Republic of the Philippines

POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE OF BOTOLAN

(Formerly Botolan Community College)
Botolan, Zambales
E-mail: polytechniccollegeofbotolan@gmail.com
Website: pcbzambales.com
Contact number: 0968-307-5040
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
Introduction to Philosophy of the Human Person
Topic: Man and Belief

Philosophical Reflection and the Search for Truth

Man’s Belief. Your beliefs are your map of reality. They guide you through the day. They are the lenses thorugh which you
perceive the world. They are also the deep well from which your actions, attitudes, and feelings flow.

The Importance of Belief. Our beliefs are important for a number of reasons. Wars are fought over beliefs. Deals are made or
broken because of beliefs. People gather together over beliefs thay have in common. They also separate because of divergent
beliefs. We chart out our lives in every way in accordance with our beliefs.

The Ideal of Knowledge. Our concept of knowledge is first of all an attainment concept. In basketball, we shoot in order to score.
Shooting is the activity; scoring is the attainment intended. In the life of the mind, we believe in order to know. Believing is, in a
sense, the activity; knowing is the intended attainment. Just as you can shoot a basketball and not score a basket, you can believe
something and not thereby have knowledge.

Knowledge Knowledge
= =
Justified True Belief ? Properly Justified True Belief

You cannot know something unless you believe it. You cannot know that philosophy is the love of wisdom unless you believe that it
is. I cannot know that there is a God unless I believe that God exists. Belief is necessary for knowledge.

What is Truth?.Truth is the proper aim of any inquiry, particulary scientific and philosophical inquiry. People study and investigate
because they want to find out or discover the truth and be able to attain it. By attaining the truth, people are also able to achieve
their goals.

Theories on Truth

a. Realism – is a general theory about truth which asserts that the mind can know certain, fundamental, and immediate truths.
When one judges an object, he/she is aware of his/her intellectual capacity to know the truth. For the realist, truth is the
conformity of the mind with reality. It is the conformity between the knower and the known. One can claim that he/she knows the
truth if there is conformity between facts and his/her ideas.

b. Relativism Theory – according to relativism theory, truth as the object of knowledge cannot be known as it is in itself; it can only
be known as it is modified by a person. This means that truth is always dependent on a person. Truth then is subjective and
therefore relative to the perception of the subject. What is truth for one may not be truth for other individuals.

c. Pragmatism Theory – according to Pragmatism Theory which was proposed by William James, the truth is consequential in
nature; the real norm or citerion of truth is its consequence or result. An idea or something is true if it can show its consequence
and use; that is, it has practical consequences. Thus, the ultimate criterion of truth is its consequence in action. The criterion of
truth is utility, workability, or satisfactory consequences. What works in practice will decide which of one’s beliefs is true.

d. Correspondence Theory – according to the correspondence theory, proposed by the Logical Positivist Bertrand Russell, truth is
in what is said, in the propositions uttered. A proposition is true if it corresponds with a state of affairs or with facts.

e. Coherence Theory – this theory developed as a reaction to the correspondence theory. It asserts that truth cannot be asserted
of one proposition, only in isolation from other propositions. Truth belongs to a system of propositions, a set of propositions that
cohere with one another.

Definition of Knowledge. One necessary condition for knowledge is belief. A second is truth. Knowledge is built on true belief.
Philosophers insist that, in order for a state of belief to qualify as knowledge, there must be a link, a connection, a tie between
the mental state of affirmation and the state of reality, which makes that affirmation true. Furthermore, this link must be the right
sort to properly justify my having that belief.

Truth and Rationality. We want to be reasonable people because reason can connect us to truth. We value rationality as a
reliable road to truth, and thus to knowledge. Human reason is just the power we have to organize and interpret our experience of
the world, as well as the ability to draw reliable conclusions that move beyond the confines of immediate experience. It is also the
power to govern our actions and expectations in such a way that they make sense, given all the realities with which we have to do.
 Republic of the Philippines
POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE OF BOTOLAN
(Formerly Botolan Community College)
Botolan, Zambales
E-mail: polytechniccollegeofbotolan@gmail.com
Website: pcbzambales.com
Contact number: 0968-307-5040
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
Introduction to Philosophy of the Human Person
Topic: The Foundation of Knowledge

Philosophical Reflection and the Search for Truth (continuation...)

Empiricism. Empiricist have always claimed that sense experience is the ultimate starting point of all our knowledge. The
senses, they maintain, give us all our raw data about the world, and without this raw material, there would be no knowledge at all.
Perception starts a process, and from this process come all our beliefs.

In its purest form, empiricism holds that sense experience alone gives birth to all our beliefs and all our knowledge.

Rationalism. Rationalists have claimed that the ultimate starting point for all knowledge is not the senses but reason. They
maintain that without prior categories and principles supplied by reason, we couldn’t organize and interpret our sense experience in
any way. We would be faced with just one huge, undifferentiated, kaleidoscopic whirl of sensation, signifying nothing.

Rationalism in its purest form goes so far as to hold that all our rational beliefs, and the entirety of human knowledge,
consists in first principles and innate concepts (concepts that we are just born having) that are somehow generated and
certified by reason, along with anything logically deducible from these first principles.

Evidentialism. Empiricists and rationalists were concerned with the question of where our beliefs ultimately come from, and thus
what the ultimate foundation for knowledge might be. Evidentialists are philosophers who are concerned with a related but
somewhat different question. They want to know where rational beliefs come from.

The Evidentialist Principle: It is irrational for anyone, anywhere, to believe anything without sufficient evidence.

Interpreting the evidentialist principle as broadly as possible, we can understand both self-confidence and the evidence of the
senses to be included among the allowable possible supports for a rational belief.

PHILOSOPHICAL REFLECTION

Philosophical reflection is a more profound examination of the underlying meanings or causes of the problems regarding human
existence. When one practices philosophical reflection, he/she examines his/her existence and practical issues in life. The ultimate
end is to find the underlying meaning and reasons behind one’s experiences in life.

One of the benefits of practicing philosophical reflection is that people become critical thinkers. As critical thinkers, people
understand clearly a particular situation and determine whether such situations presents a problem that needs an explanation or a
practical solution. As critical thinkers, people may realize that a situation is not really a problem in itself and its being a problem is
only a matter of perception or attitude.

ELEMENTS OF CRITICAL THINKING

Understanding Thinking by and for Oneself

One of the first elements of critical thinking is having a proper
and clear understanding of a particular situation.
 To understand means, “To have a mental grasp of
things, of reality, of issues at hand, or of the subject
matter.”
 One can more or less picture in his/her mind a
situation or certain reality.
 Understanding these relevant matters will include
three elements – understanding the context,
understanding of the opposing views, and
understanding the whole range of issues about a
subject matter.
1. Context may be understood as the framework,
the frame of reference, and the different
connections, and relationships within which
something must be understood and interpreted.
2. Secondly, understanding includes knowing the
opposite views, the opinions and ideas of others,
and the contrary ideas.
The second element is using one’s power or ability to think or
reason out.
 When one makes decisions, reflects on his/her
experiences, or evaluates a particular issue, he/she
has to rely on his/her own power to think instead of
having other people do the thinking for him/her.
 Philosophizing and thinking critically means making
one’s personal assessment and evaluation of the
issues at hand and the surrounding information.
 Some people have the tendency to allow others to
think for them, or to simply follow what others think.
 They adopt other’s thoughts and ideas; comply with
other people’s wishes, without first doing personal
reflection.
 There is a common tendency for some people to
simply agree and blindly follow the dictates of
others.
 One’s thinking is usually influenced by other
 3. The third element is understanding the whole people’s views.
subject matter such as wide-ranging issues. One
must have a comprehensive understanding of  His/her might in fact accept and validate these old
the whole range of ideas, opinions, and views beliefs and views using her own thinking and
involved in the discussion of the subject matter. reason.

Thinking Proactively Being Open Minded

Philosophizing and critical thinking are examples of proactive
thinking. Philosophical reflection and critical thinking also
require that one be proactive in his/her way of thinking.
 In proactive thinking, one uses his/her own
intelligence, knowledge, and abilities in order to deal
with different situations, issues, and subject matters.
 Thinking proactively means that one has to think in
advance and anticipate certain consequences of
his/her actions; it means getting involved in useful
and meaningful endeavors and tasks instead or
remaining passive and indifferent.
Philosophical reflection and critical thinking also require
having an open mind.
 The philosopher or critical thinker is open to the
ideas and opinions of others.
 One does not have the monopoly of ideas, much
less of good ideas. There are good ideas and
thoughts one can learn from others, other sources,
new experiences, and encounters with other people.
 Being open minded, therefore, is the proper mental
attitude.

Considering Different Perspective Questioning and Challenging Beliefs

Openness of mind leads one to the next element of
philosophical reflection and critical thinking, which is
considering different paths that lead to the truth.
 Philosophical reflection requires that one consider
different possibilities and perspectives.
 This means that being open to the different paths to
the truth is being open to new perspectives and
views.
Philosophical reflection and critical thinking also involve
questioning and challenging beliefs.
 Sometimes people think of questioning in a negative
way; they sometimes interpret questioning as
outright opposition or a radical opposition to a new
thought or idea.
 Questioning can become a means to contradict a
different view without any basis or reason.

 It is like opening new windows through which one can  This is rather a destructive type of questioning.
see new things or probably the same things but in a However, there is also a constructive type of
new light and perspective. questioning.

PHILOSOPHICAL REFLECTION AND PROBLEM SOLVING

Problem solving is not just executing a well-learned response or a series of behaviors; it is also distinct from learning new
behaviors which could happen unconsciously or without due deliberation. Problem-solving behavior generally involves five logical
steps or stages:

1. Representing or Defining the Problem

2. Generating Possible Solutions

3. Evaluating Solutions

4. Applying the Solutions

5. Critiquing Given Solutions Through Dialectics

Dialectics in this context is the critical discussion about certain things; in problem solving it is applied to the solutions or alternative
ways of dealing with a problem.

Philosophical reflection can be applied to one’s practical concerns especially when it comes to solving practical problems. The
ultimate end is to find the underlying meaning and reasons behind our life experiences.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Write a reflection paper on the underlying reason or meaning of your possible career choice in college.

2. Think of one problem in our society and generate or think of possible solutions to this problem. Discuss your solutions in a
series of steps or process.
 Republic of the Philippines
POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE OF BOTOLAN
(Formerly Botolan Community College)
Botolan, Zambales
E-mail: polytechniccollegeofbotolan@gmail.com
Website: pcbzambales.com
Contact number: 0968-307-5040
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
Introduction to Philosophy of the Human Person
Topic: Man and Goodness

Basic Approach to Ethics and Morality. Many people use the term ethics and morality differently. Roughly speaking, they use
the term ethics when they are talking about professional obligations and rules of conduct – as in the phrases medical ethics and
legal ethics – and restrict the term morality to refer to matters of private behavior.

Second consideration is that most philosophers approach the topics of ethics or morality by posing issues or reviewing history.

 Issues-oriented approaches start by asking the students about abortion, mercy killing/mercy death, capital punishment, or
other hot topics, and present the arguments pro and con, helping the students to discern the nature of rational argument
over such issues.

 Historical approaches to ethics survey the varieties of questions philosophers have asked about moral matters and the
array of fundamental options they have considered about where we get our standards. This approach acquaints the
students with the fundamental statements of such positions as eudaemonism, deontology, and utilitarianism.

Ethics vs. Morals. Ethics and morals relate to “right” and “wrong” conduct. While they are sometimes used interchangeably, they
are different: ethics refer to rules provided by an external source, e.g., codes of conduct in workplaces or principles in religions.
Morals refer to an individual’s own principles regarding right and wrong.

Source of Principles. Ethics are external standards that are provided by institutions, groups, or culture to which an individual
belongs. For example, lawyers, policemen, and doctors all have to follow an ethical code laid down by their profession, regardless
of their own feelings or preferences. Ethics can also be considered a social system or a framework for acceptable behavior.

Consistency and Flexibility. Ethics are very consistent within a certain context, but can vary greatly between contexts. For
example, the ethics of the medical profession in the 21st century are generally consistent and do not change from hospital to
hospital, but they are different from the ethics of the 21st century legal profession.

An individual’s moral code is usually unchanging and consistent across all contexts, but it is also possible for certain events to
radically change an individual's personal beliefs and values. Morals are also influenced by culture or society, but they are personal
principles created and upheld by individuals themselves.

Conflicts between Ethics and Morals. One professional example of ethics conflicting with morals is the work of a defense
attorney. A lawyer’s morals may tell her that murder is reprehensible and that murderers should be punished, but her ethics as a
professional lawyer, require her to defend her client to the best of her abilities, even if she knows that the client is guilty.

Another example can be found in the medical field. In most parts of the world, a doctor may not euthanize a patient, even at the
patient's request, as per ethical standards for health professionals. However, the same doctor may personally believe in a patient's
right to die, as per the doctor's own morality.

Origins. Much of the confusion between these two words can be traced back to their origins. For example, the word "ethic" comes
from Old French (etique), Late Latin (ethica), and Greek (ethos) and referred to customs or moral philosophies. "Morals" comes
from Late Latin's moralis, which referred to appropriate behavior and manners in society. So, the two have very similar, if not
synonymous, meanings originally.

ETHICS VERSUS MORALS COMPARISON CHART

ETHICS MORALS
Principles or habits with respect to right or wrong
The rules of conduct recognized in respect to a
What are conduct. While morals also prescribe dos and
particular class of human actions or a particular
they? don'ts, morality is ultimately a personal compass of
group or culture.
right and wrong.
Where do
they come Social system - External Individual - Internal
from?
Why we do Because we believe in something being right or
Because society says it is the right thing to do.
it? wrong.
Ethics are dependent on others for definition.
Usually consistent, although can change if an
Flexibility They tend to be consistent within a certain
individual’s beliefs change.
context, but can vary between contexts.
A person strictly following Ethical Principles may
A Moral Person although perhaps bound by a higher
not have any Morals at all. Likewise, one could
The "Gray" covenant, may choose to follow a code of ethics as
violate Ethical Principles within a given system of
it would apply to a system. "Make it fit"
rules in order to maintain Moral integrity.
 Origin Greek word "ethos" meaning "character" Latin word "mos" meaning "custom"
Ethics are governed by professional and legal
Acceptability Morality transcends cultural norms
guidelines within a particular time and place

Good in the Context of Life. The good life for most people connotes comfort, luxury, and wealth. Lifestyles of the rich and
famous. Indulgence. Security. Good schools, big houses, expensive cars, exclusive country clubs and wonderful vacations. The
good life, as I conceive it, is a happy life (Bertrand Russell).

When we ask about the meaning and connotations of the slightly different phrase “a good life,” we get very different answers. The
associations it has are felt to be more ethical, or moral, or spiritual in nature. A life worth living. An existence that helps others. True
frienship. Love. Service. Fulfillment. Giving. Character. Dependability. Growth. Happiness.

Three Views on Evaluative Language. Tom Morris (1999) used the phrase evaluative language to refer to any uses of words
like good, bad, right, and wrong. He identified three basic different philosphical views about what evaluative language does. We will
briefly examine each one in the following sections.

The Philosophy of Noncognitivism Ethical Subjectivism Moral Objectivism

 Noncognitivism is a philosophical
view whose name is derived from
the word cognition, for knowing.
 The noncognitivist is a philosopher
who is convinced that evaluative
language does not convey any form
of knowing at all.
 It is not fact stating, but is merely
expressive in function. That is the
noncognitivist claim.
 The noncognitivist typically argues
that people differ too much in moral
and ethical judgments for there to
be any objective facts of the matter.
 This second view is also sometimes
generated by reflection on the
pervasiveness of moral disagreement in
our world, and throughout the sweep of
human history.
 Some philosophers have believed that
whenever we utter any sentence of the
form “x is good,” we are really stating a
fact about x at all, but that we are stating
about our own subjective feelings toward
x.
 In using ethical subjectivism, the only
fact that is conveyed by evaluative
language is a fact about the subject
speaking, not about the object on which
he might otherwise seem to be
commenting.
 The philosophical position with
respect to ethics and morals that is
built on these convictions is called
moral objectivism.
 These perspectives captures
aspects of the most common and
natural human stance on the nature
of moral utterance and the ultimate
status of moral matters.
 The moral objectivist believes that at
least a certain range of evaluative
language – that range consisting in
apparent statements of moral or
ethical fact – is indeed fact stating,
and that it can, and usually does,
state facts about the objective world.

The Teleological Concept of Good. According to Aristotle, something is good when it successfully hits the target for which it was
intended. In all phrases mentioned above, the good thing does successfully what it was intended to do. It hits the target, serves its
purpose, and fulfills its mission. It has a function, and carries it out well. Using the Greek term for an archery bull’s eye, telos, we
can call this the teleological concept of good.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Writing Task 101

1. Explain the given statements below:

1.1 If you are good even when nobody’s is looking, that is integrity.
1.2 The best wealth is that which has been lawfully acquired.
1.3 Success without honor is an unseasoned dish; it will satisfy your hunger but it won’t taste good.

2. How do you assess the relevance of the following practices?

2.1 Attending Church services on Sundays and holidays of obligations.
2.2 Discipline at home and in our school.
2.3 Respect for parents, the elderly, and persons in authority.
2.4 Honoring the flag and proper singing of the national anthem.
2.5 Attending classes on time and prepared for the teaching-learning process.

3. Evaluate the dictum: It takes a lifetime to develop good moral but only an instant to learn bad morals.
 Republic of the Philippines
POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE OF BOTOLAN
(Formerly Botolan Community College)
Botolan, Zambales
E-mail: polytechniccollegeofbotolan@gmail.com
Website: pcbzambales.com
Contact number: 0968-307-5040
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
Introduction to Philosophy of the Human Person
Topic: Man and the Pursuit of Happiness, Excellence, and the Good Life

Ethics in the Modern World

 Ethics is a system of moral principles and a branch of philosophy, which defines what, is acceptable for both individuals
and society. A philosophy covers a whole range of things that have an importance in everyday situations.
 Ethics are vital in everyone’s lives, it includes human values, and how to have a good life, our rights and responsibilities,
moral decisions what is right and wrong, good and bad.
 Moral principles affect how people make decisions and lead their lives (BBC, 2013). There are many different beliefs
about were ethics come from. These consist of; God and Religion, human conscience, the example of good human beings
and a huge desire for the best for people in each unique situation, and political power (BBC, 2013).
 Philosopher David Hume divided the term “ethics” into three distinctive areas; meta-ethics, which focuses on the
language used when talking about ethical issues.
 The general approach to this area of ethics is, it explores the nature of moral judgement, and it looks at the meaning of
ethical principles.
 Normative ethics tries to find practical moral code that we can live by. It is concerned with the content of moral
judgements and the criteria for what is right and wrong.
 Finally, applied-ethics is the application of ethical theories and using them in real life issues such as medical research or
human rights (Hume D, 2011).

Morality in the Modern World

 Morality can best be described as the putting-aside of our own short-term interests to achieve our greater, long-term
interests.
 Morality or the study of ethics specifically, is not a true science. At best, it is a social science, like economics, which is not
subject to the same standards as say physics or mathematics; these deal in specificity: 2+2 always equals 4.
 Actions or rules of action are best described as expedient or inexpedient, advisable or inadvisable, helpful or harmful. We
can even be less specific by saying that certain actions are, in general, good or bad, and we would not be incorrect in the
use of such vague words.
 Morality, in its practical application, is the creation general guidelines and rules of action that help produce best practices
to further social cooperation.

Ethics and Morality in Contemporary World. Ethics is not primarily about staying out of trouble. Ethics is about creating strength
– inner strength and interpersonal strength. Ethical living produces stronger people, stronger families, stronger communities,
stronger organizations, stronger institutions of all kinds, and, ultimately, stronger nations. Morality is not first and foremost about
restriction and constraint. Morality is about the human flourishing. It is about the deepest sort of happiness. And it is about living the
best sort of life. It is all about what we honor, what we cultivate, and what we become.

The Idea of Good. In most contexts, the concept of good denotes the conduct that should be preferred when posed with a choice
between possible actions. Good is generally considered to be the opposite of evil, and is of interest in the study of morality, ethics,
religion and philosophy. In philosophy, something is good if it is important or valuable. Objects (things), people, ideas, and actions
can be good. Many philosophers (people who study philosophy) have thought about what it means for something to be good.

THE THEORY OF GOOD

1. Divine Command Theory
 On this view, goodness, or rightness, is established
by divine commands and consists in conformity with
divine decrees.
 The good and the right are whatever actions,
attitudes, and attributes are in harmony with God’s
commands; the bad and the wrong are whatever
happens to be contrary to those commands.
 The main problem for this divine command theory is
its implication that the decrees of God themselves
could be called good only in the logically empty sense
when they conform themselves.
3. Utilitarianism
 A number of English philosophers began to view
2. Social Contract Theory
 Social scientists have suggested that human
beings long ago got together in social groups and
then either implicitly or explicitly decided what
rules of conduct would govern their personal
behavior as well as their interactions toward each
other.
 They saw rules as necessary to avoid complete
conflict and chaos.
 One major problem with the implications of social
contract theory is that, in some societies, the most
ethical individuals to be found have been those
who explicitly took a stand against the prevailing
norms of behavior in that society.
4. Deontological Theory
 Deontologists believe that right and good consist
 goodness as tied to utility, or usefulness in producing
pleasure, happiness, convenience, or other desirable
human advantages.
 In any moral situation, the choice of action is right,
they believed, when it has the greatest utility, or
produces the greatest quantity of positive states for
people.
Two Camps:
☺ Act Utilitarian’s – we should always perform the
action that will, in its circumstances produce the
greatest good, defined as utility.
☺ Rule-utilitarian’s – an action is good, according to
them, if it is performed in accordance with a rule
which itself produces the greatest utility for the
greatest numbers of people.
5. Sociobiological Theory
 Other scientifically oriented thinkers have suggested
that it is the evolutionary survival value of behaviors
for societies that have generated our known moral
codes.
 Conduct that facilitated cohesion and survival was
encouraged, and behavior that was judged
detrimental to these ends was prohibited.
 A good deal of sociobiology is suggestive and
persuasive, even in the early forms we now have. But
just like other philosophies, it is not comprehensive
enough to give us what we are looking for.
THE FOUR DIMENSIONS OF HUMAN EXPERIENCE
1. The Intellectual Dimension: truth
 Every human being has mind. We are all, to some
extent, intellectual creatures. We need truth like we
need water, air, or food. We cannot flourish without
ideas. And without truth we perish.
 We have all have an intellectual dimension to our
experience of the world, and that dimension aims at
the target of truth.
 In any relationship, in any situation, we need to be
told the truth if we are to have a chance of being our
best, and feeling our best, in that context. Likewise,
we need to tell others th truth.
 Truth is the foundation for trust, and without trust no
human relationship can flourish. Without flourishing
relationships, no human being an grow and
experience a sense of deep personal fulfillment.
3. The Moral Dimension
 The dimension of human experience that we normally
call the moral dimension is that domain of perception
and judgement having to do with the good, the right,
and the noble.
 It is realm of kindness, fairness, sensitivity, justice,
and self-giving.
 What we normally call goodness in human life is all
about inner peace and outer harmony. We have
moral obligations to ourselves – to develop properly
and take care of our own interest.
 And, in addition, we have moral obligations to others
– to family, friends, and people who cross our paths in
the normal course of daily life.
Analyzing Moral Virtues. There are four moral virtues. They are called moral virtues because they lead us to live good moral lives.
☺ Prudence helps us to make judgment on what we should do or not do in particular circumstances of our everyday life.
☺ Justice helps us to give everyone what belongs to him and not to take what does not belong to us.
in obedience to objective moral duties.
 Immanuel Kant believe that morality consisted in
acting on the basis of duty alone.
 He went so far as to think that if you enjoy an
action, and benefit from it, and that is even part of
your motivation for doing it, then it cannot count as
a purely moral act.
 To this, we disagree.
 Some of the best and most moral acts are
performed by good people who take enjoy in
doing the right thing, and that joy is perfectly
acceptable part of their motivation for so doing.
 Is duty important in human life?
6. Virtue Theory
 There is such a thing as human nature. People
are deep down alike in some fundamental ways.
And there are things about human nature that
make certain qualities or characteristics – the
virtues – important to have if you are interested in
happiness, fulfillment, and human flourishing.
 Virtue theorists can maintain that what
sociobiologists discover to be true is in fact true
because of that universal human nature we all
share.
 To put it briefly, a virtue theory of goodness,
properly developed, can incorporate the insights
of all the other theories, while avoiding their
distinctive problems.
2. The Aesthetic Dimension
 The second great dimension of human experience
is the aesthetic dimension.
 Man needs beauty in their lives just like the need
truth. It is every bit as important. Without a regular
experience of beauty, people cannot feel their
best or be their best, in any activity, or in any
relationship.
 There are two kinds of beauty. Loveliness is
dominant in one and dignity in the other (Cicero).
 The aesthetic encompasses all forms of delight.
Beauty ranges over very different sort of things
and actions. But one aspect is constant. Beauty
always inspires.
 In a beautiful place, we are more open. In
beautiful sorroundings, we can be much more
creative. Ugliness depresses the spirit. Beauty
lifts our hearts and minds.it elevates the emotions
and attitudes.
4. The Spiritual Dimension
 The target of the fourth universal dimension of
human experience is connectedness , or unity –
inner unity, unity between myself and others,
between all human beings and the rest of nature,
and, ultimately, between nature and nature’s
source.
 When we say that all human beings have a
spiritual dimension in their experience of the
world, we don’t for a moment mean to imply that
everyone is, deep down, religious.
 Spiritual needs are too deep for us to just
temporarily put them aside for the sake of some
greater good.
 We all have a deep need for a sense of:
uniqueness, union, usefulness and
understanding.
 ☺ Fortitude is an extra effort to do right thing even if it is hard or difficult.
☺ Temperance helps us to control our desires and use properly all things, which please our senses.

Republic of the Philippines

POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE OF BOTOLAN
(Formerly Botolan Community College)
Botolan, Zambales
E-mail: polytechniccollegeofbotolan@gmail.com
Website: pcbzambales.com
Contact number: 0968-307-5040
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
Introduction to Philosophy of the Human Person
Topic: The Human Person and Moral Character

What Morality is. Morality is connected to the deepest possibilities of personal fulfillment, individual happiness, and human
flourishing in this life. Ethical conduct is behavior that respects and nurtures truth, beauty, goodness, and unity, in our own lives,
and in the lives of people we deal with day to day. Good people live, and encourage others to live, as fully intellectual, aesthetic,
moral, and spiritual creatures.

Every day, people treat others inappropriately. Millions of people lie. They cheat customers. They steal. They abuse. They
manipulate. They act rudely. They inflict pain. They treat other people as they would treat physical objects – mere means
to their own selfish ends. More than a few even commit murder.
Every day, good people struggle with how to live in a world where goodness cannot be taken for granted.
They ask themselves how they can resist the pressures and temptations that would make them into something they would
not be proud to have become.
They want to know how to teach their children the right ways to live.
They seek guidance for the gray areas in life, knowing that these placesof moral ambiguity can easily lead into the dark
areas.

Morality as Commandments. One of the best-known philosophical views of what morality is that it consists first and foremost a
set of commandments or rules.

Do good and avoid evil.

Thou shalt not kill.
Thou shalt not commit adultery.
Thou shalt not steal.
Thou shalt not bear false witness against their neighbor.

Golden Rule. The promulgation of moral rules has been part of every major cultures. But the universality of morality goes even
farther than that. There is one rule that has been promulgated, in one form or another, across all major cultures. It is the moral
command widely known as The Golden Rule: Do unto others as you would have them do unto you. Treat others as you
would want to be treated if you were in their place.

We can see that The Golden Rule is the heart of morality. It captures the main attitude of an ethical person regarding the impact
of his actions on others. And it does so in such way as to appeal to the greatest and most important natural power in human life –
the power of the imagination.

☺ The Golden Rule calls us to imagine what it would be like to be in the position of the other people who are affected by our
actions, and on that basis to make our decisions as to how we will act.

☺ The Golden Rule is stated as it is in its classic formulations in order to give us not only guidance but also motivation.

☺ The Golden Rule in all its traditional statements directs us into a mental exercise of imaginative projection.

David Hume (1711-1776) believed that morality is based on sentiment. It is precisely people devoid of natural sentiment, (that
affection of fellow feeling that is so natural to most of us), who commit the heinous crimes and immoral acts that we shudder to
read about in the newspaper.

☺ The Golden Rule positions us to be sympathetic and empathetic with others. And it thus gives us an emotional push in the
direction that we should travel.
☺ But even The Golden Rule has its limitations. Like every other rule, it needs interpretation. And it cannot alone turn a bad
person into a good one.

Rules are important in the moral life of human beings. We begin to learn the moral life as children through an introduction to
simple rules. Rules are thus important in early moral education. They are also crucial for enabling stability in any joint human
endeavor, such as a family, a business, or a profession.

Character, Wisdom and Virtue. The second tradition of thinking about ethics sees character to be at the center. The ancient
Greek word ethos, from which we derive our term ethics, did not mean rules; it meant, simply character.
Character is that settled set of dispositions or habits of thinking, feeling and acting that make you who you are. It is determined by
how much wisdom and virtue you have in your life. So, in order to fully understand what character is, we have to know what
wisdom and virtue are.

Wisdom is a form of understanding of how we ought to live.

Virtue is just the habit or disposition of acting in accordance with wisdom. An ancient Japanese proverb says that wisdom and
virtue are two wheels of a cart.

Aristotle provided us with the following virtues:

Courage Friendliness Temperance Truthfulness

Liberality Wittiness Magnificence Shame
Pride Justice Good Temper Honor

A more contemporary listing of virtues might also contain, in addition to Aristotle’s virtues, and in no particular order, many or all of
the following:

Kindness Trustworthiness Cooperativeness

Decency Benevolence Empathy
Consistency Tolerance Persistence
Honesty Insightfulness Reasonableness
Modesty Love Prudence
Commitment Thoughtfulness Faithfulness
Loyalty Sensitivity Resourcefulness
Humility Tactfulness Boldness
Integrity Steadfastness Altruism
Sincerity Helpfulness Warmth
Openness Gracefulness Hospitality
Dignity Resiliency Hopefulness
Reliability Liveliness Perspicacity
Cheerfulness Balance Politeness
Enthusiasm Civility Creativity
Amiability Magnanimity Truthfulness
humor Harmony Broadmindedness

Can Morality be taught? Can moral goodness be taught? This question has been asked through the centuries. Through our
answer is yes, we believe that morality is more often caught than taught. We become like the people we are around. This is a
universal human tendency. It is like imprinting in the animal world. The baby ape watches the mamma ape to see how to walk. The
young lawyer watches his new associates, especially the senior partners, to see how he should walk, talk, and act. It is sometimes
a sad truth in human life. We all tend to rise or to fall to the level of the example set for us by the other people around us.

The Test for Moral Matters

1. A test of character: who am I? This test dates from Plato. He represents Socrates as telling a story about a magic ring – the ring
of Gyges. You put it on, and you become invisible. The test of this: if you could become invisible, or if in some other way your
actions could remain secret, what would you do? How would you act? Would you behave any differently? On the other hand, would
you be the same?

2. A test of action: what should I do? The tests of action are multiple and are meant to help with ethical decision-making, using the
power of the imagination.

o The publicity test: how would I feel if my contemplated actions were reported in the paper or broadcast on TV?
o The mentor test: how would I feel if my most revered mentor (teacher/professor, father, mother, or close relatives) saw my
actions?
o The role model test: what would my greatest role model do here?
o The mirror test: if I do this, can I look at myself in the mirror and feel a sense of pride and dignity?

CLASS ACTIVITY:

1. Review now the Mission-Vision Statement of your school. Identify the virtues found in the M-V Statement. What do you
think are the other virtues needed in a global community? Explain its relevance in your life as a Filipino with a local-global
perspective.
2. Class debate or sharing of insights: Do you agree or disagree that a baby who will grow up in the company of criminals
will also become a criminal someday? Write down first your seasoned reasoning before you start debate or sharing.
 Republic of the Philippines
POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE OF BOTOLAN
(Formerly Botolan Community College)
Botolan, Zambales
E-mail: polytechniccollegeofbotolan@gmail.com
Website: pcbzambales.com
Contact number: 0968-307-5040
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
Introduction to Philosophy of the Human Person
Topic: The Human Person and Freedom

THE NATURE OF FREEDOM action is performed because of a wish, motive, or desire

within the person.
Does freedom means: 3. In a given situation, the person, if he or she wanted, could
have acted differently.
- The ability to choose our own government
The compatibilist believes that an action that meets those criteria is
- Being able to live our own personal lifestyle. free. The person is responsible for the action because if the person
had wanted something else, he or she could have done differently.
- Being safe and secure from evils that threaten us like disease,
The action is free even though the action has a sufficient cause
poverty, and political expression.
DETERMINISM:
What Is Freedom?
Arguments and Objections Misconceptions
MEANING OF FREEDOM
 The problem with the determinist position is not in the
Freedom is a word with many meanings. There is:
experience of choosing but in the interpretation of choice.
☺ Political (alternatives)
☺ Economic  The difference between the libertarian and the determinist
☺ Social is not in the experience of choosing but in the
☺ Emotional interpretation of the experience.
☺ Spiritual
DETERMINIST: modern science seems to reinforce those
Freedom is the power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants arguments.
without hindrance or restraint, and the absence of a despotic
According to these views, we are all part of a universal cosmic and
government.
causal order, so the case for determinism seems to be strong .
FREEDOM OF CHOICE However, there are objections.

☺ Deals with freedom of thought LIBETARIANISM

☺ Freedom of will
(Free Will) Misconceptions
REAL FREEDOM
 Sometimes, libertarians are accused of believing that “free
☺ Are we really free? choice” is a chance or random event.
☺ We have to deal with freedom of choice or freedom of will  Libertarians believe that a free choice is a choice.
 A libertarian does not deny that there are motives to
PROBLEM OF FREEDOM AND NECESSITY human choices.
 A libertarian does not also deny that certain motivations,
There is a conflict between our feeling of freedom and the many like rewards or punishments, influence actions.
reasons that seem to suggest that our actions are not free.  A libertarian denies that “we always act on the strongest
motive”
There are basically three views on this issue between free will and
necessity: Authentic Freedom
COMPATIBILISM:
 Asks questions regarding the nature of freedom
Arguments and Objections  Is not an opposite of discipline, they can coexist.
 It has rootedness.
 Libetarianism vs. Determinism on the meaning of free
will are mutually exclusive, logically incompatible and Freedom in Community
irreconcilable.
 For compatibilism to be valid, it must define freedom in a  Human life is a shared life. It is life in communion and
different way. communication with others. In order to know anything,
including ourselves, we need others.
Compatibilists therefore says that, for an action to be free, there
must be these three things: Freedom, generally, is having the ability to act or change without
constraint. A person has the freedom to do things that will not, in
1. There must be no compulsion external or outside of the theory or in practice, be prevented by other forces.
one performing the action.
2. The immediate cause of an action is because of an Freedom is a condition in which people have the opportunity to
internal, psychological cause within the person, that is, the speak, act and pursue happiness without unnecessary external
restrictions. Freedom is important because it leads to enhanced
expressions of creativity and original thought, increased productivity,
and an overall high quality of life.
Freedom is the choice to live your life doing what you want, to live
where you want, to eat by choice and to learn what your heart
desires. This means that freedom can apply to different aspects of
life and that freedom is not an absolute term. Freedom is about
ensuring respect and not living free.

Republic of the Philippines

POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE OF BOTOLAN
(Formerly Botolan Community College)
Botolan, Zambales
E-mail: polytechniccollegeofbotolan@gmail.com
Website: pcbzambales.com
Contact number: 0968-307-5040
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
Introduction to Philosophy of the Human Person
Topics: The Human Person as a Physical Being/The Human Person as a Mind-Body Creature

Dimensions of the Human Person

The human person is a multi-dimensional being. I would suggest that we think of 'person' as a focal point, where all these
dimensions converge. The person is a unity, but there are several ways of observing this unity and several dimensions to which the
person is open, is 'in relation'. Each of these dimensions or aspects of the person need to be named and brought to consciousness.
Without an awareness of one or another dimension of person, we remain ignorant of that particular relational aspect of being
human and will consequently fail to observe the real or potential presence of a good and evil that is pertinent in that dimension.

The Human Person as a Physical Being

HUMAN EMBODIMENT

The study of man himself is called philosophical anthropology. This study is unique in the sense that man is the subject as well
as the object of knowledge.

Human Composition

1. Monism. This theory holds that man is composed of one basic substance or principle as the ground of reality. In other
words, the reality of man consists of a single element, whether matter or spirit.

2. Dualism. This theory holds that man is made up of two irreducible elements—matter and spirit.

a. First View. Man’s matter and spirit are two independent entities and they interact with each other. As two independent
elements, it is possible for the spirit and the body to either temporarily or permanently separate at a particular period of time.

b. Second View. Man is matter-spirit.

c. Third View [Biblical View]. Man is made up of body, soul, and spirit.

The body is the external, physical part of man which he uses for seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, and smelling. Through the
body, he is able to have physical contact with his environment.

The soul, which is regarded as a distinct entity from the body and the spiritual part of man is something that cannot be seen
and constitutes the inner part of man, i.e., the mind and the will.

According to Aristotle: There are living things and non-living things. The soul is the characteristic activity of living things. The
body is alive if it has a soul.

The spirit is the innermost part of man. It is a “supernatural” and “incorporeal” being with which man communicates with God.
It is the essential part of man’s nature, the heart of human life.

Man as the Living or Metaphysical Paradox

Man as Finite and Infinite; Mortal and Immortal. Man is finite and infinite, mortal and immortal. “Man is flesh [and] spirit in
divided union” [Felix Montemayor]. Flesh and spirit are antithetical realities: the first is a tangible and material substance while the
second is just the opposite. The flesh signifies material bodily, tangible substance. The spirit or the soul signifies the immaterial,
non-bodily, invisible, reality in man

Man as Individual and Universal. As a living existential reality, man is invested with individuality, i.e., with individuating,
differentiating, accidental characteristics, such as height, weight, complexion, sex, size, and all those qualities by which he is
physically and personally identified. As a human being he shares the same human nature with all other men, and is therefore a
universal human entity.

Man as Changing and Permanent. The most undeniable fact about man is that he constantly changes. Yet equally undeniable
and indisputable is that he remains unchanged by change. He remains the same before, during, and after the change. For
example, in the Law of Obligation and Contracts, the same person who borrowed money, say 10 years ago, is the same person to
pay despite the many changes that took place in him in the interval—physical, physiological, psychological, etc. [Montemayor,
1995]

Man as a Biological Being

Man and His Body. There’s no greater dynamism in life than life itself. The odds of life’s existing are rare, but once it starts it’s
very difficult to stop. And we are part of that dynamic process of life: cells dividing and finding new ways to beat the odds. [Tim
Allen, Don’t Stand too Close to a Naked Man]

Being a part of the physical order of nature, man develops size, weight, shape and color and other biological attributes
followed naturally by other living things. He is able to reproduce.

The Human Person as a Mind-Body Creature

Man as an Embodied Subject

Man as More than his Body. The statement “man is an embodied subject” implies that our bodies are not accessories. Our bodies
are essential to our being integrated persons. Our bodies are symbols of interiority and are subject to the laws of the material world.
Bodily existence also means that we must accept our genetic endowment, which sets the baseline for certain possibilities and
limitations to our physical, intellectual, and psychological capacities. [Maria Imelda Nabor-Nery, Philosophy of Man, 2007]  “Man is
not only body, but he is something infinitely higher. Of all [the] animal creation[s] of God, man is the only animal who has been
created in order that he may know his maker. Man’s aim in life is not to add from day to day to his material prospects and to his
material possessions but his predominant calling is from day to day to come nearer to his maker”. [Mohandas Ghandi, 1948].
    
        The body is not something that one has. The body is essentially oneself. This implies that human existence, though made
manifest in a physical way through the body, is a primordial experience of transcendence. Transcendence means that: “I am my
body but at the same time I am more than my body. The things that I do, all those physical activities and attributes which are made
real through my body, reveals the person that I am”. Transcendence in this sense, means that man is a meaningful whole, an
embodied spirit who puts meaning into his life.

          The meaning of human existence, man’s being in the world is most felt in man’s direct involvement in the world. It is not
abstract. It is not ideal. It is to be found in the awareness of the concrete ends of human action. [Maboloc, 2009]

Man as Greater than other Animals

        Man is endowed with superior intelligence and is the highest form of animal whose activities are determined and regulated by
natural laws that govern all matter in the physical environment.

        The traits and characteristics which differentiate man from other forms of animals are his social, cultural, and intellectual
attributes.

        1. Language. Man has the ability to communicate, compose sentences, and carry on intelligent conversation. Communication
is an essential means by which people are linked together to achieve a common purpose for the common good.

        2. Creativity. Man’s highly developed brain enables him to invent or create. Because of his power of imagination, he can
make tools, machines, devices to make his life easier and enjoyable.

        3. Social and Legal Perspective. Man as a social being passes laws, establishes rules of conduct and develops policies that
reflect his needs and that of others.

        4. Historical Consciousness. Man is conscious of history, the branch of knowledge dealing with significant past events that
affect his life and that of others.

        5. Aesthetic Taste. Man has aesthetic taste and appreciation.

        6. Ethics. Man values right and wrong to promote order in his life and in his society.

        7. Faith or Creed. Man is a religious being. He engages and worships a super being to whom he owes allegiance, loyalty and
respect. He gets involved in ritual and ceremonial practices that provide him spirit nourishment.

HUMAN SUBJECTIVITY

Self-Awareness
 Subjectivity means that each person possesses the freedom and the intrinsic capacity to look into the core of his being
and ask himself questions about the truth of his life. [Maboloc, 2009]. 
 It is only through his own being that man comes in contact with reality. The experience of self necessarily has many
modalities, but there is one basic experience which makes all others possible and without which they could not be. It is the
experience of one’s own existence. [Engelbert J. Van Croonenberg; Corazon Cruz, 1987]
  Man is self-aware. He is conscious. And to be conscious is to be conscious of a real world. Consciousness only becomes
real by being immersed in the word. Thus, as a being, man can move his body in relation to whatever possibilities the
world presents. [Paul Ricoeur]

Thrownness. Part of what it means to be who you are is to realize that you are thrown into this situation, into a world that has this
past and this history and this culture surrounding it. You surely didn’t put yourself there. Nonetheless, there you are! And that
shows that the ways in which you can understand yourself and the world, or the ways in which you can be affected by the world,
are already given to you as a part of your thrown nature. You’re thrown, against your will, into the whole enchilada! [Christopher
Panza and Gregory Gale].

        Man has the fundamental character of being always already thrown. By being thrown into the world, man has “the power to be
in the world.” This “power to be” means that man realizes who he is by being in the world. The world exists as man’s horizon of
possibilities and meaning. The world exists as man’s potentiality for being.

Self-Examination. To be a subject demands self-examination. This is because man is morally obliged to know himself if he wants
to live well. Outside there exists a crowd, a crowd that tempts every man and woman towards an inauthentic existence. Being
dissolved in them means being dissolved in the “they-self” or the uncaring self that knows nothing except the pleasure of the crowd.
It also means being immersed in routine where man loses his wonder and the hunger of the human spirit. [Maboloc, 2009]

Projection. Man sees himself as a project that needs to be realized. He directs himself to a future where he is able to realize his
possibilities in the world. The task of man is the realization of his being, and this happens in a world which serves as the field for
the fulfillment of his existential possibilities. [Maboloc]

        As long as man is in the world, he is a “not yet.” He is not complete. He is not whole. Man continually realizes himself in the
world in terms of his possibilities. To be in the world therefore means to be an unfinished project. This means that man, being
ahead-of-himself, projects himself in the world. This projection means that man is continually actualizing his potentialities for
existence. [Maboloc].

Man as Dynamic and Unfinished. As long as man is alive, he is not yet finished. Thus, there is nothing final in man as long as he
is living. His finality, his completion, only comes to him in death, where man will no longer be. Death, if seen from the context of a
whole, is the fulfillment of the being of man. It is a condition where man is no longer possible, and as such, man no longer stands
up in the light of being. In death, man loses his power to be, and as such he no longer is. [Maboloc, 2009]

        Being a subject, man is an autonomous being, free to determine himself and become the person he wants himself to be.
Subjectivity in this regard implies human possibilities—possibilities for becoming, and possibilities for self-realization. [Maboloc,
2009]

Search for Authenticity. Subjectivity implies that man is in search for his authenticity. But he looks for this meaning not merely in
the factual or the practical. This is because man is not a mere collection of observable phenomena. Physicists can translate into
laws what they observe. The same cannot be said of man. This is because as a subject, man is free. [Maboloc, 2009] Our authentic
growth takes place in the here and now of the concrete situation. [Engelbert J. Van Croonenberg; Corazon Cruz, 1987]

Human Will.  Everyone is endowed and blessed with natural capacities and abilities. Primary here is the ability to reason and
decide freely. The person has the ability to grasp, recognize and appreciate truth and goodness, and the ability to choose among
options to promote or disregard. The objects of the will are the body and the world. Their relation to one another is revealed through
the human act. To will something is to do something in view of a project man intends to do in the world. It is a project that includes
the movement of man’s body, the word it intends to deal with, and the people who will be affected by man’s plans. What man does
then reflects who he is as a person. [Maboloc, 2009]

Three Fundamental Features of the Human Person

[The Three-fold Order of Human Existence]

        1. Thrownness or Factuality [Being-already-in-the world]—Man as already involved in the world. His existence is situated at
a particular here and now. I, myself and that which I care for already exists in the world. Man is thrown into the world. He fell into
the world. He did not choose to exist, but once he exits, his existence becomes his own responsibility.

        2. Existentiality or Projection—Man as a project and a possibility. Man’s existence is active in character. He is a creature of
care; i.e., he is concerned with his existence. He is occupied with his own being. He is ahead of himself.

        3. Fallenness or Forfeiture—Man as having the tendency to become a mere presence in the world, failing to make the most
of his possibilities.

Three Keys to Authentic Existence

        1. Anxiety [Angst or Dread]—It is through his anxiety that man realizes that he faces a life that has no meaning and then in
the end he would just die. He is living a life that is finite and he can never satisfy his yearning for infinity.

        2. Conscience— Everyone comes equipped with an existential conscience that calls to them to live authentically. This
conscience turns out to be you talking to yourself about yourself. Conscience is you trying to shake the part of you lost in the crowd
out of its stupor and conformity. When you heed the call of your conscience, you take a necessary step toward embracing yourself
and living authentically. [Christopher Panza and Gregory Gale].

        3. Destiny—this is the decision achieved by the individual to make his life mean something.

        Every time you choose, the set of what’s fixed and possible for you in a concrete situation changes. Each moment of your life,
your destiny is in your own hands. Every time a door opens and you choose it, the others close forever; now new doors, specific to
the choice you’ve made, open. Thought of in this way, choosing is really a heavy responsibility, and the consequences of choice for
your own identity are monumental. [Christopher Panza and Gregory Gale].

Republic of the Philippines

POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE OF BOTOLAN
(Formerly Botolan Community College)
Botolan, Zambales
E-mail: polytechniccollegeofbotolan@gmail.com
Website: pcbzambales.com
Contact number: 0968-307-5040
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT
Introduction to Philosophy of the Human Person
Topics: Lesson Sixteen – The Human Person and Death, The Human Person and the Belief in Life After Death, and The
Human Person and God

The Human Person and Death

The Human Person as a Being-for-Death

        What is Death? It is the act or process of dying which involves the shutting down of the body's physical, sensory and mental
functions. This process can take minutes or months, depending on what is going on inside the person's body.

        The German Philosopher Martin Heidegger calls man a “being-for-death”. Death is a certainty. Only the when is a big question
mark. [Corazon Cruz].

        In death, human existence ends. Death is thought of as an event where man is no longer possible. It is a point where all man’s
potentialities shall have been completed. Death is an own-most possibility, and it is the fulfillment of man’s being, the completion of
his life. [Maboloc].

        “Every moment that passes is one less moment in your lifetime”. [Thomas Cathcart and Daniel Klein]

        “Man is the only animal that finds his own existence a problem he has to solve and from which he cannot escape. In the same
sense, man is the only animal who knows he must die.” [Erich Fromm, Clinical Psychologist]

        Memento Mori  is a Latin phrase that means, "Remember you are mortal!" In ancient times, the phrase was repeated by a
slave boy who walked behind a war hero returning to the streets of Rome in a triumphant march. Its purpose was to serve as a
reminder that "Okay, you're on top of the world today, but like all of us, the day will come when you are dog meat!" [Thomas
Cathcart and Daniel Klein]

        The Existentialist Philosophers accept man as finite—his life having an ending. They say that the real death that lies ahead of
a man is the possibility of himself as not being at all. [John Wild, “Existentialist Ethics: Integrity and Decision,” The Challenge of
Existentialism, Bloomington: Indiana University Pres, 1955, p. 119].

        Death is a typically human event, not just a biological occurrence. It is a separating of body and soul, but it is not just the body
that dies, it is the whole man. It is difficult to talk of the very moment of death, since some people who had been there, did not talk
of their experience. There are some written accounts of such experiences and from these we get glimpses of the next life. [Corazon
Cruz]

The Four Fears

1. Fear of the process of dying. When some people say that fear death, it is really not death itself as an end state that they
fear, but rather the physical and psychological process of death.
2. Fear of punishment. Some people say that they fear death actually harbor anxieties about one particular possible set of
events that they fear might happen after their bodily deaths.
3. Fear of the unknown. One of the most common form of human fear is the fear of the unknown. This fear is related to our
deep need to feel in control.
4. Fear of annihilation. This is the fear of death that gives many contemporary men night terrors.

The Concept of “Immortality”

Immortality is eternal life, being exempt from death; unending existence. Some modern species may possess biological immortality.
Certain scientists, futurists, and philosophers have theorized about the immortality of the human body, with some suggesting that
human immortality may be achievable in the first few decades of the 21st century. Other advocates believe that life extension is a
more achievable goal in the short term, with immortality awaiting further research breakthroughs. The absence of ageing would
provide humans with biological immortality, but not invulnerability to death by disease or physical trauma; although mind uploading
could solve that if it proved possible. Whether the process of internal endoimmortality is delivered within the upcoming years
depends chiefly on research (and in neuron research in the case of endoimmortality through an immortalized cell line) in the former
view and perhaps is an awaited goal in the latter case.

In religious contexts, immortality is often stated to be one of the promises of God (or other deities) to human beings who show
goodness or else follow divine law. What form an unending human life would take, or whether an immaterial soul exists and
possesses immortality, has been a major point of focus of religion, as well as the subject of speculation and debate.

1. Social Immortality. This concept belongs to people who believe that when they die, they will live on in their children. This is
a belief that somehow we can leave something of ourselves behind when we die, through our genetic offspring.
2. Cultural Immortality. This relates to people who would like to achieve immortality through their artistic works.
3. Cosmic Immortality.
4. Scientific Immortality.

The Human Person and the Belief in Life After Death

The afterlife (also referred to as life after death or the world to come or reincarnation) is an existence in which, some believe, the
essential part of an individual's identity or their stream of consciousness continues to have after the death of their physical body.
According to various ideas about the afterlife, the essential aspect of the individual that lives on after death may be some partial
element, or the entire soul or spirit, of an individual, which carries with it and may confer personal identity or, on the contrary
nirvana. Belief in an afterlife is in contrast to the belief in oblivion after death.

In some views, this continued existence often takes place in a spiritual realm, and in other popular views, the individual may be
reborn into this world and begin the life cycle over again, likely with no memory of what they have done in the past. In this latter
view, such rebirths and deaths may take place repeatedly continuously until the individual gains entry to a spiritual realm or
otherworld.

The Human Person and God

“The human person deserves to be preserved; human society deserves to be renewed. Hence the focal point of our presentation
will be man himself, whole and entire, body and soul, heart and conscience, mind and will” (§ 3).

This is the theme for the dialogue among persons in the modern world. The Church offers herself to all humanity of good will to
collaborate in finding resolutions to the most urgent questions of the day: the inviolable dignity of every human life, social justice,
peace among the families of nations, and the fight against destructive forces and powers and the enemies of humankind.

Whoever proposes an end must also know the means to reach that end. If the means are immoral, then the end is compromised
and discredited. If the sense of existence and the end of history are understood in a communistic way (the creation of a paradise on
earth), or in a utilitarian manner (the highest level of happiness for the greatest number of people), or as in social Darwinism (the
realization of the survival of the fittest), or imperialism (the dominion of a nation over other peoples), or unbridled capitalism (the law
of the exploitation of the resources of the world and of the dignity of the worker for the sake of wealth), then the means used will
violate the dignity of man and impede integral human development.

History shows that the nucleus of human existence and of human development is in the recognition of God as the first origin and
end of all of creation. The entire scope of human history is the Reign of God on heaven and on earth.

The Image of the Human Person

The difference between integral development from a point of view which is social, material, economic, and political and a totalitarian
development with its programs of self-redemption rests in the image of the human person, in anthropology.

The human person is fundamentally a creature of God and not a casual product of blind and arbitrary matter or the construction of
social engineers.

In essence, the human person proceeds from the idea that God has for him and develops in the context of time and history. In
knowledge and will, he reflects and represents in the world the truth and the goodness of God. The human person thus grows
through thought and work, through spiritual attitudes and moral conviction. So man, from the beginning, is a being of culture, of the
sciences, and of the theoretical and practical arts. Without original sin, there would have been only integral development; after,
however, and according to our redemption in Christ, remains the continuing battle against destructive power and sin.

Two World Views

1. Definition of terms. Before we set up the great debate that has raged for centuries between these two world views, first,
we need to define some crucial terms:
 Theism is the worldview that an infinite, personal God created the universe and miraculously intervenes in it from
time to time. God is both transcendent over the universe and immanent in it.
 Polytheism. Polytheism is the worship of or belief in multiple deities, which are usually assembled into a
pantheon of gods and goddesses, along with their own religions and rituals.
  Monotheism. Monotheism is the belief in one god. A narrower definition of monotheism is the belief in the
existence of only one god that created the world, is omnipotent, omnipresent and omniscient, and intervenes in
the world.
 Henotheism. Henotheism is the worship of a single, overarching god while not denying the existence or possible
existence of other lower deities.
 Trinitarian monotheism. Three persons in one God. The belief that God is three persons—the father, the son
who is Jesus, and the Holy Spirit which is the spirit of God's grace.
 Deism. Deism is the philosophical position that rejects revelation as a source of religious knowledge and asserts
that reason and observation of the natural world are sufficient to establish the existence of a Supreme Being or
creator of the universe.
 Atheism. Atheism is in the broadest sense an absence of belief in the existence of deities. Less broadly, atheism
is a rejection of the belief that any deities exist. In an even narrower sense, atheism is specifically the position
that there are no deities.
 Agnosticism. Agnosticism is the view that the existence of God, of the divine or the supernatural is unknown or
unknowable. Another definition provided is the view that "human reason is incapable of providing sufficient
rational grounds to justify either the belief that God exists or the belief that God does not exist."
 Naturalism. In philosophy, naturalism is the idea or belief that only natural laws and forces operate in the
universe. Adherents of naturalism assert that natural laws are the only rules that govern the structure and
behavior of the natural world, and that the changing universe is at every stage a product of these laws.
2. Properties attributed to God. In Western (Christian) thought, God is traditionally described as a being that possesses at
least three necessary properties: omniscience (all-knowing), omnipotence (all-powerful), and omnibenevolence
(supremely good). In other words, God knows everything, has the power to do anything, and is perfectly good.
 Aseity. The aseity of God means "God is so independent that he does not need us."
 Eternity. The eternity of God concerns his existence beyond time.
 Goodness. The goodness of God means that "God is the final standard of good, and all that God is and does is
worthy of approval."
 Graciousness. The graciousness of God is a key tenet of Christianity. The word "gracious" is not used often in
the New Testament to describe God, although the noun "grace" is used more than 100 times.
 Holiness. The holiness of God is that he is separate from sin and incorruptible.
 Immanence. The immanence of God refers to him being in the world.
 Immutability. Immutability means God cannot change.
 Impassibility. The doctrine of the impassibility of God is a controversial one.
 Impeccability. The impeccability of God is closely related to his holiness. It means that God is unable to sin,
which is a stronger statement than merely saying that God does not sin.
 Incomprehensibility. The incomprehensibility of God means that he is not able to be fully known.
 Incorporeality. The incorporeality or spirituality of God refers to him being a Spirit.
 Infinity. The infinity of God includes both his eternity and his immensity.
 Jealousy.
 Love. 1 John 4:8;16 says "God is Love."
 Mission. While the mission of God is not traditionally included in this list, David Bosch has argued that "mission
is not primarily an activity of the church, but an attribute of God."
 Mystery. Many theologians see mystery as God’s primary attribute because he only reveals certain knowledge to
the human race. Karl Barth said “God is ultimate mystery
 Omnipotence. The omnipotence of God refers to Him being "all powerful".
 Omnipresence. The omnipresence of God refers to him being present everywhere.
 Omniscience. The omniscience of God refers to him being "all knowing".
 Oneness. The oneness, or unity of God refers to his being one and only.
 Providence. A distinction is usually made between "general providence," which refers to God's continuous
upholding the existence and natural order of the universe, and "special providence," which refers to God's
extraordinary intervention in the life of people.
 Righteousness. The righteousness of God may refer to his holiness, to his justice, or to his saving activity.
 Simplicity. The simplicity of God means he is not partly this and partly that, but that whatever he is, he is so
entirely. It is thus related to the unity of God.
 Sovereignty. The sovereignty of God is related to his omnipotence, providence, and kingship, yet it also
encompasses his freedom, and is in keeping with his goodness, righteousness, holiness, and impeccability.
 Transcendence. God's transcendence means that he is outside space and time, and therefore eternal and
unable to be changed by forces within the universe.
 Trinity. Trinitarian traditions of Christianity propose the Trinity of God - three persons in one: Father, Son, and
the Holy Spirit.
 Veracity. The veracity of God means his truth-telling.
 Wrath. Moses praises the wrath of God in Exodus 15:7. Later in Deuteronomy 9, after the incident of The Golden
Calf, Moses describes how: "I feared the furious anger of the LORD, which turned him against you, would drive
him to destroy you.