfer gain is given as: Ai = IO
÷ Ii. Note that this quantity is dimensionless as its units are amperes/amperes.

Current-Series Feedback System:

For the current-series connection, the configuration is defined as the output current, IO to the
input voltage, Vi. Because the output current, IO of the series connection is fed back as a
voltage, this increases both the input and output impedances of the system. Therefore, the
circuit works best as a transconductance amplifier with the ideal input resistance, Rin being
very large, and the ideal output resistance, Rout is also very large.
Then the “series-series feedback configuration” functions as transconductance type amplifier
system as the input signal is a voltage and the output signal is a current. then for a series-
series feedback circuit the transfer gain is given as: Gm = IO ÷ Vi.

Voltage-Shunt Feedback System:

For the voltage-shunt connection, the configuration is defined as the output voltage, Vo to the
input current, Ii. As the output voltage is fed back as a current to a current-driven input port,
the shunt connections at both the input and output terminals reduce the input and output

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BJT Applications, Feedback Amplifiers and Oscillators

impedance. therefore the system works best as a transresistance system with the ideal input
resistance, Rin being very small, and the ideal output resistance, Rout also being very small.
Then the shunt voltage configuration works as transresistance type voltage amplifier as the
input signal is a current and the output signal is a voltage, so the transfer gain is given
as: Rm = Vo ÷ Ii

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BJT Applications, Feedback Amplifiers and Oscillators

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BJT Applications, Feedback Amplifiers and Oscillators

Oscillators:

An oscillator provides a source of repetitive A.C. signal across its output terminals without
needing any input (except a D.C. supply). The signal generated by the oscillator is usually
of constant amplitude.

The wave shape and amplitude are determined by the design of the oscillator circuit and
choice of component values.

The frequency of the output wave may be fixed or variable, depending on the oscillator
design.

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BJT Applications, Feedback Amplifiers and Oscillators

Barkhausen criterion:

Conditions which are required to be satisfied to operate the circuit as an oscillator are called
as “Barkhausen criterion” for sustained oscillations.
The Barkhausen criteria should be satisfied by an amplifier with positive feedback to ensure
the sustained oscillations.
For an oscillation circuit, there is no input signal “Vs”, hence the feedback signal Vf itself
should be sufficient to maintain the oscillations.
The Barkhausen criterion states that:
• The loop gain is equal to unity in absolute magnitude, that is, | β A | = 1 and
• The phase shift around the loop is zero or an integer multiple of 2π: ∠ β A = 2 π n, n ∈ 0, 1,
2,….
The product β A is called as the “loop gain”.
When | β A | >1

When| β A | =1

When | β A | <1

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BJT Applications, Feedback Amplifiers and Oscillators

Phase-shift Oscillator Circuit:

The oscillator circuit that produces a sine wave using a phase-shift network is called as a
Phase-shift oscillator circuit. This is also known as ladder type RC Phase-shift oscillator
.The constructional details and operation of a phase-shift oscillator circuit are as given
below.
Construction
The phase-shift oscillator circuit consists of a single transistor amplifier section and a RC
phase-shift network. The phase shift network in this circuit, consists of three RC sections. At
the resonant frequency fo, the phase shift in each RC section is 60o so that the total phase
shift produced by RC network is 180o.
The following circuit diagram shows the arrangement of an RC phase-shift oscillator.

The frequency of oscillations is given by

Operation
The circuit when switched ON oscillates at the resonant frequency fo. The output Eo of the
amplifier is fed back to RC feedback network. This network produces a phase shift of
180o and a voltage Ei appears at its output. This voltage is applied to the transistor amplifier.
The feedback is in correct phase, whereas the transistor amplifier, which is in CE
configuration, produces a 180o phase shift. The phase shift produced by network and the
transistor add to form a phase shift around the entire loop which is 360o.

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BJT Applications, Feedback Amplifiers and Oscillators

Advantages
The advantages of RC phase shift oscillator are as follows −

• It does not require transformers or inductors.

• It can be used to produce very low frequencies.
• The circuit provides good frequency stability.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of RC phase shift oscillator are as follows −

• Starting the oscillations is difficult as the feedback is small.

• The output produced is small.
WEIN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR:

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BJT Applications, Feedback Amplifiers and Oscillators

The Wien Bridge Oscillator is so called because the circuit is based on a frequency-selective
form of the Wheatstone bridge circuit. The Wien Bridge oscillator is a two-stage RC coupled
amplifier circuit that has good stability at its resonant frequency, low distortion and is very
easy to tune making it a popular circuit as an audio frequency oscillator but the phase shift of
the output signal is considerably different from the previous phase shift RC Oscillator.
The Wien Bridge Oscillator uses a feedback circuit consisting of a series RC circuit
connected with a parallel RC of the same component values producing a phase delay or phase
advance circuit depending upon the frequency.
If we redraw the above RC network as shown, we can clearly see that it consists of two
RC circuits connected together with the output taken from their junction. Resistor R1 and
capacitor C1 form the top series network, while resistor R2 and capacitor C2 form the
bottom parallel network.
Therefore the total DC impedance of the series combination (R1C1) we can call, ZS and
the total impedance of the parallel combination (R2C2) we can call, ZP. As ZS and ZP are
effectively connected together in series across the input, V1, they form a voltage divider
network with the output taken from across ZP as shown

DERIVATION FOR FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATIONS FOR WEIN BRIDGE

OSCILLATOR:
Consider wein bridge oscillator circuit shown in fig(b),

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BJT Applications, Feedback Amplifiers and Oscillators

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BJT Applications, Feedback Amplifiers and Oscillators

IC 555 timer and Astable Oscillator using IC 555:

Features:
• 555 timer can be used to produce accurate and highly stable time delays.
• It has two operating modes:
i. Monostable ii. Astable
• 555 tone can operate with voltage ranging between +5 to +18 V and can drive load
up to 200 mA.
• It is compatible with TTL and CMOS logic circuits.
• Has very high temperature stability [–55°+0 120° C]

Applications:

1. Can be used as oscillator

2. Linear ramp generator
3. To generate PWM waves, PPM
4. Frequency divider
5. Automatic Ba-charger

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BJT Applications, Feedback Amplifiers and Oscillators

BASIC TIMING CIRCUIT:

consider that the output Q is high. This drives the base of Q1 and as it is high it drives Q1 into
saturation. It makes the capacitor voltage zero and as other end of capacitor is grounded, the
capacitor is shorted. In this condition it can not be charged.
The circuit uses a comparator. The noninverting input of comparator is called threshold
voltage. While its inverting input is called control voltage. The R1 and R2 forms a potential
divider which maintains control voltage constant at +10V. As Q is high and transistor Q1 is in
saturation, the threshold voltage is zero.

Now if high voltage is applied to the reset (R) input of flip-flop then it resets R-S flip-flop
and output Q goes low. This drives the transistor Q1 in cut off. Now the capacitor is free to
charge and starts charging through resistance R. The threshold voltage thus starts increasing.
When it becomes just greater than +10V which is the control voltage, the comparator output
goes high. This high signal is driving the set (S) input of R-S flip flop. This changes the state
of output Q back to high. This drives transistor Q1 into saturation which quickly discharges
the capacitor C.

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BJT Applications, Feedback Amplifiers and Oscillators

In above figure shows that the waveforms of threshold voltage and output voltage Vout. The
charging of capacitor is exponential hence the threshold voltage is also exponential in nature.
When Q goes low, the Q becomes high and positive going pulse appears at low. Similarly
when capacitor voltages increases more than the control voltage, Q becomes high and Q
becomes low. This brings Vout to zero instantly. Thus a rectangular output gets produced.
It can be observed that output remains high for the time which is required by the capacitor to
charge upto .control Voltage, through R. Thus by varying R or C, the output pulse width can
be varied. This is the working principle of Timer IC 555.

Astable Multivibrator using IC–555:

The below Fig shows the Astable Multivibrator Using IC 555. The threshold input is
connected to the trigger input. Two external resistances RA, RB and a capacitor C is used in
the circuit. This circuit has no stable state. The circuits changes its state alternately. Hence the
operation is also called free running non-sinusoidal oscillator.
Operation:
When the flip-flop is set, Q is high which drives the transistor Qd in saturation and the
capacitor gets discharged. Now the capacitor voltage is nothing but the trigger voltage. So
while discharging, when it becomes less than 1/3 Vcc, comparator 2 output goes high. This
resets the flip-flop hence Q goes low and Q goes high.
The low Q makes the transistor off. Thus capacitor starts charging through the
resistances RA , RB and Vcc. The charging path is shown by thick arrows in the Fig. As total
resistance in the charging path is (RA + RB), the charging time constant is (RA + RB) C.

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BJT Applications, Feedback Amplifiers and Oscillators

Now the capacitor voltage is also a threshold voltage. While charging, capacitor voltage
increases i.e. the threshold voltage increases. When it exceeds 2/3 Vcc, then the comparator 1
output goes high which sets the flip-flop. The flip-flop output Q becomes high and output at
pin 3 i.e. Q becomes low. High Q drives transistor Qd in saturation and capacitor starts
discharging through resistance R8 and transistor Qd. This path is shown by dotted arrows in
the above fig. Thus the discharging time constant is RB C. When capacitor voltage becomes
less than 1/3 Vcc, comparator 2 output goes high, resetting the flip-flop. This cycle repeats.
Thus. when capacitor is charging, output is high while when it is discharging the output is
low. The output is a rectangular wave. The capacitor voltage is exponentially rising and
falling. The waveforms are shown in the below fig.

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BJT Applications, Feedback Amplifiers and Oscillators

Duty Cycle:
Generally the charging time constant is greater than the discharging time constant. Hence at
the output, the waveform is not symmetric. The high output remains for longer period than
low output. The ratio of high output period and low output period is given by a mathematical
parameter called duty cycle. It is defined as the ratio of ON time i.e. high output to the total
time of one cycle.
Period and frequency (one cycle) of the output:
The output voltage wave form is sum of charging and discharging periods (TC and TD) of the
capacitor.
∴ Period of one cycle T = TC + TD

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BJT Applications, Feedback Amplifiers and Oscillators

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